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UNITI
FOUNDATIONS OF HCI
‘The Human: /O channels ~ Memory Reasoning and protlem solving; The computer: Devices —
‘Mamor-— procening and natvorks; Interaction: Models frameworks —Ergonsmie—otyles—
elements — interectiity- Paradigms.
LHUMAN
Invreduedon
Human-computer interaction (cousmonly referred to a2 HCI) researches the design and use of
Ccompiter technology. fosused on the interfara: benvean people (users) and computers
Researchers in the field of HCI both obserce the wavs in which Inumans in‘eract with computer:
‘ane design technologies that let humans interact with computers im novel ways
Usr
By "wrer', we may mean an individual user, 2 group of wers working togeher. Aa appreciation
‘of the way people’ amzory systoms (vight, Hearing, touch) relay information ie vital. Also
different users form different conceptions or mental models atout their interactions and have
diferent ways of leaming ad keepizg Inovleige and. in addition, cultural ard national
‘diferences play a part.
‘Computer
‘When we talk: about the computer, were refrrng to eny technology ranging from desttop
comprten, to large scale computer systems, For exanple,if we were dcursieg the design of
‘Website, thea the Website itself would be refered to as “the computer’. Devices auch as mcbile
‘phones or VCRs can alzo be considered to be —compuers
Interaction
‘There are obvious differences between humans and machines. In spite of these, HCI attempts to
‘sure thit they both get on with eack other and interact uccenafilly. In order to achieve 2 usable
‘stem, you need fo apply what jou now chout hamans and computers, and consult with likely
users throughout the design process. In real systems, the ichedule and the budeet are important
‘and its vital fo find a balance benween what would be ideal forthe users and what is feasible
reat
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The Goals of HCT
‘The goals of HCI are to produce usable and safe systems, s well as functional systems. In order ©
prodiice computer systems with good useoily, developers must atempt to: understand te factor:
tat detenmiae how prople ure technology, develop tocls and techniques to enable building
sratable stems, achieve efficient effective, and sale interaction put people iret
Underlying the whole theme of HCI is the belief that people using 2 computer system should
‘come firs. Ther needs, capabilites and preferences for conducting various tasks should direct
developers inthe way that they design systems. People should uot have to change the way tha
they use a system in order to sit in with, Instead, the eytems should be designed to match fei
seyuinements
Usability
(Usgbuityis one of te key concepts HCI. It is concerned with making systems easy to learn
andure. A uiable stem is
‘eet lear
‘easy fo remember howto use
effectveto use
efficent to use
safe nue
cejoyableto
yvyyvyvy
Factors ia HCI
‘There are a latge mumber of factors which should be considered in the analysis anddesien of «
ayvtem ung HCI principles. Many of these factor: iteract wath each other mubang the aualysis
‘even more complex. The main factors ae ised in the tuble below:
‘Organizotion Factors
"> Training, job design, politics oles, work organisation
> Enviromental Factors
> Noise, heating, lighting, ventilation
> Healt ard Safery Factors
The User
“> Cognitive processes and capabilites
> Motivation enjoyment satisfaction, personality. experince
> Comfort Faciors
> Seating, equpment layout
User Interface
Input devices, output devices, dialogue structures, use of colour, icons, commands,
navigation, gaphics, natura language, weer support, meltimedia,
‘Task Factors: Eazy, complex, novel, txt allocstioa, monitoring, skills
‘Constraints: Cost, timescales, budecs, sta equipment, buildings
Syetem Functionality: Hardware eoatware, ppl
Productiity Factors : Increase output, mncrease quality. decrease costs, decrease exo,
increase innovation
[Deparanantof Computer Seance and Engnesring)
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Disciplines contibating to HCT
‘The field of HCl covers 2 wide range of topics, and its development has relied on
coatrputons from many disciplines. Some ofthe main disciples which have contibured 19
Het ae:
‘Computer Science
© technology
© software design, development & maintenance
©. User Interface Management Sistems UIMS) & User terface Development
Envionments (VIDE)
© protetyping tas
© graphics
(Cognitive Pryctology
(2 information proveasing
© capabilites
limitations
© cooperative working
©. performance prediction
Social Peychology
‘2 social & organizational trctures
Ergonomics Human Factors
© hardware desien
© display readability
Linguistics
(2 natural language interdicer
Artificial Tnelligence
© inteligent software
Engineering & Design
© suaphic design
‘suginserng principles
‘A penon_s infection wi the outside world occurs through information being received and
seat. mpil and output. In an mteraction wah a computer the wer receives infomation that it
outpet by the compute, and responds by providing input to the computer — the user_s ouput
Tbecones the compuiter_» input and vice verse.
