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DAMS AND RESERVOIRS

Technical Report · February 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.32538.85444

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 DAMS AND RESERVOIRS
by
Prof A. BALSUBRAMANIAN
CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES IN EARTH SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE
MYSORE-6
Abstract:

Engineering geology is the application of the geological sciences to engineering projects for the
purpose of assuring that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction, operation
and maintenance of engineering works are sound enough for their sustenance. Engineering
geologists provide the basic geological and geotechnical recommendations based on certain details
analysis, and design associated surveys. These structures include dams as a major construction
project. This report explains the different aspects related to dams, types of dams and the causes of
failure of dams.

1. Introduction:

A dam is a barrier or large impounding structure designed and constructed on a water course to
confine large volume of water and then control the flow of water.
It will retain water at the upstream side of the structure.
A reservoir is the water retained by such a huge structure.
A dam is an artificially created barrier that impounds surface water derived from a small or a large
catchment.
It may be also a subsurface dam to store underground water.
The mass of water stored at upstream side of the dam is called as reservoir.
Reservoirs created by dams not only controls floods but also provide water for several human
activities .
They are irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture, recreation, power generation,
and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity.
A dam can also be used to collect and store water which can be evenly distributed between
locations, through canals or pipelines.
Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as
floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land
regions.

2. Benefits provided by dams

Benefits provided by dams include water supplies for drinking, irrigation and industrial uses; flood
control; recreation; and navigation. At the same time, dams also represent a risk to public safety.

Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or
structures.

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Dams provide a wide range of economic, environmental, and social benefits. The following are the
major benefits:
 Water Storage (Fire & Farm Ponds)
Dams create reservoirs that supply water for many uses, including industrial, municipal, and
agricultural.
 Irrigation
A major part of dam water is used for irrigation. Most of the cropland is irrigated using water
stored behind dams.
 Electrical Generation
Hydropower is considered to be clean source form dams because it does not contribute to
global warming, air pollution, acid rain, or ozone depletion.
 Recreation is one of the benefits
Dams provide prime recreational facilities like Boating, skiing, camping, picnic areas, and
boat launch facilities.
 Flood Control
In addition to helping farmers, dams help prevent the loss of life and property caused by
flooding. Flood control dams impound floodwaters and then either release them under control
to the river below the dam or store or divert the water for other uses.
 Debris Control
In some instances, dams provide enhanced environmental protection, such as the retention of
hazardous materials and detrimental sedimentation.
 Inland Navigation
Dams and locks provide for a stable system of inland river transportation.

3 . Parts of a Dam:
 Heel is the contact with the ground on the upstream side
 Toe is the contact on the downstream side.
 Abutments are the s Sides of the valley on which the structure of the dam rests.
 Galleries are small rooms like structure left within the dam for checking operations.
 Diversion tunnels are tunnels constructed for diverting water before the construction of dam.
This helps in keeping the river bed dry.
 Spillways are the arrangement near the top of the dam to release the excess water of the reservoir
to downstream side.

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 Sluice way is an opening in the dam near the ground level, which is used to clear the silt
accumulation in the reservoir side.

4 . Dams classified based on Purpose:

1. Storage Dam Or Impounding Dam

2. Detention Dam
3. Diversion Dam
4. Coffer Dam and
5. Debris Dam.

Storage Dam or Impounding Dam

It is constructed to create a reservoir to store water during periods when there is huge flow in the river
(in excess of demand) for utilisation later during periods of low flow (demand exceeds flow in the
river). Water stored in the reservoir is used for irrigation, power generation, water supply etc.
By suitable operation, it can also serve as a detention dam.

Detention Dam:
It is primarily constructed to temporarily detain all or part of the flood water in a river and to
gradually release the stored water later at controlled rates so that the entire region on the downstream
side of the dam is protected from possible damage due to floods. It may also be used as a storage dam.

Diversion Dam:
It is constructed to divert part of or all the water from a river into a conduit or a channel.
For diverting water from a river into an irrigation canal, mostly a diversion weir is constructed across
the river.

Coffer Dam:
It is a temporary dam constructed to exclude water from a specific area.
It is constructed on the u/s side of the site where a dam is to be constructed so that the site is dry.
In this case, it behaves like a diversion dam.

Debris Dam:
It is constructed to catch and retain debris flowing in a river.

5 . Dams Classified Based on Hydraulic Designs:

Overflow Dam or Overfall Dam

It is constructed with a crest to permit overflow of surplus water that cannot be retained in the
reservoir.
Generally dams are not designed as overflow dams for its entire length.
Diversion weirs of small height may be designed to permit overflow over its entire length.

Non-Overflow Dam :
It is constructed such that water is not allowed to overflow over its crest.
In most cases, dams are so designed that part of its length is designed as an overflow dam (this part is
called the spillway) while the rest of its length is designed as a non-overflow dam. In some cases,
these two sections are not combined.

