138 Complex Analysis (Appendix A)

1 A.1 Express each complex number given below in Cartesian form.

(a) 2e j2π/3
√ jπ/4;
(b) 2e ;
(c) 2e j7π/6 ; and
(d) 3e jπ/2 .

1 Answer (c).
We have

2e j7π/6 = 2 cos 7π + j sin 7π

 √6  6
3 1
= 2 − 2 − j2
√
= − 3 − j.

Copyright © 2012–2023 Michael D. Adams Edition 2023-08-27

 139

1 A.2 Express each complex number given below in polar form. In each case, plot the value in the complex plane,
clearly
√indicating its magnitude and argument. State the principal value for the argument.
(a) − 3 + √j;
(b) − 21 − j 23 ;
√ √
(c) 2 −√j 2;
(d) 1 + j √ 3;
(e) −1 − j 3; and
(f) −3 + 4 j.

1 Answer (b).
Let z denote the given complex value. Taking the magnitude and argument of z, we have
r

2  √ 2
|z| = − 12 + − 23 = 1 and
h √ i   √
arg z = arctan − 23 / − 12 − π = arctan( 3) − π = π3 − π = − 2π 3 .

Thus, z has the polar-form representation

z = e j(−2π/3) .

A plot of z in the complex plane is shown below.

Im
− 12
Re
2π
3
1

√
3
− 2

1 Answer (d).
Let z denote the given complex value. Taking the magnitude and argument of z, we have
q √ √
|z| = (1)2 + ( 3)2 = 4 = 2 and
√ √
arg z = arctan( 3/1) = arctan( 3) = π3 .

Thus, z has the polar-form representation

z = 2e jπ/3 .

A plot of z in the complex plane is shown below.

Im
√
2 1+ j 3

2
1
π
3
Re
1

Edition 2023-08-27 Copyright © 2012–2023 Michael D. Adams

140 Complex Analysis (Appendix A)

1 A.3 Evaluate each of the expressions below, stating the final result in the specified form. When giving a final result
in polar
 √form, state
 the principal value
 of the argument.
(a) 2 23 − j 12 + j √12 e j(−3π/4) in Cartesian form;
√  
(b) 23 − j 12 √1 e j(−3π/4) in polar form;
2
√ 
3 1
(c) 2 − j 2 /(1 + j) in polar form;
(d) e1+ jπ/4 in Cartesian form;
h √ ∗ i8
(e) − 21 + j 23 in polar form;
(f) (1 + j)10 in Cartesian form;
1+ j
(g) in polar form;
1− j
1
(h) in Cartesian form, where r and θ are real constants and r ≥ 0; and
1 + re jθ
1
(i) in Cartesian form, where r and θ are real constants and r ≥ 0.
1 − re jθ

1 Answer (a).
We have
√    √
2 3
− j 21 + j √12 e j(−3π/4) = 3 − j + − j 12 + 12


2
√
= 3 + 12 − j 1 + 12


√
2 3+1
= 2 − j 23 .

1 Answer (b).
We have
√  
3
− j 12 √1 e j(−3π/4) = e j(−π/6) √12 e j(−3π/4)
2 2

= √1 e j(−11π/12) .
2

1 Answer (f).
We have
√ 10
(1 + j)10 = 2e j arctan(1)
√
= ( 2)10 e j10 arctan(1)
= 25 e j10(π/4)
= 32e j5π/2
= 32e j(5π/2−4π/2)
= 32e jπ/2
= 32(cos π2 + j sin π2 )
= j32.

1 Answer (g).

Copyright © 2012–2023 Michael D. Adams Edition 2023-08-27

 141

We have
√ j arctan(1/1)
1+ j 2e
=√
1− j 2e j arctan(−1/1)
√ jπ/4
2e
=√
2e− jπ/4
jπ/2
=e .

Edition 2023-08-27 Copyright © 2012–2023 Michael D. Adams

142 Complex Analysis (Appendix A)

1 A.4 Show that each of the identities below holds, where z, z1 , and z2 are arbitrary complex numbers and n is an
arbitrary integer.
(a) |z1 /z2 | = |z1 | / |z2 | for z2 6= 0;
(b) arg(z1 /z2 ) = arg z1 − arg z2 for z2 6= 0;
(c) z + z∗ = 2 Re{z};
(d) zz∗ = |z|2 ;
(e) (z1 z2 )∗ = z∗1 z∗2 ;
(f) |zn | = |z|n ; and
(g) arg(zn ) = n arg z.

1 Answer (b).
We are asked to show that, for all complex numbers z1 and z2 such that z2 6= 0, the following identity holds:

z1
 
arg = arg z1 − arg z2 .
z2

Let z1 and z2 be arbitrary complex numbers (where z2 6= 0) with the polar representations

z1 = r1 e jθ1 and z2 = r2 e jθ2 ,

where r1 , r2 , θ1 , and θ2 are real constants, and r1 ≥ 0 and r2 > 0. Consider the left-hand side of the given
equation, which we can manipulate as follows:
 jθ 
z1 r1 e 1
 
arg = arg
z2 r2 e jθ2
   jθ 
r1 e 1
= arg
r2 e jθ2
r1
  
j(θ1 −θ2 )
= arg e
r2
= θ1 − θ2
= arg z1 − arg z2 .

