BASIC

Competencies to be used:
 Fundamentals of elections in households appliances
 Electronics tools and components used in common
household appliances
 Interpreting electronic schematic diagrams and symbols
 Analyzing basic electronic circuit troubles in appliances
 Simple electronic circuit repair
 Fundamentals of Electronics
o Conductor of electricity- allows current to flow
freely.
o Insulator materials- does not allow current to flow
o Semi conductor- are materials which serves as
insulator or conductor at certain instances.
o Silicon, gallium, and germanium – are the most
materials used to produce semi-conductor electronic
components by adding or “doping” impurities such as
indium or antimony.
*When the most of the charge carriers are electronics,
the semi conductor is called N-type, because electrons
are negatively charged.
*When the most of the charge carriers are holes, the
semi-conductor material is known as P-type, because
holes have positive charge.
Common electronic Components

 An electronic circuit is composed of different

components that are classified as passive and
active components.
 Passive components or device- are components
that do not generate voltage but controls a
current in a circuit . Examples: resistors,
capacitors inductors, and etc.
 Active components or device- are components
that can generate , amplify, and even control
voltage and current in a circuit. Examples: diode,
transistors, integrated circuits (IC) and etc.
 What is an electronic circuit?
A circuit is a structure that directs and controls electric
currents, presumably to perform some useful functions. The
very name “circuit” implies that the structure is closed,
something like a loop. A circuit has a voltage source, a
load, and a path or the current to flow between the source
and the load. A switch is also installed to open or close the
flow of the current.
 Source- it may be an Alternating Current (AC) or Direct
(DC) source.
 Load- any electrical or electronic appliances or
component connected to the circuit that consumes
power.
 Path- A pair of conductor materials such as copper that
serve as the passage of current in the circuit.
 Switch- a control device connected along the path of
current to turn ON and OFF the circuit.
*Whenever a circuit operates, whether it is an electrical or electronic
circuit, always involves three important properties known as current,
voltage and resistance.

What is an electric circuit?

An “electric current” refers to some type of flow.
And in this case we mean a flow of electric charge.
It may be considered as the flow of electrons
which will generate electric charges. A charge is a
certain electrical condition where electron exert
force on one another. It could be measured in units
called Coulombs abbreviated as C, it comes in
two styles; POSITIVE CHARGE (+) and
NEGATIVE CHARGE(-).
Current is the movement along the electrons. The electrical
symbols of current is I. The basic unit of current is ampere.
It defined as the charges Q(number of coulombs) that
moves past any point in one second at a time. I=Q/T.
Current is measured by an instrument called an ammeter.
An ammeter is connected so that the measured current flow
through meter.
What is voltage?
Voltage is a potential difference that causes charge to flow
from one point to another point. The unit of voltage is the
volt and the symbol is either V or E. Some other names for
voltage are electromotive force(emf) and potential
difference.
Voltage is measured by VOLTMETER.
What is Resistance?

Resistance is the opposition to the movement

of current. The electrical symbol for resistance
is R or Ω. The basic unit is ohm. Fixed
resistors are devices that have a fixed amount
of resistances such as 47 ohms or 1.2
Megaohms. The resistors color code is
system used t mark a small fixed resistor with
its resistance value coded into three, four or
five color bands. Variable resistors are
commonly called potentionmeter or pots.
Resistances is measured with ohmmeter. An
ohmmeter is connected across the resistor after
the resistor is disconnected from the circuit.
 THE CIRCUITS ELEMENTS
 Resistors
-are electronics components that resist the flow if
current or flow of charge of circuit. They are said to
be poor conductors. The value of resistors is
measured in ohms and represented by the Greek
letter capital omega (Ω). Common resistors in use
in electronics today come in power ratings of 2.5W,
5W,1W AND 5W. It is made up of either carbon,
cement, wire-wound, and metal.
Resistor color coding
Resistance values of resistors are often determined
through color bands (either 4-bands or 5-bands)
where each color is represented by equivalent
numbers accept for some types where values are
numerically specified in the body of the resistor.
1st and 2nd band
represents the significant digits (first and
second digit) of the value of the resistor. It is read
and identified as –is.

