Temasek Junior College

IP3 Biology THINK© cycle:

Know
Topic: Cell Ultrastructure
Notes
___________________________________________________________________

Name: ____________________________ ( )

Civics Group: 3 _____

Learning Outcomes

Students should be able to:

(a) Interpret and recognise drawings, photomicrographs and electronmicrographs of the
following membrane systems and organelles: [O and A-levels]
▪ rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
▪ Golgi body
▪ mitochondria
▪ ribosomes
▪ lysosomes
▪ chloroplasts
▪ cell surface membrane
▪ nuclear envelope
▪ centrioles
▪ nucleus and
▪ nucleolus
(for practical assessment, candidates may be required to operate a light microscope, mount
slides and use an eyepiece graticule)
(b) State the functions of the organelles listed in (a). [O and A-levels]
(c) Outline the functions of the membrane systems involved in the secretory pathway of
proteins. [A-level]
(d) Compare the structure of typical animal and plant cells [O and A-levels]
(e) Compare the structure of typical prokaryotic cells with typical eukaryotic cells. [A-level]
(f) State the key features of viruses as non-cellular structures (limited to protein coat and
DNA/RNA). [A-level]

Use the knowledge gained in this section in new situations or to solve related problems.

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 I. INTRODUCTION

A. The Cell Theory

The Cell Theory states that:

1. the cell is the basic unit of life.

It is the building block of each organism that carries out all the essential processes of life
that makes the organism a living entity.

2. all organisms are made up of cells.

Organisms composed of a single cell are unicellular whereas those made up of many
cells are multicellular.

3. all cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division.

4. the cell contains information (hereditary materials / DNA) which is used as instructions
for growth, development and functioning.

5. the cell is the functional unit of life in which chemical reactions that maintain life takes
place within it.

B. Cellular Organisation

Biologists today recognise that cellular organisms fall into two main categories:

1. The eukaryotes (which means ‘true nucleus’)

Inclusive of all plants and animals, the cell of an eukaryote possesses a true nucleus
containing genetic materials known as DNA, enclosed within the nuclear envelope.

2. The prokaryotes (which means ‘before the nucleus’)

Inclusive of bacteria and archaea; the cell of a prokaryote lacks a true nucleus. The
genetic material is not enclosed within membranes but lies freely in the cytoplasm.

C. Units of Measurements

The most useful units of measurement for length of cells are summarised as follows:

1 millimeter (mm) = 10-3 m (used most often in IP3 Biology)

1 micrometer (m) = 10-3 mm = 10-6 m (used most often in IP3 Biology)
1 nanometer (nm) = 10-3 m = 10-9 m
1 Angstrom (Å) = 10-10 m

(The Angstrom is sometimes used to measure the thickness of membranes and sizes of
macromolecules.)

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D. Cell size

Cells are extremely small and can only be viewed for details when magnified using a
microscope. They are in the range of 5-500 m in diameter but most are between 10-150 m
diameter (Table 1 & Fig. 1).
Table 1
cell / organelle measurement (diameter)
average plant cell 40 m
average animal cell 20 m
average bacteria and mitochondria 1 m

ribosome (smallest organelle) 20 nm

a DNA molecule 2 nm
a hydrogen atom (smallest molecule) 0.04 nm
(You do not need to memorise the size range for cells.)

Fig. 1. Relative sizes of cells and cell components. Each unit of measurement is one-
tenth as large as the preceding unit.

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 II. EUKARYOTIC CELLS LO (a), (b)
Note:
With the great diversity in cell size and shape, there is no “typical cell”. This section
describes “generalised” cells that contain a combination of features found in eukaryotic plant
and animal cells.

A. Ultrastructure of Eukaryotic Cells

 A generalised eukaryotic cell has at least three major structural features that makes up
its protoplasm (living matter of the cell):

1. A cell surface membrane that forms a boundary between the internal and external
environment of the cell. It is partially permeable and controls substances leaving or
entering the cell.

2. A nucleus that contains genetic materials (DNA) and directs cellular activities.

3. The cytoplasm which includes the following:

i. Cytosol
 Fluid component.
 An aqueous solution of various essential ions; soluble organic compounds
such as sugars and amino acids; and soluble proteins, many of which are
enzymes.

ii. Organelles
 Subcellular components which carries out specific functions to maintain the
cell or a multicellular organism.
 May or may not be membrane-bound.

iii. Cytoskeleton
 A network of fine strands of globular proteins
 These support the cell and maintain its overall shape.