Fer example, sight may be used primarily m receiving information ftom the compster, but it can
‘alzo be vied to provide infomation to the computer, fer example by fixating on 2 paticula
screen point when using an eyegare eystem. Input inthe human oocuss maialy durough the sease:
cand output through the mstor control of te efector.
‘There are five major senses sight, hearing, tonch, taste and smell OF these, the first three are
the most important 1o HCI Taste and smell do ot curenily play a significant vole in HC, and it
is not clear whether tey could be explited at all in general computer systemsalthough they
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could have azole to pley i more specialized systems (smells to give waning of malfunction, for
‘example) or m augmented realty systems. vision, Mearing an¢ touch are certral
‘There are a number of effertos, including the laabe, finger eyes, head and vocal system. Inthe
interaction with the computer, the fingers play the primary role, Gough typing or mouse control
‘wh some wie of woice, and eye, beac and body postion. Imagine uring a personal computer PC)
‘with 2 mouse and 2 levboard| The application vou are using has 2 sraphical interface, with
‘menu, icons and windows, In your interaction with this system you zeceve informatioa primarily
Dy sight, fom wat appear on the screen,
Vision
man vision ie # highly complex activity sith a range of physical and perceptual
limitations, We can roughly divide viral perception io tvo stages: the phsial reception of the
stimulus ffom the outside woild, and the processing and interpretation of ‘hat stimulss. On the
‘one hand the piysical properties of the eye ard the visual qystem mean that there are ceria
tHungs that cannot be ceen by the human; on the other the interpretative capabilities of visual
processing allow images te be coastmicted fom ineomplee information We need to uncersioné
‘both stages as both mifluence what can and cannot be perceived visually by a human being. which
intum diectly affects the way tet we design computer systems. We will begin by locking atthe
‘eye as a pyscal receptor, and then go ou to consider the processing invclved in basic vision.
The human eye
‘Vin gi wh ight Th aye it micas Bx receiving Tigh end tring tina
clectral energy. Light is reflected fom object tthe world and their image is focused upnde
ownon the back ofthe eye. The receptors isthe eve tansform tints elecnical signals which ae
posed othebran
‘The aye has a mumber of important components. The comea and lent atthe fot ofthe aye foeut
the light ito a sharp image on the back of the eve, the retina. The retina is ight sensitive and
‘contains to types af photoreceptor: ods and cones
‘Rods are highly sersitie t light and therefore allow us to see under a low level of ilmmation
‘They are unable to resolve Hine detail and are object te izhtsuration. Thi is the reeson forthe
temporary blindness we get when moving from 2 darkmed room mito suright the rads have bean
active and are saturated by the sudden light The comes do not operate either a: they are
suppressed by the rods, We are therefore temporarily urable to see at all. There are approxmiely
4120 millina rods per eye which are mainly situated towards the edges of the retiza. Rods therefore
dominate peripheral vison.