Multiplier
-this is the third color band. It is used to multiply
the significant digits to find the actual value of the
resistor.
Tolerance
-this is the 4th color band. It is the basis in
identifying the allowable resistance more or less
than the actual resistance.
Example:
BROWN-RED-BROWN-SILVER
1 2 0 +/-10%
Value Reading = 120 ohms
Rated Value = 120 +/- 10%
10% of 120 = 12
Lowest allowed value
120 – 12 = 12
Highest allowed value
120 + 12 = 132
Measured resistance = 125 ohms
Conclusion: Resistor is GOOD
Resistors in Series and Parallel
Resistors in series ADD together as R1 + R2 + R3…
Consider three resistors of 10, 22, and 47 ohms
respectively.
Added in series we get 10 Ω + 22 Ω + 47 Ω = 79 Ω.

While resistors in parallel REDUCE by:

1/ (1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 +…)
In parallel we would get:
1/ (1 / 10 Ω + 1 / 22 Ω + 1 / 47 Ω) = 5.997 Ω

Note that the result is always LESS than the original lowest
value.
Testing Resistors
Use a VOM to test the condition of a resistor.
*Open – no deflection of the VOM pointer in any setting.
*Shorted – VOM pointer deflects to zero resistance in any
setting.
*High Resistance- measure value is less than the lowest
allowed value.
-Good Resistor-
The meter reading should be closed to the rated value of
the resistor depending on the tolerance of the resistor.
-Defective resistor-
 the tester pointer does not defect all. The resistor is
OPEN.
 The resistance reading has a big difference to the
resistor rated value. The resistor has a change value.
 CAPACITORS
- Is an electric device consisting of two plates
separated by an insulator called “dielectric” an has
a capability to charge voltage. It is formerly called
condenser which has the ability to hold a charge
electrons. The number of electrons it can be hold
under the given electrical pressure (voltage) is
called its capacitance or capacity. The unit uF
stands for micro-farad (one millionth) and pF
stands for pico- farad(one millionths)
 Rating is expressed in “capacitance value or
capacitance” and working voltage”
 Capacitance is expressed in FARAD(Pico farad or
micofarad)
 Working voltage is expressed in volts

ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR
Ploar- with polarity (+ & -)
Non-polar – without polarity
TYPES OF CAPACITOR
Ceramic disk mica

Air Capacitor
Ganged Air
Capacitor
Kinds of capacitor according to use:
 WV (AC)- capacitor with low capacitance, high working
voltage(usually used in electrical circuit) Ex: capacitors
used in electric fans.
 WC(DC)- capacitor with high capacitance, high working
voltage(usually used in electronic circuit)

Capacitors in Series and Parallel

 Capacitors in parallel ADD together as C1 +C2 + C3 +…

Consider three capacitor of 10,22,47 uF respectively.
Added in parallel we get 10+22+47=79 uF.
 While capacitor in series REDUCE by:
1/ (1/ C1 + 1/ C2 + 1/ C3 +…)
In series we would get: 1/ (1/10 + 1/ 22 + 1 / 47)=5.997 uF.
Note that the result is always less than the original lowest
value.
Testing Capacitors
USE VOM to test capacitors

Analog Tester Digital Tester

VOM SETTING IN TESTING THE CAPACITORS:
01 MFD to .9 MFD – set to R x 10K
MFD to 100 MFD – set to R x 1K
100 MFD to 1000 MFD – Set to R x 10
1000 MFD to 6,800 MFD – set to R x 1
Test Indicators of capacitors:
 Open capacitors- no deflection of VOM pointer on either
side.
 Shorted capacitor – VOM pointer deflects to the right a
certain point but do not deflect back to infinity.
 Leaky Capacitor – VOM pointer deflects to the right at a
certain point but do not deflect back to infinity
 Good Capacitor- VOM pointer deflects to the right at a
certain value and deflects back to the left towards infinity.
 Testing Diode
• Use a VOM test a diode set at ohms or resistance setting
R x 1 or R x 10.

• Test Indicators of diode:

* Shorted diode – VOM pointer deflects to zero ohms at
any setting of the test prods.
* Open diode – VOM pointer stays at Infinity or does not
deflect to the right at any setting of the test prods.
* Leaky diode – VOM pointer deflect to a certain point
at both forward and reverse bias.
* Good diode – VOM pointer deflects to a certain point
when positive test prod is connected the cathode and the
negative test prod is connected to the anode. It will not
deflect when the connection of the test prods is reversed.
Forward bias – when electrons or current is applied to
the cathode. ( It will permit the flow of current.)
Reverse bias – when electrons or current is applied to
the anode. ( It will not permit the flow of current.)
TRNSISTOR – the word transistor is a combination or
contraction of “CURRENT TRNSFERRING RESISTOR”.
* The transistor was developed at Bell Laboratories in
1948.
* Generally transistor fall into the category of bipolar
transistor, either the NPN transistor or the PNP transistor
types.
* It is a device consisting of semiconductor materials
like germanium and silicon which is used as detector,
amplifier, oscillator, or switch.
Elements of Transistor:
Base – (B)
Emitter – (E)
Collector – (C)
Basically transistors are made of two back-to-back
diodes in reverse series. You can’t normally connect two
diodes this way and get a working transistor, but the
analogy is good for modeling the behavior of bipolar
transistor.

