What is LASER?

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation is abbreviated as LASER. It is

discovered by Scientist Maiman in 1960.

Characteristics of LASER beam

1. Monochromatic (narrow line width)
2. Directive
3. Coherent
4. Extremely small divergence

LASER

LED

LAMP

Figure-1. Schematic of three light sources showing the directivity of the light emitted from
the sources.

How to achieve LASER? Follow the steps sequentially!

Absorption transition or induced absorption:
The transition of an atom from lower energy state E1 to an excited higher energy state E2 by
absorbing photons of energy (E2 – E1) is said absorption transition. The process depends on
the number of photons available at that time and also the number of atoms available at the
lower level E1. Absorption process can not be spontaneous.

E2
E0 = hν0

E1
Absorption

Figure-2. Schematic representation of absorption transition.

The rate of absorption transition from level-1 to level-2

R12 = B12 ρ(ν) N1

The term B12 is a proportionality constant and is known as Einstein coefficient of induced
absorption or absorption transition. The term ρ(ν) refers to photon density. N1 is the number
of atoms available at energy level-1.
Spontaneous Emission:
When an atom is excited from lower energy level to higher energy level, the atom shortly
thereafter relaxes to lower level in about 10-8 second by emitting photon in all possible
direction. If the higher and lower energy levels are denoted as E2 and E1 respectively then the
emitted photon will have energy E= hν. Where h is the Planck constant and ν = frequency of
the photon.

E2 Photon
emission in
E0 = hν0 all direction
E = hν
E1
Absorption Emission

Figure-3. Schematic representation of spontaneous emission.

The rate of spontaneous emission or transition depends on the number of atoms (N2) in the
excited state (E2). It is expressed as

R21 = A21N2

A21 is known as Einstein Coefficient for spontaneous emission and is the probability of a
spontaneous transition from level-2 to level-1.

Characteristics of spontaneous emission:

1. It is probabilistic in nature and can not be controlled from outside.
2. Randomly polarized.
3. Emission in all possible direction.
4. Polychromatic in nature
5. Random phase i.e., incoherent
6. Total light intensity Itotal = NI, where N is the total number of radiating atoms and I
is the intensity of light emitted by one atom.

Stimulated Emission:
When an atom already existed in the excited state is forced by other photons to emit photons
then the emission is said to be stimulated emission. In this case the atom does not wait for the
spontaneous emission. It interacts with the photons of energy (E2 – E1 = hν) and make
downward transition.
Downward transition rate of stimulated emission depends on the number of excited atoms in
E2 state and number of photons of energy hν available at that time. Mathematically it can be
written as

R21stimulated = B21 ρ(ν) N2

Here B21 is the proportionality constant and is known as Einstein coefficient for stimulated
emission. N2 indicates the number of atoms available at energy level-2.
 E2 Photon emitted in the
direction of
E = hν stimulating photons
E = hν
E1
Absorption Emission

Figure-4. Schematic representation of stimulated emission.

Characteristics of stimulated emission:

1. This process can be controlled (excitation) from outside.
2. Polarization is that of stimulating photons.
3. Directive, i.e. the direction of emitted photon is same as that of stimulating photons.
4. Monochromatic in nature.
5. Constant phase i.e., coherent.
6. Multiplication of photons, i.e. one stimulating photon induces emission of two
photons, and these two emitted stimulating photons cause emission of four stimulated
photons, and so on.
7. Light amplification, i.e. emitted photons will interfere constructively to give higher
intensity.
8. Total light intensity Itotal = N2I, where N is the total number of radiating atoms and I
is the intensity of light emitted by one atom.

Relation between Einstein coefficients

In thermal equilibrium, the mean population N1 and N2 in the lower and upper energy
levels, respectively must remain constant.
OR
The number of upward transition should be equal to number of downward transition.