6. Dams Classified Based on Material of Construction

Rigid Dam:
It is constructed with rigid material such as stone, masonry, concrete, steel, or timber. Steel dams
(steel plates supported on inclined struts) and timber dams (wooden planks supported on a wooden
framework) are constructed only for small heights (rarely).

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 Non-Rigid Dam (Embankment Dams)

It is constructed with non-rigid material such as earth, tailings, rockfill etc.

•Earthen dam – gravel, sand, silt, clay etc
•Tailings dam – waste or refuse obtained from mines
•Rockfill dam – rock material supporting a water tight material on the u/s face
•Rockfill composite dam – Rockfill on the downstream side and earth fill on the u/s side
•Earthen dams are provided with a stone masonry or concrete overflow (spillway) section. Such dams
are called composite dams.
•In some cases, part of the length of the dam is constructed as earth dam and the rest (excluding the
spillway) as a masonry dam. Such dams are called masonry cum earthen dams.

7. Dams Classified Based on Structure

Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as easily created without materials, arch-
gravity dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.

Arch Dams:

It is a curved masonry or concrete dam, convex upstream, which resists the forces acting on it by arch
action.
The only arch dam in India is the Idukki dam (double curvature in plan). It is a concrete arch dam.
•The Arch shape gives good strength to these types of dams.
•They consume less material (cheaper)
•They use very narrow sites.
•They need strong abutments.
•These type of dams are concrete or masonry dams which are curved or convex upstream in plan
•This shape helps to transmit the major part of the water load to the abutments.
•Arch dams are built across narrow, deep river gorges, but now in recent years they have been
considered even for little wider valleys.
•Good for narrow, rocky locations.
•They are curved and the natural shape of the arch holds back the water in the reservoir.
•Arch dams, like the El Atazar Dam in Spain, are thin and require less material than any other type of
dam.

Gravity Dams:

It is a masonry or concrete dam which resists the forces acting on it by its own weight. Its cross
section is approximately triangular in shape.
Straight gravity dam – A gravity dam that is straight in plan.
Curved gravity plan – A gravity dam that is curved in plan. in this type of dam it resists the forces
acting on it by combined gravity action (its own weight) and arch action.
Solid gravity dam – Its body consists of a solid mass of masonry or concrete.
Hollow gravity dam – It has hollow spaces within its body.

Most gravity dams are straight solid gravity dams.

Concrete Gravity Dams

•Weight holds dam in place.

•Lots of concrete (expensive). These dams are heavy and massive wall-like structures of concrete in
which the whole weight acts vertically downwards.
As the entire load is transmitted on the small area of foundation, such dams are constructed where
rocks are competent and stable.

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•Bhakra Dam is the highest Concrete Gravity dam in Asia and the second highest in the world.
•Bhakra Dam is across river Sutlej in Himachal Pradesh.
•The construction of this project was started in the year 1948 and was completed in 1963 .
•It is 740 ft. high above the deepest foundation as straight concrete dam being more than three times
the height of Qutab Minar.
•Length at top 518.16m (1700 feet); width at base 190.5m (625 feet), and at the top is 9.14m (30 feet)
•Bhakra Dam is the highest Concrete Gravity dam in Asia and Second Highest in the world.

Arch-gravity dams:

These are of mixed composition of both gravity and arch dams.

Buttress Dam:

It consists of water retaining sloping membrane or deck on the u/s which is supported by a series of
buttresses.
These buttresses are in the form of equally spaced triangular masonry or reinforced concrete walls or
counterforts.
The sloping membrane is usually a reinforced concrete slab.
In some cases, the u/s slab is replaced by multiple arches supported on buttresses (multiple arch
buttress dam) or by flaring the u/s edge of the buttresses to span the distance between the buttresses
(bulkhead buttress dam or massive head buttress dam). In general, the structural behaviour of a
buttress dam is similar to that of a gravity dam.
1. Face is held up by a series of supports.
2. Flat or curved face.
3. Buttress Dam – Is a gravity dam reinforced by structural supports.
4. Buttress – a support that transmits a force from a roof or wall to another supporting structure.
5. This type of structure can be considered even if the foundation rocks are little weaker.

Barrages:

A barrage dam is a special kind of dam which consists of a line of large gates that can be opened or
closed to control the amount of water passing the dam.
The gates are set between flanking piers which are responsible for supporting the water load, and are
often used to control and stabilize water flow for irrigation systems.
Barrages that are built at the mouths of rivers or lagoons to prevent tidal incursions or utilize the tidal
flow for tidal power are known as tidal barrages.

Embankment dams :

These are Earth Dams. They are trapezoidal in shape.

Earth dams are constructed where the foundation or the underlying material or rocks are weak to
support the masonry dam or where the suitable competent rocks are at greater depth.
•Earthen dams are relatively smaller in height and broad at the base.
They are mainly built with clay, sand and gravel, hence they are also known as Earth fill dam or Rock
fill dam.
Embankment dams are also armed with a dense, waterproof core that prevents water from seeping
through the structure.
It is a non-rigid dam which resists the forces acting on it by its shear strength and to some extent also
by its own weight (gravity). Its structural behaviour is in many ways different from that of a gravity
dam.