Types bipolar transistor

A dual-diode NPN transistor model is shown in these
figures. The base is formed by the connection of the two
anodes. The emitter is one of the cathodes, and the
collector is the other cathode.
 A dual-diode PNP transistor model is shown in these
figures. The base is formed by the connection of the two
cathodes. The emitter is one of the anodes, and the
collector of the other anode.
Note:
- The arrow points where the negative is.
- The supply is connected to the emitter and
collector.

Biasing NPN and PNP Transistor:

Normal method of biasing NPN transistor is to
have the collector voltage positive with respect to the
emitter. The dc voltage for transistor power supply
range from 3 V and about 50 V. However, the typical
voltage is 12 V. For a PNP transistor, the situation is a
mirror image of the case for an NPN device. The
diodes are reversed, the arrow points inward rather
than outward in the transistor symbol, and all the
polarities are reversed.
2 Kinds of electronic circuit identified by its transistor
1. Negative Ground – if transistor is connected to chassis
without mica insulator. ( At least 90% possibility that
transistors connected are NPN.)

2. Positive Ground – if transistor is connected to chassis

with mica insulator. ( At least 90% possibility that transistors
connected is PNP.)

Testing Transistor:
Use a VOM to test transistor with a range setting of R x 1.

Characteristics of a good diode transistor as tested by a

VOM
(+) – Positive test prod of VOM
(-) – Negative test prod of VOM
B – Base
C – Collector
E – Emitter
LR – Low resistance
HR – High resistance

For NPN transistor (2SC and 2SD)

(-) B, (+) E = LR
(-) B, (+) C = LR
(+) B, (-) E = HR
(+) B, (-) C = HR
(-) C, (+) E = HR
(+) C, (-) E = HR
For PNP transistors (2SA and 2SB)
(+) B, (-) E = LR
(+) B, (-) C = LR
(-) B, (+) E = HR
(-) B, (+) C = HR
(+) C, (-) E = HR
(-) C, (+) E = HR
Common defects of transistor
• Open
• Shorted
• Leaky
Open transistor
* The tester pointer does not deflect in the base to
emitter or base to collector.

Integrated Circuit or IC sometimes called CHIPS

- it is an electronic device or component that is
composed of two or more components integrated in
one package. It may be composed of individuals
transistors, diodes, capacitors and resistors.
Integrated Circuit or IC sometimes called CHIPS
- it is an electronic device or component
that is composed of two or more components
integrated in one package. It may be
composed of individuals transistors, diodes,
capacitors and resistors.
Advantages of IC Technology
1. Compactness – it is designed to economize space.
2. High speed – the inter connections among the
components within an IC are physically tiny, making
high switching speeds possible.
3. Low power consumption – they use less power than
equivalent discrete-component circuits. It produces less
heat which therefore translates into better efficiency.
4. Reliability – IC circuits fail less often, per component
hour of use than systems that use discrete components.
5. Ease of maintenance – repair procedures are simplified
when failures occur. Many appliances use sockets for
ICs, and replacement simply a matter of finding the
faulty IC, unplugging it, and plugging a new one.
6. Modular construction – in this scheme, individual ICs,
perform defined function within a circuit board; the
circuit board or card, in turn fits into a socket and has
specific purpose.
Kinds of IC
1. Linear IC – it is used to process analog signals such as
voices, music, and radio transmissions. Examples:
Operational Amplifier or Op Amp differentiator
(differentiator), Op Amp Integrator ( integrator ),
voltage regulator IC, timer IC, Multiplexer IC,
Comparator IC.
2. Digital IC also sometimes called digital logic IC – it
operates using two discrete states; High (logic 1) and
Low (logic 0). It contains massive arrays of logic gates
that perform Boolean operations at high speed.
Examples: Transistor- Transistor logic or TTL, Emitter-
coupled logic or ELC, Metal-oxide semiconductor logic
– (MOS – metal-oxide semiconductor), (NMOS – N-
channel MOS, CMOS, complimentary mental-oxide
semiconductor).
3. Memory IC – Binary digital data, in the form of high and
low levels (logic ones and zeros), can be stored in memory
ICs. The data can be easily changed and stored back in
RAM. It takes various physical forms such as:
a. Random Access Memory (RAM) chip – which is
sometimes called read/write memory. It is categorized
into dynamic RAM (SRAM) and static RAM (SRAM).
b. Read-only Memory (ROM) chip – which can be easily
accessed, in whole or in part, but not easily written
over. Example: erasable-programmable ROM (EPROM)
chip which is an IC whose memory is of the read only
type, but that can be re programmed by a certain
procedure.
 MAGNETISM –