(In the preceding steps, we used the fact that r1 /r2 ≥ 0, which must be true, since r1 ≥ 0 and r2 > 0.) Thus, the
given identity holds.

1 Answer (e).
We are asked to show that, for all complex z1 and z2 , the following identity holds:

(z1 z2 )∗ = z∗1 z∗2 .

Let z1 and z2 be arbitrary complex numbers with the Cartesian representations

z1 = x1 + jy1 and z2 = x2 + jy2 ,

where x1 , y1 , x2 , and y2 are real constants. Consider the left-hand side of the given equation, which we can
manipulate as follows:

(z1 z2 )∗ = [(x1 + jy1 )(x2 + jy2 )]∗

= [(x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + j(x1 y2 + x2 y1 )]∗
= x1 x2 − y1 y2 − j(x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
= x1 x2 − y1 y2 − jx1 y2 − jx2 y1 .

Copyright © 2012–2023 Michael D. Adams Edition 2023-08-27

 143

Consider the right-hand side of the given equation, which we can manipulate as follows:

z∗1 z∗2 = (x1 − jy1 )(x2 − jy2 )

= x1 x2 − y1 y2 − jx1 y2 − jx2 y1 .

Comparing the preceding expressions for the left-hand and right-hand sides, we conclude that (z1 z2 )∗ = z∗1 z∗2 .
Thus, the given identity holds.

Edition 2023-08-27 Copyright © 2012–2023 Michael D. Adams

144 Complex Analysis (Appendix A)

1 A.5 For each function f of a real variable given below, find an expression for | f (ω)| and arg f (ω).
1
(a) f (ω) = ;
(1 + jω)10
−2 − jω
(b) f (ω) = ;
(3 + jω)2
2e j11ω
(c) f (ω) = ;
(3 + j5ω)7
−5
(d) f (ω) = ;
(−1 − jω)4
jω 2
(e) f (ω) = ; and
( jω − 1)10
jω − 1
(f) f (ω) = .
jω + 1

1 Answer (c).
We are given the function
2e j11ω
f (ω) = .
(3 + j5ω)7
First, we compute the magnitude of f (ω) to obtain
2e j11ω
| f (ω)| =
|(3 + j5ω)7 |
2
=
|3 + j5ω|7
2
= √
( 9 + 25ω 2 )7
2
= .
(9 + 25ω 2 )7/2
Next, we calculate the argument of f (ω) as
arg f (ω) = arg(2e j11ω ) − arg((3 + j5ω)7 )
p 7 
j11ω 2 j arctan(5ω/3)
= arg(2e ) − arg 9 + 25ω e
p 7  7 
j11ω 2 j arctan(5ω/3)
= arg(2e ) − arg 9 + 25ω e
p 7 
j11ω 2 j7 arctan(5ω/3)
= arg(2e ) − arg 9 + 25ω e

= 11ω − 7 arctan(5ω/3).
Since the argument is not uniquely determined, in the most general case, we have
arg f (ω) = 11ω − 7 arctan(5ω/3) + 2πk
for all integer k.
1 Answer (f).
We are given the function
jω − 1
f (ω) = .
jω + 1

Copyright © 2012–2023 Michael D. Adams Edition 2023-08-27

 145

First, we compute the magnitude of f (ω) to obtain

| jω − 1|
| f (ω)| =
| jω + 1|
√
ω2 + 1
=√
ω2 + 1
= 1.

Next, we calculate the argument of f (ω) as

arg f (ω) = arg( jω − 1) − arg( jω + 1)

= π + arctan(−ω) − arctan(ω)
= π − arctan(ω) − arctan(ω)
= π − 2 arctan(ω).

Since the argument is not uniquely determined, in the most general case, we have

arg f (ω) = −2 arctan(ω) + (2k + 1)π

for all integer k.

Edition 2023-08-27 Copyright © 2012–2023 Michael D. Adams

146 Complex Analysis (Appendix A)

1 A.6 Use Euler’s relation to show

 that each of the identities below holds, where θ is an arbitrary real constant.
(a) cos θ = 12 e jθ + e− jθ ;


(b) sin θ = 21j e jθ − e− jθ ; and

 

(c) cos2 θ = 21 [1 + cos(2θ )].

1 Answer (b).
From Euler’s relation, we know

e jθ = cos θ + j sin θ .

Thus, we can write

h i
1
2j e jθ − e− jθ = 1
2 j [cos θ + j sin θ − [cos(−θ ) + j sin(−θ )]]
1
= 2 j [cos θ + j sin θ − cos(−θ ) − j sin(−θ )]].