Absorption transition rate = spontaneous transition rate + stimulated transition rate

B12 ρ(ν)N1 = A21N2 + B21ρ(ν)N2

ρ(ν) = A21N2/(B112N1 – B21N2)

ρ(ν) = A21/(B12N1/N2 – B21)

ρ(ν) = [A21/B12]/[ N1/N2 – B21/B12]

As, N2/N1 = EXP-(E2 – E1)/kT

Where k is Boltzmann constant, T is absolute temperature

We can write, ρ(ν) = [A21/B12]/[ {EXP(E2 – E1)/kT} – B21/B12]…………………(1)

To maintain thermal equilibrium the system must release energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. This radiation be identical to Black Body Radiation. We
considered Planck’s black body radiation formula as

ρ(ν) = [8πhν3µ 3/c3]*[1/{EXP{(E2 – E1)/kT} – 1}]…………………(2)

Comparing equations (1) and (2),

We get A21/B12 = 8πhν3µ 3/c3 …………………………..(3)

And B21/B12 = 1 …………………………………….(4)

The relations in equations (3) and (4) are known as Einstein Relations.

The coefficients B12, B21, and A21 are known as Einstein Coefficients.

B12 = B21 = (c3/8π ν3µ3)*A21 ……………………….(5)

πhν

Population inversion:
In thermal equilibrium condition, N1 is always greater than N2 and the population in E2 level
is governed by Boltzmann formula. To achieve high stimulated emission N2 must exceed N1.
If by some means one can increase N2 momentarily the system will be in non-equilibrium
condition. Non-equilibrium condition is achieved by employing pumping techniques to
transfer large number of atoms to higher energy level E2 from E1.

N2/N1 = EXP-(E2 – E1)/kT

E2 E2
E = hν E = hν

E1 E1
Absorption Absorption

Normal state, thermal equilibrium Inverted state, non-equilibrium

condition (N1 > N2) condition (N2 > N1)
Figure-5. Population inversion.

When a system is in population inversion condition, a few randomly emitted photons trigger
stimulated emission of photons. The emitted stimulated photons now further trigger
stimulated emission of photons, and so on. Thus in a short time light gets amplified, and a
cascade of light photons are produced which are highly coherent.
Requirements for lasing action:

1. Active medium and metastable states

2. Pump and threshold (loss compensation)
3. Optical resonant cavity

Pumping source

Active
Medium Laser

100% Semi
Reflecting Mirror Reflecting Mirror

Figure-6. Schematic of Lasing action. The cavity formed by two mirrors as inside the dotted
box is called cavity. Cavity length (mirror to mirror distance) is appropriately chosen
matching with the laser wavelength.

If Stimulated photons travel a distance L (distance between two mirrors) and reach to semi-
reflecting mirror, then after reflection back to active medium the intensity of the beam would
be
I(L) = r1* I0 exp (γ-α)L
where I0 is the initial intensity, and γ and α are amplification factor and loss factor,
respectively. The term r1 is the reflection coefficient of semi-reflecting mirror.

Similarly the intensity after one round trip, i.e. after the reflection from 100% reflecting
mirror can take of the form

I(2L) = r1r2 * I0 exp (γ-α)2L

Then gain after one round trip, G = I(2L)/I0 = r1 r2 exp (γ-α)2L

The lasing action to start, G should be greater than 1

r1 r2 exp (γ-α)2L >1

exp (γ-α)2L >1/ r1 r2

(γ-α)2L > ln (1/ r1 r2)

Therefore, for threshold, γ = α + (1/2L)*ln (1/ r1 r2), this is the condition for lasing.
Types of pumping:
Pumping of energy levels to achieve population inversion and lasing there are two pumping
schemes being used.

1. Optical pumping (such as for ruby laser)

2. Electric pumping (electrical discharge, such as in the case of He-Ne Laser)

Pumping schemes:

Based on the energy levels associated with the active medium there are (a) three level and (b)
four level pumping schemes being used widely.