Anything that attracts steel or iron is a magnet and

this attraction ability is called magnetism.

The operation of practically all appliances like

transformers, radios, television, loudspeaker, disc player
and many other depends much on magnetism.
Principle of magnetism
1. Opposite magnetic poles attract each other. (Law
Attraction)
2. Like magnetic poles repel each other. (Low Repulsion)
3. Magnetic lines of force do not cross each other but
tend to be closely in parallel outline with the others.
4. The attracting power of the magnet is generally
greatest at its two ends.
5. There is no known insulator for magnetic lines; they
penetrate or pass through all substances.
6. Magnet lines tend to select the shortest magnet path.
7. Magnet lines pass easily through magnetizable
substances.
8. Two magnetic lines that extend in the same direction
tend to exert a sidewise thrust against each other.
ELECTROMAGNETISM
It is the production of a magnetic field by current in a any
piece of a iron or steel can be made as electromagnet by
winding an insulated copper wire it and allow current to
pass though wire.
It is dependent on the source of current. When the power
line is turn OFF, the electromagnet is also cut OFF.

TRANSFORMER
Is a device for converting a varying current from one
voltage to another.
Step-up transformer – a transformer with high output
voltage derived from a low input voltage.
The low voltage current is passed through a primary coil of
a few thick turns wound on an iron core. An alternating
magnetic field is thus created, and this produces by mutual
induction a high voltage current secondary coil consisting
of a large number of turns of a thin wire, the ratio of the
voltage being roughly equal to that of the number of turns
in the two coils.

Step-down transformer – a transformer with low output

voltage derived from a high input voltage.
The process is the opposite of that in a step-up transformer.

Induction type transformer – the primary windings and the

secondary windings are not electrically connected with
one another.

Auto type transformer – the primary and the secondary

windings are electrically connected.
POWER SUPPLIES
• A power supply is the source of power for an electronic
circuit which may be AC, battery, solar cell or other
sources.
• A power supply is an energy source use to operate
electrical and electronic devices.
• A battery is one type of power supply that converts
chemical energy into electrical energy.
• An electronic power supply converts commercial energy
(ac from the power company) to regulate dc at various
voltage levels.
• It is consist of transformers (either step-up or step-down),
rectifier diodes, capacitors, resistors, inductors, and other
related components and devices.
TYPICAL PARTS OF A REGULATED
POWER SUPPLY

Schematic
Diagram
Block
Diagram
Parts of a Regulated Power Supply

 Input plug
 Fuse or
Breaker
 Transient
suppressor
 Transformer
 Rectifier
 Filter
 Voltage
regulator
Fuse
is a piece of soft
wire that melts,
breaking a circuit
if the current
exceeds a certain
level. It is placed
in series with the
Circuit breaker
performs the same
function as a fuse,
except that a breaker
can be reset, by
turning off the power
supply, waiting a
moment, and then
pressing a button or
flipping a switch.
Transient suppressor
is a device, usually a ceramic
capacitor of about 0.01 µF rated for
600 volts or more connected
between each side of the
transformer primary and the
electrical ground or chassis ground.
It suppresses or prevents sudden
voltage spikes from reaching levels
where they can cause problems
especially in sensitive electronic
devices such as computers, hi – fi
stereo systems and television sets.
Transformer
are electrical or
electronic components
used to obtain the
optimum voltage for the
operation of a circuit or
system. All transformers
work according to the
principle of
electromagnetic
induction.
A transformer has two windings along with a
core on which they are wound. First is the
primary winding (often called primary), and the
second is the secondary winding (often called
secondary).
A rectifier

Is a component such
as selenium diode
that converts
alternating current to
pulsating direct
current.
Half Wave Rectifier
A single diode circuit
that passes one half of
an AC wave and
blocks the other half.