‘Cones are the second type of receptor in the eve They’are lest sensitive to light than the rods and
ccan therefore tolerate more light There are three types of cone, each sensitive to a differen
‘wavelength of lidht. This allows color vision. The eye tas approsimztely 6 million cones, mainly
‘conceatrited on the fovea, 2 small ares ofthe rena on winch mages are fasted,
‘The retina ie mainly covered with photoreceptors share is ons blind epot where the optic
nerve entrs the eve The blind spot has 2o rods or cones, our visual system compensates for this
otha! inmormal citcumstances We ate unaware of it
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Figure: Human Eye
‘The retina alo bas specialized nerve cells called ganglion cells. Taere are to pes
‘X-cell, which ae concentated in the fovea and are rexponsitle fr the early detection of pattern
sei Youll which are more widely diemibuted im the reine and are cesponible for the early
deection of morement Te distrbution ofthese cells means that, waile we may not be able fe
examine sllled behavior within the
content ofthe problem space theary of problem solving
Enrors and mental models
‘Human capability for uerpreting and manipulating information is qute mpresave. Some are
‘trivial, resulting inno more than temporary inconvenience or anneyance. Others may be more
serious, roguiring scbotantial efor to corect
THE COMPUTER
Apical computer system
‘There isthe computer ‘box’ inelf, a keyboard, « mouse and a colour screen The ssremn layout it
shown alongside it, Data have to be antered into and cbtained fom a system, and there ae alse
smn different pes oftser each with their own unique requiemente
Levels of interaction — batch processing
‘Thee was mininal interaction with the machine: the user would simply dump a pile of punched
‘cards outo a reader, prve the stam button, and thes retum a few hours later. Thie still continuee
today although row with pre-repared electronic files or possibly machineread forms. With batch
processing the interactions take place over hours or da. In contrast the typical deitop computer
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system has interactions taking seconds or factions of 2 second. The field of Human Computer
Interaction lergely grevs dus to this change in interactive pace.
[Richer interaction — everywhere, everyway
Information appliance: axe puting internet access or dedicated svstems onto the fidge
amicrowave and washing machine: o automate shopping, give you emzail in your kitchen or simply
call for maintenance waen needed. We carry wth us WAP phones and smartoarda, have secunty
systems that monitor us and Web cams that show ou: homes fo the word.
Avtypical computer system,
1.8.1 Elements
_ACcomputer system comprites various elements, each of which aft the user of
1) Input devices for mteractve use, alowing text enzy, dravang and selection ftom the
4) fat entry traditional keyboard phone text entry, speeck and hindwing
‘ipontixg: principally themeouse. but ali toucapad,stvlus aud others
)3D interaction devices.
2) Ourput display devices for interactive se:
2) different types of screen mestly using some form of bitmap display
DYlarge displays and situated displays for shared ané public use
‘digital paper may be usable im the near Rime
3) Vitual reality evstems and 3D visualization which have special interaction and display
devices,
-4)Vanous devices in the physical world:
2) physical contols and dedicated displays
‘sound smell and haptic foedbase
©) sensors for nearly everthing including movement, temperature, biosigns.
)Paper cutput and mput the paperless olfce andthe lene-paper office:
2) different types of printers aud their characteristics, character styles and fonts
‘Scanners aid optical character recognition.
Memory
ten
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Short term memory RAM)
‘At the lowest level of computer memory are the resisters onthe computer chip, bt these
Ihaving lie impact on the user except insofar as they affect the general speed of the computer’
Most curently setive information is el in slicou-chip random access memory RAND)
Different fons of RAM differ ar to their precise access times, power consumption and
characterstic. Typical acces: times are of the order of 10 nmoseconds, that is 2 hmdted.
rallionth of 2 second, and information can be accessed at arate of aroma 100 Mbytes (million
bytes) per second.
‘Typical storage in modern personal computers i between 64 and 256 Mbytes. Most RAM
is volatile that is its contents are lost when the power is tumed off However, many computers
hhave small amount of non-volatile RAM, which retams its contents, perhaps with the aid of
small batery. Tais may be used ‘0 sore setup information in a large computer, but m 2 pocket
‘organzer Will be the Waole memory. Nonvelatle RAM is more expensive 10 1 orly used W3
necesrary, but with many notebook computers usiag very low-power sialic RAM, the divice it
Shninking By arict anilogy. anuvelatile RAM out to be classed ae LTM but the umpomtant
thing we wart to enphesize isthe gulf between STM and LTM ina traditional computer system.
Jn PDAs the ditinctions become more confined as the buttery power means ‘hat the
sytem is never completely off, RAM memory effectively lat forever. Some alto we ask
emery, wich isa fom of silicon memery ‘hat ais between fined coment ROM (sad-oaly
foemay) chp and normal RAM Flash memory is selancly slow to wate, bat once wate
relan is contet even wh no power whasowver Theve are someimes called slicen disks ox
PDAs Digital cameras typically sore photographs in some form of flath media and small fash.