8. Dams are classified based on material:

The dams are classified based on material include:

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 1. Steel dams and
2. Timber dams.

The miscellaneous types of Dams include

a) Natural dams
b) Beaver dams.

There are many ways in which natural lakes and their dams can form in nature. Natural dams have
many economic benefits, including hydropower generation and recreation, but also can constitute
serious hazards.
In the last one hundred years, a number of catastrophic events associated with rockslide dam
formation and failure have occurred in the mountain regions of the world. Most of them happened in
the natural dams only. Natural dams may cause upstream flooding as the lake rises and downstream
flooding as a result of failure of the dam.

Beaver dams are dams built by beavers to provide ponds as protection against predators such as
coyotes, wolves, and bears, and to provide easy access to food during winter. Beavers and their dams
play an important role in nature. Because of the dramatic effects their dams have on surrounding
ecosystems, these mammals are considered a keystone species.

By constructing dams they create wetlands -- lush environments which attract fish, ducks, frogs and
other creatures. Beaver dams are common in forested areas of western Canada. Beavers construct
dams of sticks and mud. Breaches in the dams are continuously repaired by the beaver while local
food supplies (the inner bark of deciduous trees) last - usually six to ten years.

There is also a technical classification of dams. It is based on three factors.

Maximum Depth Impoundment
Class of Dam Catchment Area (km2)
of Water at NWL (m) at NWL (m3)
A (Low Hazard) 0 - 4.99 <100,000 <100
B (Medium Hazard) 5.00 - 14.99 100,000 to 1,000,000 100 to 1,000
C (High Hazard) >15.00 >1,000,000 >1,000
NWL = Normal Water Level

When using the table above, it is important to note that only one factor is necessary to place a dam
into a higher hazard class.
For example, a 3m deep reservoir with 20,000 cubic meters of storage and a 1,500 square kilometre
catchment area would classify as a high hazard dam due to its large catchment area.
Similarly, a 15.5m tall mass gravity wall with 25,000 cubic meters of storage and a 3 square kilometre
catchment area would be a high hazard dam due to the maximum water depth.

9 . Causes of Dam Failure:

This itself is a different topic. Dam failures are of particular concern because the failure of a large
dam has the potential to cause more death and destruction than the failure of any other man-made
structure.

This is because of the destructive power of the flood wave that would be released by the sudden
collapse of a large dam. In general, a failure results in the release of large quantities of water, posing
serious risks for the people or property downstream.
Failure of earth dams may be:
1.Hydraulic Failure
2.Seepage Failure
3.Structural Failure

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 The following are some of the reasons for dam failure:
1. Overtopping of embankment dams due to inadequate spillway discharge capacity to pass
flood waters.
2. Faults in construction methods (eg inadequate compaction of fill) or use of the wrong type of
construction materials.
3. Geological problems with the dam foundation.
4. Landslides which fall into the storage reservoir
5. Earthquakes can certainly cause damage to dams.

1. The causes of Hydraulic Failure includes these factors:

 1.Overtopping of dams.
 2.Erosion of the Upstream Surface
 3.Erosion of the Downstream Surface
 4.Erosion of the Downstream toe.
2. Seepage Failure:
3. Structural Failure: Slip failure in Dams - Structural failure . Failure due to sliding of foundation.
4. Damage due to burrowing animals
5. Failure of dam due to earthquake or neotectonic movements.

10. Causes of failure in percentage:

A survey has shown the following percentages due to various factors of failures.
Foundation problems 40 %
Inadequate spillway 23 %
Poor construction 12 %
Uneven settlement 10 %
High pore pressure 5%
Acts of war 3%
Embankment slips 2%
Defective materials 2%
Incorrect operations 2%
Earthquakes 1%

The major part lies in the foundation, where in the role of geology plays a dominant factor.
The geological investigations of dam site selection is a major part in engineering geology and
construction of dams.

11. Conclusion:

In ancient times, dams were built for the single purpose of water supply or irrigation. As civilizations
developed, there was a greater need for water supply, irrigation, flood control, navigation, water
quality, sediment control and energy. Therefore, dams are constructed for a specific purpose such as
water supply, flood control, irrigation, navigation, sedimentation control, and hydropower. The
demand for water is steadily increasing throughout the world. There is no life on earth without water,
our most important resource apart from air and land.
For almost 5 000 years dams have served to ensure an adequate supply of water by storing water in
times of surplus and releasing it in times of scarcity, thus also preventing or mitigating floods.
Most of the dams are single-purpose dams, but there is now a growing number of multipurpose dams.
If the dams are not properly constructed, there will be a severe disaster in the downstream regions of
dams.
This lesson highlighted the different general aspects of dams, their types and the causes of their
failures.

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