Full Wave Rectifier

A double diode circuit
that produces a positive
half wave peak in one
direction for each half of
an AC wave.
Bridge type Rectifier

A four – diode
circuit that
produces a clean
positive half wave
peak in one
direction for each
half of an AC
wave.
A filter
Is a component in a
power supply, usually
a large value
electrolytic capacitor Frequency
connected in parallel filter

with the output that

eliminates pulsations
or ripple in the rectifier
Cerami
output of power
Servo c filter
supply. extension filter
Voltage regulator

Is a device or component
connected at the output of
a power supply to regulate
dc voltage or adsorb
excessive or sudden surge
of current. Component
such as a zener diode
connected in parallel with
the output of a power
supply limits the output
voltage.
 BASIC ELECTRONIC TOOLS

 Screw drivers – used to drive or fasten screws.

 Hexagonal Allen Keys – a set of small screws with

hexagonal slots.
Precision Screw driver set – a set of small screw
drivers used for various screw head slots.
 Soldering Tools – used to solder or attached electronic
components to a circuit board.

Soldering Iron
Soldering Stand
Iron

Desoldering
Pump
 Pliers

Long Nose – used for holding bending and stretching the lead
of electronic component or connecting wires.

Side Cutter – used to cut wires land component leads

Wire Stripper – used to strip wire insulators.
Boring Tools
 Volt Mini – drill

used to bore or
drill holes in the
printed circuit
board (PCB).

 Portable Electric Drill

used for boring
holes in the
plastic or metal
chassis.
Measuring / Testing Instrument

 Analog Multimeters or volt – ohm – meter

(VOM)

an electronic
measuring
instrument that
combines several
functions in one
unit.
 Digital Multimeters

Abbreviated as
DMM. Displays
the units in clear
numerals
BASIC ELECTRONIC SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS
Wires and connections

Component Circuit Symbol Function of

Component

Wire To pass current very

easily from one part of
a circuit to another.

Wires joined A “blob” should be

drawn where wires
are connected at
crossroads should be
staggered slightly to
form two T – junctions,
as shown on the right.
Wires and connections

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

Wires not joined In complex diagrams it is

often necessary to draw
wires crossing even
though they are not
connected. I preferred
the bridge symbol shown
on the right because the
simple crossing on the left
may be misread as a join
where you have
forgotten to add a blob.
Power Supply / Source
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

Cell It supplies eternal energy.

The larger Terminal (on
the left) is positive(+).
A single cell is often
called a battery but
strictly a battery is two or
more

Battery it supplies electrical

energy. A battery is more
than one cell.
The larger terminal (on
the left ) is positive (+).
Power Supply / Source

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

DC supply It supplies electrical

energy.
DC – Direct Current,
always flowing in one
direction.

AC supply It supplies electrical

energy.
AC – Alternating
Current, continually
changing direction.
Power Supply / Source

Component Circuit Symbol Function of

Component

Fuse A safety device

which will blow
(melt) if the current
flowing through it
exceeds a
specified value.
Switches

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

 Push Switch A push switch allows

(Push – to – make) current to flow only
when the button is
pressed. This is the
switch used to operate
a doorbell.

 Push – to – Break This type of push switch

Switch is normally closed (on),
it is open (off) only
when the button is
Switches
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

 On – Off Switch SPST – Single Pole, Single Throw.

(SPST) An on- off switch allows current to
flow only when it is in the closed
(on) position.

 2 – way Switch SPDT – Single Pole, Double Throw.

(SPDT) A 2 – way changeover switch
directs the flow of current to one
of two routes according to its
position. Some SPDT switches
have a central off position and
are neutral connections.
Switches

Component Circuit Symbol Function of

Component

 Dual On – Off DPST – Double Pole,

Switch Single Throw.
(DPST) A dual on – off
switch is often used
to switch mains
electricity because
it can isolate both
the live and neutral
connections.
Output Devices / Loads: Lamps, Heater, Motor
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

o Lamo flighting A transducer which

converts electrical energy
to light. This symbol is used
for a lamp providing
illumination, for example
a car headlamp or torch
bulb.

o Lamo indicator A transducer which

converts electrical energy
to light. This symbol is used
for a lamp which is an
indicator, for example a
Output Devices / Loads: Lamps, Heater, Motor

