Life on Earth is cellular: the cell is the fundamental

structural and functional unit of life (Chapter 7)

cells are as fundamental to living systems as atoms are to chemistry

the simplest collection of matter that can be alive
 Key concepts cell structure/function

There are two basic cell designs: prokaryotic and eukaryotic

(Table 7.1)

The structure of individual cell components is closely correlated

with their function
Eukaryotic cells contain numerous membrane-bound organelles
with specialized, compartmentalized functions
Nucleus
Endomembrane system
Mitochondria

Cytoskeleton = network of fibers - organises internal structure

and activities in cell
Connections between cells (e.g. gap junctions, tight junctions) -
coordinate cell activities

Cells are very dynamic

 Prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic cells
Bacteria and archaea = prokaryotes; have simpler cell structure (lack a
membrane-bound nucleus)

Fig. 7.6
Fig. 7.1

supercoiled
500 x longer
than cell!

All cells have plasma membrane, cytoplasm, genetic material (DNA),

ribosomes (cytoskeleton, membrane-bound organelles?)
Prokaryotes: single, circular chromosome (DNA molecule) in non-
membrane bound nucleoid + 1-100 small DNA molecules (plasmids); tough,
fibrous cell wall
 A generalised eukaryotic animal cell (see Fig. 7.7)
Protists, fungi, plants, animals (Eukarya) all consist of eukaryotic cells

Chromosomes are
found within membrane-
bound nucleus

Extensive membrane-
bound compartments
and organelles

Especially diverse and

dynamic cytoskeleton

Larger than prokaryote

cells

Why such complex compartmentalization?

Incompatible reactions can be separated
Chemical reactions become more efficient
Summary Table 7.2 Eukaryotic Cell Components

Mitochondrion Endomembrane
system

Nucleus
Nucleolus

7-6
 Plasma membranes consist of a phospholipid bi-layer
with various proteins attached/embedded (Fig. 6.22)

Plasma membrane
labelled in budding
yeast
Fig. 6.20b
Lots of important things happen at biological surfaces
e.g. plasma membranes, transport epithelia, skin

So the size (area) of these biological surfaces relative to the

volume (or mass) of the cell/organism is of fundamental
importance in biology (Fig. 41.9)

Surface Area:Volume ratio SA:Vol

Lake Titicaca frog

Topic of the Week (next week)!

The nucleus is the eukaryotic cells information storage
and retrieval centre (Fig. 7.8)

Contains chromosomes (DNA)

that carries genetic information

Chromatin = complex of DNA and

proteins (e.g. some proteins help DNA
coil)

Nucleolus = site of manufacture of

ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and assembly of
ribosomal sub-units

Nuclear envelope = double lipid bilayer

supported by a lattice-like sheet called the
nuclear lamina
 Nuclear envelope of the nucleus is continuous with
the endomembrane system

But it is also perforated by a large number of nuclear pores between

nucleus and cytoplasm

Each surrounded by protein nuclear pore complexes

Regulate entry and exit of proteins, ribosomal sub-units, mRNA. etc

Fig. 7.23

500 molecules pass through 3000-4000 pores every second (1.75 million/sec!)
 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic
and performs metabolic functions (Fig. 7.10-7.11)

Rough ER: protein processing, folding, modification and packaging

Smooth ER: lipid/steroid synthesis, detoxification of drugs, calcium storage
Golgi apparatus: receives, modifies, stores and ships products from ER
 Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis (Fig. 7.12)

= rRNA + proteins

= rRNA + proteins

attached to endoplasmic reticulum (ER = rough ER) makes proteins for

export in membrane bound vesicles e.g. secretion
free in cytosol make proteins that function in cell, e.g. enzymes

Link: well revisit the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis in a later

lecture
 Ribosomes make proteins and the endomembrane
modifies and ships them movement of proteins is energy
demanding and tightly regulated

Translation

Fig. 7.25

Exocytosis
Mitochondria are power-generating stations: sites of
cellular respiration (Fig. 7.18)

Mitochondria have a double

membrane (2 bi-layers)

Outer membrane is smooth

Inner membrane is folded into
cristae (increases surface area)

Enzymes that run cellular

respiration are embedded in inner
membrane or suspended in the
mitochondrial matrix

Mitochondria have their own

small chromosome and
ribosomes WHY?