‘based devices are used‘ pluginto a laptop cx desktops USB por to tarsfer data
Diskeand long term memory (LTM)
or most computer users the LTA onsite of sks, possibly with small tapes for backup
‘The existence of backups, and appropiate software to generate and retrieve them, isan important
area for user secanty. However, We will deal mainly with those Zonas of storaze that impact the
aeracve computer user. There ae vo main kins of technology wed disks: magnetic disks
anol optical diss. The most common storage media, oppy disks aad lard (oe fixed) disks, axe
foated woth magnetic material. ke that faand om an auito tape. on whish the information i
stored
‘Typical capacities af floppy disks lie between 300 kbytes and 1.4 Mbytes, butas they are
removable, ou canbave a: many as youlbave room for on your desk. Hard dis may store fom
under 40 Mbytes to several gigabrte: (byes) tha isveveral thousand milion bytes, Wik dska
‘hero ae sve acces nes 19 comider, the tne taken fo find the rest rack onthe dle, andthe
time to read the tack. The former dominates random reads, and i typicelly ofthe order of 10 mt
‘or hac disks. The wansfer rate once the track is fomd is then very bigh pecaps several hundred
lalobytes per second
‘Varcus forms of large removable meta ae also available, fiting somewhere between
Aoppy disks and reawvalle dard disks, and ae eapecelly important for multimedia sorage
(Optical disks un lve ite to reed nd (sometimes) rite the information on the dink Thre are
‘various high capacity specialist optical devices, but the most common isthe CD-ROM. using the
tame technology at audio compact cscs. CD-ROMs have a capacity of around 650 mesabstes,
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‘ut cannot be written t at all. They are usefil for published material such ax online reference
books, multmedia and sofvare distibution, Recordable CDs are a form af WORM device
(nite-onte read-many) and are more flerible in thet information can be witer, but (a ke name
suggests) only cace at any location - more like e piece of paper than a blackboard. Taey are
‘steely vary sefal fr Eacuip and for producing very secure audit formation Finally, there
are fully rewstale optical disks, bu he revite tne is typically much slower than the read time.
so they ae sill prizarily for archival not dyzansc storege. Many CDROM reader writers ean alse
ead DVD format, onguzally developed for stonag movies.
(Optical media are more robust than magnetic disks and so # is eater to use a jukebox
arangement, whereoy mary optical disks can be brought online automatically as required. Thit
ccan give an online capacity of many hunéreds of sizabytes. However, as magnetic disk capacities
hhave grown faster than the fixed standard of CD-ROM, some massive capacity stores are moving
tolarge disk aay.
Compression
In fact, things are not quite so bad, since compression teciigues can be used to reduce the
mount of torage require fo text, bitmaps and vide. All of these things are higaly redundant
(Consider tex: for a momert. In English, we knaw that if we use te leer _q" then _v" is almost
‘bound to follow. Atthe level of words, some Words ike the’ and _and’ appear feet in text
in general, and for any paricalar wore one can fad otler commie toms (Qhis book mentions
“oler and computer’ rater STequentls. Similarly, ima bitmap, if one bit is white thre ie =
ood chanc® the next wil be aswell Compression algortims take alvanaze of ths redundancy
Fer example Huffman encoding gives short codes fo equent words and run length encoding
represent loag uns of the same Yale by length vale par
‘Text con easly be reduced by a factor of fire and bitmape often comprose to 12 of the
‘original size. For video, in adition fo compressing each flame, we can take advantage ofthe fact
that saocessive frames are offen similar. We can compate the difference between succenive
‘frames and then store only this - compressed, of course. More sophisicated algoritams detect
‘when the camere pans and use this mfonmation dso, These diferenciag mathods fal wn the scene
changes, zud so the process pesiodkally bas to retar ad send 2 new, complete (but compressed)
image For storage purposes this isnot aproblom, hut when wsed for transmission over telephone
lines or networks it can mean glitches in the video asthe system catches ap. Wit these reductions
it is cetamly possible to store low-quality video at 64 Kbve'; that i, we om store fire hour of
highly compressed video oa our 1 Gbyte ard disk.