Component Circuit Symbol Function of

Component

o Heater A transducer which

converts electrical
energy to heat.

o Motor A transducer which

converts electrical
energy to kinetic
energy (motion).
Output Devices / Loads: Lamps, Heater, Motor

Component Circuit Symbol Function of

Component

o Bell A transducer which

converts electrical
energy to sound.

o Buzzer A transducer which

converts electrical
energy to sound.
Output Devices / Loads: Lamps, Heater, Motor
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

o Inductor A coil of wire which

(Coil Solenoid) creates a magnetic field
when current passes
through it. It may have an
iron core inside the coil. It
can be used as a
transducer converting
electrical energy to
mechanical energy by
pulling on something.
Wiring Diagram

shows actual wiring connections of devices

and components through graphic illustration.
Pictorial Diagram

the circuit connections are shown using

pictorial illustrations of component parts and
devices.
 Block Diagram

the circuit is illustrated using lines and labeled

figures like squares, triangles, and rectangles to
illustrate the sections of the circuit.

Block
Diagram of
Motherboar
d
Schematic Diagram

the circuit is illustrated using

combination of lines and electronic
graphic symbols of the components and
devices.
HOW TO INTERPRET SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS

Schematic Diagrams

uses graphic symbols to show the

component used and their
interconnections in the circuit. Each
graphic symbols is accompanied with a
reference to distinguish it from the other
similar symbols.
The reference designation is the number or letter
nearest the graphic symbol. Their values are
sometimes indicated in the diagram or it can
also be stated in the parts list.
For example:
SPKR – 8 ohms, 5 watts, 2 – inch diameter
– positive voltage
– 470 uf / 16 volts electrolytic
capacitor
– 9013 NPN audio output transistor
– 10 k ohms + -5% ¼ watt resistor
 A radio receiver is an electronic device or equipment that picks up
electromagnetic signals from space or air and reproduces the sound
sent by the transmitter.

Amplitude modulation (AM) -> 530KHz- 1600KHz

Frequency modulation (FM) -> 108MHz

Frequency multiplexing -> (FM MUX) or stereo

 Radio wave-> is an electromagnetic energy vibration.
-> It travels at a speed of 300 million m/sec or 186
thousand miles per second.
Lower frequency – (longer wave)
Higher frequency- (shorter wave)

Reception -> allows transmitted radio frequencies to enter through the

antenna of radio receiver.
Selection -> a variable capacitor is internally installed to select the
desired frequency of all transmitted signal at a given time.
Detection-> removes the audio signal for amplification from the carrier
signal. It also separates the high and the low signal in the circuit.
Amplification-> the process of increasing or amplifying radio frequency
at an operation level for the loudspeaker.
Reproduction -> a radio receiver must be able to reproduce the original
sound that has been transmitted by the radio transmitter.
Block diagram of a radio receiver(AM)

speaker

Power supply
 How a Radio Operates
 Antenna -> is made up of two coils of very thin wire which are then
turned into a coil around a ferrite core bar. It is used to intercept and
collect the radio signals coming from the transmitters of radio
stations.
 Tuning Capacitor -> part of the radio that we rotate to select a radio
station.
 Local Oscillator -> part of the radio that produces a high frequency
signal that is to be combined to produce an intermediate frequency.
 Mixer Converter -> its function is to mix selected radio signal from the
antenna and the local oscillator signal to produce the required
intermediate signal.
 Intermediate frequency section -> section that maintains the
selectivity of the radio receiver and prevents the other signal to enter
when turned to a selected station.
 Detector -> section that converts the intermediate frequency to
audio frequency signal.
 Amplifier section -> amplifies the audio frequency signal to a more
audible lever.
 Loudspeaker -> converts the electrical signal into sound.
 Power supply -> delivers the necessary power for all the stages of the
radio.
Tuning
capacitor RF mixer
converter
 Stages in an (AM) radio receiver
 Stage 1 -RF Mixer converter transistors stage
Antenna coil, RF Mixer converter transistors, Tuning capacitor, Oscillator
coil (with red slug)
 Stage 2 – First IF amplifier stage
Yellow IF transformer (1st), White IF transformer (2nd), First IF transistor
(between yellow and white transformer)
 Stage 3 – Second IF amplifier stage
Black IF transformer (3rd), transistor
 Stage 4 – Detector stage
Signal diode (crystal)
 Stage 5 – Amplifier stage
Pre-amplifier, Driver, Audio amplifier, Speaker

Tuner Section -> from stage 1-4

Audio Section -> stage 5

  Television means “to see at a distance”. The visual information is
converted to an electric video signal by means of a camera tube or
the screen of the picture tube of the receiver. The picture is
reproduced as shades of white, light gray, medium gray or black in
black and white televisions.
 In television broadcasting, signals are sent out in all directions. The
transmitting antenna radiates electromagnetic waves that can be
pick up by the receiving antenna. The radiation is in the form of two
RF carrier waves, modulated by the desired information.