 In addition, plant cells have a rigid cell wall external to the cell surface membrane.

 The fine structure of cells is otherwise known as the ultrastructure.

 The ultrastructures of a plant cell and an animal cell are shown in Fig. 2a & b
respectively.

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 (contains two
centrioles)

Cell Surface membrane

Fig. 2a. Ultrastructure of a generalised animal cell seen under the electron microscope

Cell Surface membrane

Fig. 2b. Ultrastructure of a generalised plant cell seen under the electron microscope
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 B. Membrane Systems & Organelles within Cytoplasm

Compartmentalisation
The cytoplasm is organised into compartments called organelles. Organelle may or may not have a membrane. Each organelle
has its own function for the cell or the organism. Specific chemical reactions are localised within each organelle.

Summary of eukaryotic cell ultrastructure and functions

diagram structure function(s)

1. nucleus  Largest organelle (10-20 m in  Control of cellular

diameter), spherical or oval in activities by
1. shape regulating protein
and enzyme
 Surrounded by a double synthesis
membrane known as nuclear
envelope-  Nuclear division is
(i) outer membrane of the nuclear the basis of cell
envelope is continuous with replication
another organelle called the
endoplasmic reticulum  Nucleolus is
(ii) inner membrane is in contact responsible for
with the contents of the nucleus synthesis and partial
assembly of
 Nuclear envelope has pores, ribosomes
knows as nuclear pores

 Nearly all the cell’s DNA

(organised into chromosomes) is
found here.

 One or more nucleolus (plural:

nucleoli) within the nucleoplasm.

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 diagram structure function(s)

2. endoplasmic reticulum (ER)  Originates from the outer  Rough ER :

membrane of the nuclear Site where proteins
envelope. are synthesised &
transported (through
 Consists of a network of the cisternae or
membranous tubes or sacs called packaged in
cisternae. membranous
vesicles namely ER
Singular: Cisterna vesicles)
Plural: Cisternae
 Smooth ER :
 2 types of ER may be Synthesise lipids,
distinguished: especially membrane
 Rough ER (rER) phospholipids and
 ribosomes are present on steroid hormones
its surface (e.g. cholesterol,
 Smooth ER (sER) progesterone,
 Lacks ribosomes, testosterone)
more tubular

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 diagram structure function(s)

3. centrioles (in animal cells only)  Cylindrical (tube-like) structures  Produce spindle
composed of microtubules fibers which attach
 A single centriole consists of 9 to chromosomes
microtubule triplets arranged and separates them
in the shape of a cylinder during cell division

 2 centrioles makes up a  Involved in the

centrosome formation of cilia
and flagella
 Found in pairs only in animal cells,
positioned in the cytoplasm
outside the nucleus but close to it.
(a) centrioles as a component of (b) how centrosomes are involved
centrosomes in cell division

4. ribosomes  About 20 nm in diameter  Site of protein

synthesis
 Has no membranes
 made up of protein and
ribonucleic acid (ribosomal RNA).
 Each ribosome comprises 2 sub-
units – a large subunit and a small
subunit
 Location:
 attached to the rough
endoplasmic reticulum
or
 as free ribosomes in the
cytosol.

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 diagram structure function(s)

5. Golgi apparatus  Consists of a stack of flattened  Chemically modifies,

membrane-bound sacs also sorts and transports
known as cisternae. polypeptide chains
within it into proteins
 It is continually being formed at cis for secretion across
face by fusion of a vesicle from the the cell membrane or
ER and continually budded off at for delivery to other
the trans face where vesicles are parts of the cell
pinched off
 Lysosome formation
Refer to Figure 3 for the transport of
protein within the cell

6. lysosomes  Small spherical vesicles,  Digestion of

0.2-0.5 m in diameter, or larger in materials taken in by
plants. cells (in endocytosis
and phagocytosis)
 Bound by a single membrane
 Autophagy
 Formed from the Golgi apparatus digestion of worn-
out/ improperly
 Contains a concentrated mixture of functioning
hydrolytic digestive enzymes. organelles

Refer to Figure 4 for formation and  Autolysis

function of lysosomes self-digestion of a
cell by the release of
lysosome contents
within the cell

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 diagram structure function(s)

7. mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria)  Rod-shaped or cylindrical-shaped  Involved in cellular

organelle with size varying within respiration to
the range 0.5-1.5 m wide and release energy.
3.0-10.0 m long.