Howerey it ail makes the bumble video casnets Isa: very good value, Probebly the
Ieading eige of viceo still and photographic compression is fractal compression Fractals have
been popularized by the images of the Mandelbrot set (that sutling pate of computer
‘generated colors seen on many T-shirts and posters) Fractals refero any imge that contain Farts
‘Which, wen surably scaled, ae amar fo the whole. we look stan iage, sts posable to nd
parts which are approximately self-similar, and there pats can be stored ara Sacial with oxy 2
fev mamneric parameters. Fractal compression ie eepacaly goed for texmured features, which
case problems for other compression techniques. The decompression of the image can, be
perfomed to ans degre of accuracy, from a Very rough roft-focus image, to one mare detaled
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hun the oil Te former wry uel a ou can produce poral ouput uch and
beter quilt een mre tne The later ater ventiable the Sutal compression cally
‘se dea Sut ae ot sonal.
Storage format and standards
‘The most common data types stored by interactive programs are text and bitmap images. with
increasing use of video and ausio, and this subsection looks a the ridiculous range of file storage
standards We will consider database retmeval inthe next subsection. The baste standard for text
orage is the ASCII (American standatd code for information interchange) character codes,
‘which assignto each standard printable character ad several contol characters an intematorally
recognized 7 bit code (decimal values 0-177), which em therefore be stored in am & hitb, cr he
‘renemitted 2s 8 bits including panty. Many evstems extend the codes to the values 128255,
5,
including line-drawing character, mathemtical symbols and international letter: such as "2
‘There is 2 16 bit extension, the UNICODE standard, which has enough room for a much lage!
range of characters mcladigg the Japanese Kanji character set
As we have already discussed, modem documents consist of more than just characters
‘The tent i in diferent fon's and iclader formatting information such a: centering, paze header:
ane footers. On the whole, the storage of formutted text is vendor apeciic, since virtually every
‘application has ts own fle format. This is not helped by the fact that many suppliers attempt to
keep their file formats secret, or update them frequently to stop others’ products being
‘compatible With the exception offare ASCTL the mow common shared format is Heh text Zomnat
(RTF), which encodes formating infomation including style sheets. However, even where au
application will import or export RTF, it may represent a cut-down version of the full document
sfvle. RIF regards the document a: fomated text, that is mt concentates oa the appearance.
‘Documests can also be regatded as stuctured objects: this book has chapters contaning sections
subsections .. paragraphs sentences, words and chara:ter
‘There are ISO standards for document stucture and interchange, which in theory could be
used for transfer between packages and sites, but these ae rarely used in practice, Just as the
PostSenipt language is used to describe the prasted page, SGML (standard generalized markup
Tauguage) can be used to store structured tex! ina reasonably exteasible way. You can define your
‘own structures (the definition itself im SGML), and produce docements according *0 them. XML
(extensible markup languaze).a lightweight version of SCML. is now wsed extensively for web-
‘baxed applications
er bimap soraze tre range of fommats is seemingly mening. The sored image needa to recerd
the size ofthe image, tbe mumaber of bits per pinel,poanbly a color map, a0 well ex the bit ofthe
image itelf. In addition, an icon may have 2 hot-pot' for use at a cursor. If you tink of all the
‘wavs of encoding these fectures o leaving lem implicit, and then consider all the combination:
of there difftrert encodings, ‘why there are problems. And all this before we bave
‘even considered the effects of compression! There i, i: fat, 2 Wole sofware industry producing
packages tha convest fom one format tc another. Given the range of storage standards (cr rather
lack of candardi), there is no easy advice as to which ic beet, but if you are writing a new word
processor ani ate about to decide how to siore the document om disk, think, just for a moment,
before defining yet mother format
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1 Short termmemory: RAM
2 Long-termmemory: magnetic and optical disks
5 capacity limitations related document and video storage
‘FAccessmethols they limit orhelp te wer
Processing & Networks
‘The effects iwhen systems rim too slow or too fast, the myth of the infiitely fast machine
lumitaions on proceisirg speed Networks and ther mmpact on system perfomance.
Eifccts of finite processor speed
Spead of processing can seriously affect the user interface These effects rnuit be teen
into ascount when designing an interactive system. There are 1wo sorts of faults due to processing
speed those when it is too slow, aad those when iti too fast!
Example of the foumer atove. This was 2 functional fut, in thatthe program did the
‘wrong thing. The syatem is suppeaed to draw linen from where the mowe button i= depressed te
‘where it is released However. the program gets it wrong ~ after redlizing the bution is down, it
does uot check the position ofthe mouse fas! enough, and so the user may have moved the mouse
before the start postion 1s registered. Ths ise fault atthe implementation stage of the system:
rather than of le design. But 10 be far, the programmer may not be given the right son of
‘information fon lower levele of system software.