• TV transmitters are actually two separate transmitters.

The video or picture signals is amplitude modulated (AM) into a carrier.

The audio or sound transmitter is frequency modulated (FM).

 Picture tube

Television Set
 TV Camera -> acts a transducer. It converts light energy to
electric energy.
 Picture Tube -> also known as the CRT (Cathode Ray Tube).
 Microphone and Speaker -> are the input and output transducer
of the sound.
 Electron Beam -> retrace and scans a video line at 525 times per
second.
 Field -> a set of odd and even lines of scanning.
 Interlaced scanning -> scanning of lines from left to right and from
bottom to top and back to the top center of the screen.
 Horizontal retrace -> left to right scanning.
The horizontal oscillator runs at 15,750 hz during horizontal scanning.
 Vertical retrace -> top to bottom scanning.
The vertical oscillator runs at 60 hc during vertical scanning.
Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Design,
Layout and Etching
 Printed Circuit Board or (PCB) to some hobbyist are the
base of electronic circuit. It means that electronic
components are mounted, assembled, and internally
wired for connection in this board. Production of these
boards is essential for hobbyist.
 Designing of the PCB
 Refers to the foil pattern drawn on the board using an etch resistant
material such as a permanent marker, masking tape and transfer or
even laser prints.
 The board with the laid out design is then submerged to a chemical
solution such as ferric chloride to dissolve the exposed part of the
PCB. This process is known as etching. Etching is the process of
dissolving a certain material through chemicals.

1. Prepare the detailed design of the foil pattern in full scale

drawing.
2. Cut the appropriate size of the phenolic board for the design.
3. Wash copper side of the phenolic board with detergent soap.
4. Cover copper side with masking tape or transfer the design to
the copper side a water proof fine tip pentel pen.
5. Trace the actual design using a carbon paper on the copper
side with a masking tape.
 6. Cut away all supposed uncovered portion of the design using NT
cutter.
 7. Immerse the board in an etching solution. ( ferric chloride)
 8. gently agitate the container until all unwanted copper on
substrate is dissolved.
 9. Remove the board from the solution then rinse with running water.
 10. Remove the masking tape or the ink with a cloth dip in lacquer
thinner.
 11. Apply a thin coat of natural varnish on the copper side to avoid
oxidation.
 12. Mark and drill the required lead holes using a 1/32 inches drill bit.
 13. Mount the component in the PCB and solder.

It is the process of joining two metals by means of a pre-heat

soldering iron and a solder materials such as lead.
 Soldering
 It is the process of joining two metals by means of a pre-heat
soldering iron and a solder materials such as lead.
 In electronics, it is the process of mounting and attaching electronic
components to a wire to one another or to a printed circuit board
using a pre-heat low wattage soldering iron and a soldering lead.

1. Mount the components correctly in the printed circuit board.

2. Clean the materials or component to be soldered.
3. Clean the tip of the soldering iron and pre-heat to avoid cold
solder.
4. Tip the pre-heated tip of the soldering iron using a soldering flux
and a small amount of lead. This process is called tinning.
5. Bring into contact with the soldering iron tip both the terminals of
the component and the materials where it will be soldered.
6. Apply the soldering lead to the hot contacts then remove the
soldering iron. Do not blow hot solder.
7. Use heat sink connected to terminals of sensitive components
before soldering to avoid damage due to high temperature.
An acid materials used to clean metals to be soldered. Rosin Flux is
commonly used in electronics soldering and usually imbedded in
between soldering lead.

The process of cleaning and applying a thin coat of solder on the tip
of the pre-heat soldering iron.