 Bound by a double membrane,

an outer and an inner membrane
separated by the inter-membrane
space.

 The outer membrane is a smooth

and continuous boundary.

 The inner membrane is extensively

folded to form cristae that project
into the interior (the matrix).

Singular: Crista
Plural: Cristae

 Within the matrix, hereditary

materials (circular DNA, RNA)
and ribosomes can be found.

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 diagram structure function(s)

8. chloroplast (in plant cells only)  Chloroplasts are large organelles,  Site of
typically a few m in diameter and photosynthesis
5-10 m long. Apart from the large
central vacuole and nucleus, they
are larger than any other
structures within the plant cell.

 Bound by a double membrane.

 Outer membrane is smooth and
continuous.
 Inner membrane gives rise to
membranes called thylakoids
which extends throughout the
interior.

 Interior of the chloroplast is a

gel-like matrix called stroma.

 Within the stroma: thylakoids

are stacked into grana (singular =
granum), which are joined together
by the intergranal lamellae.

Singular: lamella
Plural: lamellae

Singular: granum
Plural: grana

 Contains photosynthetic pigments

(e.g. chlorophyll) which make the
chloroplasts appear green.

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 diagram structure function(s)

9. vacuole  Fluid-filled structures bound by a  Entry of water is

single membrane. important in cell
expansion during cell
 In animal cells: usually relatively growth, as well as in
small and less permanent (called the normal water
vesicles) relations of plants
 Contains pigments in
 In plant cells, a large central,
solution (e.g.
permanent vacuole surrounded by
anthocyanins)
a membrane (tonoplast),
containing cell sap.  Hydrolytic enzymes
 FYI: Cell sap contain aqueous may sometimes be
solution of dissolved materials present, making the
such as sugars, ions, organic vacuole act as a
acids, waste products and lysosome
pigments  Waste products may
accumulate within
vacuole
 Some of the
dissolved substances
act as food reserves

10. cell wall (in plant cells only)  Surrounds plant cells, external to  Mechanical support
cell surface membrane
 Protective layer
 Consists predominantly of
cellulose.

 Cell wall materials are strong yet

permeable therefore allowing the
free passage of substances into
and out of cell.

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 LO (c)

Protein synthesis. Genetic information from the nucleus directs the synthesis of particular
proteins.
(a) For proteins that are to be secreted out of the cell (extracellular protein) Protein
secretory pathway
1. Ribosome bound to the Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) synthesize the polypeptide
chain into the rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
2. The protein becomes enclosed in an ER/ transport vesicle. The ER vesicle
containing the protein buds off from the ER,
3. travels and fuses with the cis-face of the Golgi apparatus (GA).
4. The GA chemically modifies, sorts and transports the proteins. The proteins
move through the GA by Golgi vesicles budding off from one cisterna and then
fusing with another cisterna.
5. The secretory vesicle containing the protein buds off from the trans-face of the
GA, travels and fuses with the cell surface membrane. Thus, releasing the
protein out of the cell.
(b) For proteins that are needed for use within the cell  synthesized by free ribosomes
(found in cytosol).

Fig. 3. Synthesis of proteins and transport of proteins out of the cell

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 Fig. 4. Formation and function of lysosomes

C. Comparison between Plant Cells and Animal Cells

LO (d)
Similarities:

1. Present in both cells is the protoplasm - cell surface membrane, nucleus, and
cytoplasm consisting of organelles; endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
mitochondria and ribosomes.

2. Chromosomes are composed of linear DNA wound around proteins.

Differences:

structural feature plant cell animal cell

cell wall present, contains cellulose absent

lysosomes usually absent often present

chloroplasts usually present absent

vacuoles present, large and central small and scattered or absent

centrioles usually absent present

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 III. PROKARYOTIC CELLS
LO (e)
STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA (prokaryotic cell)