Link: cell respiration produces ATP which provides the energy to build
things (like organelles) and to do other cellular work
The cytoskeleton: a network of fibers that organizes the
structure and activity of cell (see Summary Table 7.3)

Microfilaments Microtubules
(actin polymer) (tubulin polymer)

Microtubules provide tracks

for motor proteins (e.g.
kinesin) to carry cargo
(transport vesicles) around Tubulin
the cell (Fig. 7.35)
 Cell motility: organization of microtubules in a
eukaryotic cell with kinesin and dynein motor proteins
provides tracks for motor proteins to carry cargo around the cell

Centrosome = microtubule-organizing center Current view of dynein complex

(Science 2014 345:270)
 Cilia and flagella utilise microtubules and a motor
protein (dynein) to move the whole cell (Fig. 7.36-7.37)

Most cilia and flagella have a 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules

9 double microtubules + 2 single microtubules, covered by an extension
of the plasma membrane
Whole structure = axoneme, attached to cell by basal body
What provides the force required for movement of
cilia and flagella? (Fig. 7.38)

Doublet microtubules are

connected by dynein (motor
protein)
Beating (movement) requires ATP
= energy-demanding process
ATP changes the shape of dynein
allowing it to walk up the
microtubule (see slide 14)

This causes the adjacent

microtubules to slide past each
other
BUT the microtubules are
anchored by the basal body and
connected by spokes
So sliding causes bending =
beating
 Multi-cellularity requires connections between cells
(Chapter 8)

Desmosomes function like rivets binding

adjacent cytoskeletons (e.g. muscle cells)

Fig. 8.8

Fig. 8.12
Fig. 8.11

Tight junctions
form watertight
seals, e.g. in cells
that form barriers Gap junctions provide
(epithelial cells) cytoplasmic channels
Fig. 8.7 from one cell to another
Cell membranes: structure and function
(Chapters 6/7)
 Key concepts plasma membranes

Membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins;

highly dynamic; this structure results in selective
permeability
i.e. the membrane allows some things to pass through more easily than
others

Passive transport (diffusion, osmosis) does not require energy

Facilitated diffusion is where transmembrane protein channels
aid (speed up) passive transport
Active transport uses energy to move solutes against their
(electro) chemical gradients (ion pumps, cotransporters)
see Figure 6.30 for simple review
Bulk transport occurs via exocytosis and endocytosis
 Cell membranes are highly dynamic fluid mosaics
of phospholipids and proteins
Fig. 6.3
Fig. 6.7

Water
loving
Passive
transport

Water
hating

Facilitated
diffusion
Active
transport
Amphipathic phospholipids .

form lipid bilayers

Small polar, and non-polar molecules
move across bilayers (membranes) quickly

Large/charged molecules move slowly or

not at all (unless they get help from
Cytosol
membrane proteins)
Membrane-associated proteins = mosaic part and
have many different function
Hormones

Fig. 6.19
Movement of substances across membranes depends
on .
1) Selective permeability of lipid bilayer (diffusion)

2) Transmembrane proteins that transport selected ions and molecules

by facilitated diffusion and active transport

Fig. 6.30

Movement down a concentration gradient Movement against concentration

= PASSIVE gradient
Why (some) molecules move across lipid bilayers:
diffusion and osmosis (Fig. 6.15 and 6.16)

Small and uncharged molecules and hydrophobic

compounds can cross membranes readily and
spontaneously without expenditure of energy
 Facilitated diffusion: passive transport via
channel proteins
Extracellular
space Channel proteins or ion channels allow
ions and large polar solutes to diffuse
rapidly down their concentration
Ion channel gradient

Ions are charged so they move in

Cytosol
response to a combined electrical and
chemical gradient (electrochemical
gradient)

Channels are highly selective (due to

the structure of the protein)
- water pores (aquaporins) only allow water to pass
- potassium channels only allow potassium to pass

Channels are highly dynamic and can

be gated (open or closed) see Fig. 6.26

Fig. 6.24
 Facilitated diffusion: passive transport via
carrier proteins or transporters (Fig. 6.28)

Carrier proteins, e.g. glucose transporter (GLUT-1), change shape to

move molecules across the membrane

What powers the movement of molecules through transporters diffusion!

(if the concentration of glucose is the same on each side of the membrane there will be no net
movement even if GLUT-1 is present)
 Active transport uses energy (ATP) to move molecules
against their concentration gradients (Fig. 6.29 or 45.4)

High
[Na+]

High
[K+]

Phosphorylation

Sodium-potassium pump exchanges 3 Na+ (OUT) for 2 K+ (IN) across the

cell membrane
Requires energy in the form of ATP
Involves a conformational change in the shape of the protein
Net charge = 1 +ve (Na+) loss each cycle = electrogenic
 Co-transport or secondary active transport

Ion pumps using active transport (and the energy of ATP) can create
concentration gradients across the membrane

Concentration gradient sets up by the pump provide potential energy to

power the movement of other molecules back across the membrane by
against their concentration gradient

An example:

the sucrose-H+ cotransporter

We will see lots of examples

where H+ (proton) gradients
provide potential energy to do
work!
 Bulk transport across membranes occurs via
endocytosis (and exocytosis)
Fig. 7.17
Food Fluid + solutes

Non-specific

Highly specific

Endocytosis = food particles, fluid, specific molecules being taken up IN

to the cell
 Bulk transport across membranes occurs via
(endocytosis and) exocytosis

Membrane-bound transport vesicle

or secretory vesicle fuses with cell
membrane to release contents

Exocytosis = reverse process where proteins, hormones etc are released

FROM the cell into the extracellular space or into the circulation