A second fault due to slow processing is where, m 2 sease, the program does the right
thing, but the feedback is 100 slow, leacing to strange eflects at the interfzce. In order to avoid
fanlls ofthe first kmd, the system buffers the user input, thet 1s, i remembers Key preses and
‘mouze buttous and movement, Unfortunately, this leads to problems ofits owe, One exanple of
this sort of problem ie cursor racking, which happens in character bared taxtelitre, The wee ir
‘tying to move backwards on the same line to correct an err, ard s9 preses the cursor-left key
‘The curwor moves and when it it over the comect position, the user releases the key
‘Unfortunately, the system is behind in responding to the user, ard so has a few more cunorleft
‘keys Moore’t law.
[Evergone Inows that computers just gat faster and star However, in 1965 Gordon Moore, oo.
omer cf Intel, noticed a regulary. It seemed that the spzed of processors related closely te the
smumber of transistors that could be squashed ona silicon wafer, was doubling every 18 months —
‘exponential growth. One of the authors bought his frst ‘proper’ computer in 1987; i was @
‘blind fst 1.47 MHz IBM compatible (ace were too expensive). By 2002 a system costing
the comic in real tonne would have hada 15 GHis processcr — 1000 simee fister or 210 wn LE
eats, that is 10 to 18 months There isa similar pattem for computer memory. except that the
‘doubling time for magnetic storage seems to be closer to one vear. For example, when the first
‘edition of this book was written one ofthe authors had a 2) Moyte hard disk; now, 11 years later,
dns dusk is 30 Gbytes ~ around? 10 times more storage in just 10 years,
‘The effete of thie are dramatic. If you took a young baby today and darted wosrding «
{ull audio video diary of every moment, day and night of that child's lif. bythe time she was ax
‘old lady her whole life experience would ft into memory the size of a small grain of dust. The
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computer to procest~ the cuor then overshoot. The wer fe: to comect this by pressing the
‘cusorright Hey, and again overshoot, There i typically no way forthe user to tll wheter the
‘buffer is empty or not, except by interacting vey slowly with the system and observing thatthe
cursor har moved afer every bey res.
A sinilar problem, icon wars, occurs on window systems. The user clicks the mouse on ¢
‘menu or icon, and nothing happens, for some reason the machine is bury or alow. So fhe user
ccicks agun, tes something else — ten, suddenly, all the buffered moase clicks are mterpreted
‘ane the screen become: a bur of lashing windows and menus, This time, itis not so much that
the response is too slow i is fast encugi when it happens — but that therespomse is variable. The
delays due to swapping programs in and out of main memcry typically cause these problems
Furthermore, a style of interaction that is optimal on one machine may mot be so on a slewer
muchne. In particular, moure-based aterfces camot tolerate delays between actions and
fendback of mote than 2 Eacion of a second, otherwise the immediacy required for successful
‘teraction is lot. E those reapomee carmct be met thon a more olé fashioned, command based
Ierfice may be requred Whereas it is immediately obvious that slow responses can cause
problems for the user, it isnot so obvious why one should not abvays aim fora system ‘0 be at
art an ponsile
‘However, there are exceptions to this the weer must be able o read and understand the output of
the eqstem For example one of che author war once givm 2 demonstration disk fir 2
spreadsheet. Unfortnately, the machine the demo was writin on was clearly slower than the
author's machine, aot much, at worst half the speed, but cifferent enough. The demo passed in 2
blur over the screen with nothing remaming on the screen long enough fo read. Many ngh.