Since cos and sin are even and odd functions, respectively, we can further simplify the above equation to obtain
h i
1 jθ − jθ
2j e −e = 21j [cos θ + j sin θ − cos θ + j sin θ ]
1
= 2 j [2 j sin θ ]
= sin θ .
1
 jθ
Thus, we have that sin θ = e − e− jθ .

2j

Copyright © 2012–2023 Michael D. Adams Edition 2023-08-27

 147

1 A.11 Determine the points at which each function f given below is: i) continuous, ii) differentiable, and iii) analytic.
To deduce the answer, use your knowledge about polynomial and rational functions. Simply state the final
answer along with a short justification (i.e., two or three sentences). (In other words, it is not necessary to use
the Cauchy-Riemann equations for this problem.)
(a) f (z) = 3z3 − jz2 + z − π;
z−1
(b) f (z) = 2 ;
(z + 3)(z2 + z + 1)
z
(c) f (z) = 4 ; and
z − 16
(d) f (z) = z + 2 + z−1 .

1 Answer (c).
The function f is a rational function. Rational functions are continuous, differentiable, and analytic everywhere,
except at points where the denominator polynomial becomes zero. So, we find these points. We factor f as
z z z
f (z) = = = .
(z2 )2 − 42 (z2 − 4)(z2 + 4) (z + 2)(z − 2)(z + j2)(z − j2)

Therefore, the denominator becomes zero for

z ∈ {−2, 2, −2 j, 2 j} .

Therefore, f is continuous, differentiable, and analytic everywhere, except at the points: −2, 2, −2 j, and 2 j.

1 Answer (d).
The function f is a rational function. Rational functions are continuous, differentiable, and analytic everywhere,
except at points where the denominator polynomial becomes zero. So, we find these points. We factor f as

z2 + 2z + 1
f (z) = z−1 (z2 + 2z + 1) = .
z
Therefore, the denominator becomes zero for

z = 0.

Therefore, f is continuous, differentiable, and analytic everywhere, except at 0.

Edition 2023-08-27 Copyright © 2012–2023 Michael D. Adams

 148 Complex Analysis (Appendix A)

1 A.13 For each rational function f of a complex variable given below, find the (finite) poles and zeros of f and their
orders. Also, plot these poles and zeros in the complex plane.
(a) f (z) = z2 + jz + 3;
(b) f (z) = z + 3 + 2z−1 ;
(z2 + 2z + 5)(z2 + 1)
(c) f (z) = 2 ;
(z + 2z + 2)(z2 + 3z + 2)
z3 − z
(d) f (z) = 2 ;
z −4
z + 12
(e) f (z) = 2 ; and
(z + 2z + 2)(z2 − 1)
z2 (z2 − 1)
(f) f (z) = 2 .
(z + 4z + 17 2 2
4 ) (z + 2z + 2)

1 Answer (b).
We are given the rational function
f (z) = z + 3 + 2z−1 .
By inspection, we can factor the given rational function as follows:
z + 3 + 2z−1 = z−1 (z2 + 3z + 2)
= z−1 (z + 2)(z + 1)
(z + 2)(z + 1)
= .
z
Thus, f has first order zeros at −2 and −1, and a first order pole at 0.

Im
2

Re
−2 −1 1 2

−1

−2

1 Answer (c).
We are given the rational function
(z2 + 2z + 5)(z2 + 1)
f (z) = .
(z2 + 2z + 2)(z2 + 3z + 2)
To begin, we fully factor each of the nonlinear factors in the expression given for f . First, let us consider the
factor z2 + 2z + 5. Solving for the roots of z2 + 2z + 5 = 0 using the quadratic formula, we obtain
√ √
−2± 22 −4(1)(5) −2± −16
2 = 2
= −1 ± j2.
Thus, we have the factorization
z2 + 2z + 5 = (z + 1 − j2)(z + 1 + j2).

Copyright © 2012–2023 Michael D. Adams Edition 2023-08-27

 149

Next, we consider the factor z2 + 1, which can be factored (using a sum of squares rule) as

z2 + 1 = (z + j)(z − j).

Next, let us consider the factor z2 + 2z + 2. Solving for the roots of z2 + 2z + 2 = 0 using the quadratic formula,
we obtain
√ √
−2± 22 −4(1)(2)
2 = −2±2 −4
= −1 ± j.

Thus, we have the factorization

z2 + 2z + 2 = (z + 1 − j)(z + 1 + j).

Lastly, we consider the factor z2 + 3z + 2, which can be factored, by inspection, to yield

z2 + 3z + 2 = (z + 2)(z + 1).

Combining all of the above results, we have that f has the factorization

(z + 1 − j2)(z + 1 + j2)(z + j)(z − j)

f (z) = .
(z + 1 − j)(z + 1 + j)(z + 2)(z + 1)

Thus, f has:
– first order zeros at −1 − j2, −1 + j2, − j, and j; and
– first order poles at −2, −1, −1 + j, and −1 − j.
Im
2

1
(2)
Re
−2 −1 1 2

−1

−2

Edition 2023-08-27 Copyright © 2012–2023 Michael D. Adams