 All bacteria are prokaryotes and are structurally much simpler than eukaryotes.
 A prokaryote is a unicellular organism without a nucleus and does not contain membrane
bound organelles.
 The genetic material found in the cell is DNA.
 Bacterial cells reproduce by a process called binary fission.
 Prokaryotic forms (Fig. 5)
 bacillus (bacilli): straight and rod-shaped
 coccus (cocci) : spherical shaped
 spirillum (spirilla): spiral shaped
 Key classification characteristics
 photosynthetic or non-photosynthetic
 motile or non-motile Fig. 5. Prokaryotic forms

Fig. 6 Bacterial Cell Structure

Fig. 7 Summary of Bacterial Cell Structure

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 Outline of structural similarities and differences between
typical prokaryotic cells and typical eukaryotic cells

Similarities

1. BOTH are bound by a cell surface membrane that separates the cell’s interior from its
surrounding environment.
2. BOTH have cytoplasm, consisting of a gel-like cytosol inside the cell plus the cellular
structures suspended in it.
3. BOTH have DNA as their ONLY genetic material.
4. BOTH have ribosomes that synthesizes proteins.

Differences

Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

1. Size of cell The prokaryotic cell is smaller The eukaryotic cell is > 10 μm in
than eukaryotes (< 5 μm in diameter
diameter)

2. Composition of The bacterial cell wall is made up The cell wall if present is made up
cell wall of peptidoglycan of cellulose (plants) or chitin
(fungi)

3. Presence of Membrane bound organelles are Membrane bound organelles are

membranous/ absent present (e.g. nucleus, ER, GA,
membrane- mitochondria)
bound organelles

4. Type of 70S ribosomes 80S ribosomes

ribosomes

5. Location of Ribosomes are freely suspended Ribosomes are

ribosomes in cytosol  found on rough ER
 freely suspended in
cytoplasm

6. Location of DNA is found in the nucleoid DNA is found in the nucleus,

genetic material region surrounded by a nuclear
envelope

7. Site of Cellular respiration takes place on Cellular respiration takes place in

respiration the cell surface membrane the mitochondria

8. Site of Photosynthesis takes place on Photosynthesis takes place in the

photosynthesis photosynthetic membranes in chloroplasts
photosynthetic bacteria

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 IV. VIRUSES
LO (f)
Structure of Viruses

 Generally, all viruses consist of two components: genetic material (DNA or RNA)
enclosed within a protein coat (capsid) (Fig. 10 and 11)
 The capsid and enclosed genetic material is collectively termed as nucleocapsid
 Only certain viruses carry enzymes within the capsid

 Some viruses contain a membranous envelope, some do not.

Fig. 10: Different viral structures

Fig. 11: Organization of viral structure

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WHAT ARE VIRUSES?
 Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that can reproduce only within a host cell.
 They cannot multiply outside a living host cell because they do not have any cellular
components and other metabolic enzymes essential to carry out metabolism and
synthesise proteins.

 Viruses can exist in two states:

1. extracellular state (out of the host cell) – where the virus particles are metabolically
inert
2. intracellular state (inside the host cell) – where the virus particles utilise host cell
metabolism to reproduce.

 Viruses are very small infectious particles. Tiniest viruses are only 10 nm in diameter –
smaller than a ribosome. Largest viruses (500nm) can barely be seen under the light
microscope. (Fig. 12)

Fig. 12: Comparing the size of viruses, bacterium and red blood cell

 Compared to other cellular organisms, viruses have both living and non-living
characteristics. (Fig. 13)
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  Living characteristics
(1) Able to acquire and use energy (but only in host cells)..
(2) Able to reproduce at a very fast rate (but only in host cells).
(3) Able to evolve through time via mutation and thus can adapt to their environment.

 Non-living characteristics
(1) Non-cellular: does not contain cytoplasm or cellular organelles (e.g nucleus,
ribosomes, etc).
(2) Cannot carry out own metabolism and cannot make own proteins; need to
reproduce using host cell machinery.
(3) Possess either DNA or RNA, but not both.

Fig. 13: Comparison between viruses and cells

 Viruses are host specific

 They infect specific types of organisms (e.g. bacteria, mammals, plants, etc) and
specific types and range of cells within organisms (e.g. epithelial cells, neurones, etc).

 For instance,
o Bacteriophage only infects bacteria.
o Influenza virus only infects epithelial cells lining the respiratory tract of
animals.
o Rabies virus only infects mammalian cells.
o HIV only infects certain human white blood cells.
o Hepatitis virus infects only liver tissues.
o Tobacco mosaic virus only infects cells of certain plants.

THE END

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