What is troubleshooting?
• It is the process of finding faults in electronic appliances or devices
that cause functional difficulty and faulty operation.
• It is associated with analysis and/or diagnosis of what is happening
in the circuit or unit.
Reasons or causes of troubles or breakdowns
• Most troubles or breakdowns are probably directly or indirectly a
result of abuse or lack of maintenance.
Basic causes of troubles and breakdowns
 Heat –too much heat usually causes breakdowns of components or
devises.
 Moisture –it may cause circuits to draw more current and eventually
breakdown.
 Dirt and Contaminants – fumes, vapors, abrasives, soot, grease, and
oils, are materials that causes electronic/electrical devises to “clog”
or “gum” up and operate abnormally until they finally break down.
 Abnormal or excessive movement - vibration and physical abuse
are the leading causes of this type of breakdown.
 Poor installation – this is often the work of an unqualified technician or
one who is careless or in a hurry.
 Animals and rodents – rodents chew on electrical wires or got caught
in motors or live electrical circuits
 Effects of breakdowns
 Short – this basically result when the current takes a direct path across its
source. Typical sign of short circuit are; blown fuses, increased heat, low
voltage, high amperage, smoke.
 Open – this result from an incomplete circuit. There may be a break in the
circuit which prevent the current from flowing in a complete path. Typical
signs include; infinite resistance, zero amperage, device completely
dead or inoperable.
 Ground – this result when a defect in the insulator or placement of a wire
or component causes the current to take an incorrect or abnormal route
in the circuit. It can cause shocks or even electrocution. Typical signs are;
abnormal amperage readings, abnormal voltage reading, abnormal
resistance reading, shocks, and abnormal circuit performance.
 Mechanical fault; this may result from too much friction, wear abuse, or
vibration where the physical part of an electrical or electronic devise
causes the breakdown. Broken belts, worn bearings, loose bolts, worn
contacts, damaged chassis and broken controls are common examples
of mechanical problem. Typical signs are; noisy operation, abnormal
operation, and circuit failure.
Most troubleshooting problem can found by
the used of one or all the following senses
 Sight – visual inspection of the parts if there are cracks,
breaks or deformities in the components or parts.
 Smell – burned components such as transformers, wires
and cable, insulations, and capacitors may give
direction to the serviceman in the troubleshooting
operation.
 Touch – many technicians rely on their sense of touch.
Familiarity with the characteristics of the different
components may guide a technicians, component like
ICs should never be hot when touched otherwise it
indicates a short circuit.
 Hearing – an abnormal noise during operation of the
device or product may indicate a trouble.
Basic troubleshooting
techniques
 Voltage measurement – usually taken by using a voltmeter or an
oscilloscope.
 Amperage measurements – it is usually done by using an ammeter
or a clamp-on meter.
 Resistance measurement – using an ohmmeter to test continuity,
resistance of a circuit or resistance of a component.
 substitution- - this simply means replacing a suspected faulty
component with a known good one.
 Bridging – when a technicians suspects a component (usually a
capacitor) to be faulty, he/she jumps or replaces a known a good
component across the suspected faulty component from the
circuit.
 Heat – applying to a suspected thermal intermittent component.
 Freeze – it got its name from the use of cold air from a fan or a
chemical coolant to temporarily restore a thermal intermittent
component to normal operation.
 Signal tracing or injection – usually used in troubleshooting radios
where the technicians injects a signal into the malfunctioning
receiver in order to locate the specific inoperable stage.
 Component testers and test lamp – use of test instruments such as
ohmmeter, test lamps, and other electrical or electronic testers.
 Resoldering/adjusting/aligning – cold solder make cause trouble,
thus resoldering is necessary. Adjusting /aligning biases maybe
employed if needed.
 Bypassing – requires unplugging one of the several circuits to
observe the effect on he performance of the circuit and identify
suspected problems.
Difference between troubleshooting and
repair
Troubleshooting – is the process of problem solving. When the technicians
has identified the cause of the problem, he then decides how to repair it.
Repair – is the process employing a solution to the identify problem.
Approaches to troubleshooting
 Defining the problem
 Investigating the problem
 Analyzing the information
 Determining the cause of the problem
Some questions that should be asked of a customer or operator
 When did the problem occur?
 What symptoms, noises, smells were noticed when the defect occurred?
 Under what conditions did the defect occur?
 Where did the defect occur?
 Which parts of the product were okay?
 To what degree of the product is defective?
 Steps one should use to
analyze the problem.(Tomal
Discuss defect occurrence
and Gedeon)with owner
Compare the problem with
past experience

Isolate the problem using Obtain manufacturer’s

your senses diagrams

Select best troubleshooting

Correctly repair the problem

Test the repaired item