revolution monitors suffer fiom a similar problem when they display text. Wheteas older
‘character based tarminele serolled new tet rom the bottom of the screen orrecrew fom the top,
bitmap screens often “fash up the new page. eiving no indication of direction of movement. 4
‘zal example is the rate of curvor flashing: the rate is often ata fined,
‘Limitations on Interactive performance
‘There are several factors that can lui the spred ofan interactive 2ystem:
‘Compistaton boun
Storage chamel bound
Graphics bound
‘Network capacity
1.7.3 Networked Computing
‘Computer systems im use today are rmuch mere poverful than they were a few years
‘ago.which means that the standard computer on the detktcp is quite capable of high-performance
interaction without recourse to outside help. However, it oen the case that we use computer:
not mn their stardalone mode of operation, but linked together im networks. This bangs added
Devefits in aloving communication between diffeent paties, provided they ate connected inte
‘he same nenwork, as well ap allowing the dedtop computer to acces: resource: remote fom
itself Such networks are mherenthy muck more powerfl tian the individual computer: that make
up the network: increased computing power and memory are caly pat of the story, since the
[Deparananeat Computer Seance md Ensen) 2
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HCI
effets falling poole much more exensve, ter and eater aces infomation ae hgh
Ee ee etter =
INTERACTION
Tarrio nvelves at Teart two participants: the wer andthe ten. The intrtie mow
tterene etecely tunate bayeen tien p alow fe tgacion tg be meccesh, Tht
Irasiciee can fl Se ouner af ons and fora bunber of esons The we of mde of
IBeracion cut Eepus to widest enact what goign the teraction ad eat te
Tey fot of ices, They alo povdeus wid a Tamevodk to compat dffwen ition
spielen cate ttrctea etl
‘The terms of interaction
“The purpose of an interactive system is to aid a wer in accomplishing goals from some
application domain A domam defines m area of expertise and knowledge up some real world
aciviy. Some examples of domains are graphic design, authoring and process contml in 2
‘A domain consists of concepts that highlight its mportant expects. Ina graghic design
domain, come of the important concepts are geometric shapes, a drawing surface and a éraving
‘utensil. Tanke are operatious to manipulate the concepts of a domain. A goal is the desired output
‘from a perfomed taak. For example, one task within the graphic desi domain is the
‘construction of a specific gecmerric shape with particular atwibate: on the diawme surface. A
elated geal would eto procace a solid rad tangle centered on the canvas An tention 0 2
specific ation required to meet the eval.
‘The execution-evaluation cyde
‘The interactive cycle can be divided into two major phase: execution and evaluation, These can
then be sabdiviced inte finer etazes, sever in all, The sages m Norman's model of interaction
are as follow:
1 Estblihing the goal
2. Foming the intertion
5. Specifying the action sequence
4 Executagthe aston,
5 Peosiving the syvtem state
6 Interpreting the system sate
7. Evaluating the syiter state with reepect to the gouls and intentions
It is ligble to be imprecise and therefore needs to be ansated into the more specific
intention, andthe actual acions that will reach te goal, before it can be executed by the user The
user percsives the new state ofthe system, after execution of te action sequence, and mterprts i
‘nterms of his expectations Ifthe system stot reflects the user's goal then the computer his done
‘what he warted and the interaction has been successful; ofuervise the user must formulate a new
‘Boal and repeat the cycle.
‘Norman aoss this model of interaction to demonstrate why some interfaces cause problems te
their users. He descabes these in terms of the gulf: of execution and the gulf of evaluation Ac
‘we noted eatlier. the user andthe system: do not use the same terms to describe the domain and
[Deparananeat Computer Seance md Ensen) 2
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HCl
scala remember that we called the lmguage of the system the core lnguage andthe lnguage of
‘Sear the nk laneuaze
‘The gulf of execution isthe difference between the user's formulation ofthe actioas to reach the
geal and the action: allowed by the aysiem. If the actionr allowed by the system comespond to
‘hose intended by the weer, the interaction wil be effective. The interface should therefore aim to
reduce this gulf. The gulf of evaluation isthe distance between the physical presentation of the
system state and the expectatim of the user. [f the user can readily evaluate the presentation mz
‘tems of his goal, the gulf of evaluation i stall. The move effort that is requized on the patt ofthe
suse to inzerpet the presentation, the less effective the interaction.
The interaction framework
‘The interaction framework attempts @ more realistic description of interaction by including
the system expleitly, and breaks it mto four main components. The nodes represent the four
‘major companests ia an interactive system the System, the Use, the Input andthe Output. Each
‘component Las tz own language. In adsition to the User's ten: language and the System's core
language, which we have already introduced, there are languages for both the Ieput and Oxtpur
‘components aput and Output togethar farm the Intrace
°
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