1. Three level pumping scheme:

Pumping
E3
level

E2 Metastable
E = hν level
E = hν

E1
Absorption Emission
Figure-7. Schematic of three level laser system.

The ground level is denoted as E1. A suitable pump energy will take atoms to energy level E3.
And metastable state is denoted by E2. Metastable state is responsible for the laser emission.
This energy level is must for lasing action to start. During pumping a large number of atoms
will move to E3 level. But the life time at E3 is short (~nano seconds). So, the excited atoms
rapidly undergo downward transition to E2 level. As life time at E2 is relatively larger (mili to
micro seconds) the atoms start to accumulate at E2. In short time there will be a situation
when more than half of the atoms at E1 will be at E2. This will be the case of population
inversion. Now a single photon can trigger atom at E2 to initiate stimulated emission from E2.
The energy of stimulated emission will be the difference in energy of level 2 and 1.
2. Four level pumping scheme:

A schematic view of four level laser system is presented as in Figure-8. Here E1 is ground
level, E4 is pumping level, E3 metastable lasing level and E2 as another excited level. During
the pumping process a large number of atoms will move to E4 excited level, where, because
of short life time (a few seconds) excited atoms can not stay for longer time at E4, and
quickly they will undergo downward transition to E3 level. At this level (E3) atoms have
higher life time and they constantly get accumulated. E2 level is such that at normal
temperature atoms can not jump to E2 from E1. Thus population inversion is possible between
E3 and E2. Any photon spontaneously emitted can induce stimulated emission. The stimulated
photons will have energy corresponding to (E3-E2). Transition from E2 to E1 will be non-
radiative.

E4 Pumping level

Metastable level
E3
E = hν E = hν
E2

E1
Absorption Emission
Figure-8. Schematic of four level laser system.

Difference between three level and four level pumping schemes:

Three level Four level

As ground level and level associated with As ground level is different to the levels
population inversion levels are same the associated with the lasing action, population
power required to achieve is high. inversion can be achieved easily with small
power of pump.
The output is pulsed type The output is continuous
RUBY LASER
Construction and working principle

It is a solid state laser (SSL) invented by Theodore Maiman in 1960. In solid state laser active
centres are fixed in a crystal or glassy materials. SSL is electrically non-conducting.
Excitation is done by photon pumping. It is a three level laser system.

Construction of Ruby Laser:

Ruby rod is a synthetic ruby crystal, i.e. Al2O3 crystal doped with chromium ions (Cr3+) of
concentration 0.05% by weight. Ruby rod is taken as cylindrical rod of about 4 CM in length
and 0.5 CM in diameter. The end faces are silvered such that one end have 100% reflection
and the other end have 90% reflection. The silvered faces form optical cavity (Fabri-Perot
resonator). Laser rod is surrounded by helical flash lamp filled with xenon gas. The lamp
produces flashes of white light periodically. A schematic of construction of ruby laser is
shown in Figure-9 below.

Ruby rod 90%

Reflecting
100% Mirror
Reflecting
Mirror Laser light out

Capacitor Power supply

Figure-9. Construction of ruby laser.

Working principle:
Chromium ions have energy levels E4 and E3 which are higher energy levels and can be
excited by blue and green light excitation. The life time at E4 and E3 are small, of the order of
nano seconds (10-9). The excited will lose some energy by non radiative transition and
quickly drop down to E2 energy level which is meta stable state having longer life time of the
order of micro second (10-6 seconds). Once the population of E2 level crosses the population
of E1 a population inversion will arise. A single photon spontaneously emitted can now
induce avalanche of stimulated emission. The stimulated photons have energy (E2 – E1) as E
= 1.786 eV, corresponding wavelength λ = 694.3 nm. The stimulated photons will travel
within the ruby rod end faces and get amplified. The resultant beam will be intense coming
out from front face.
E4
E3
Metastable
Figure-10. Working ν
E = hν E2 level
principle of ruby laser.
ν
E = hν
E = hν

E1
Absorption Emission
He-Ne LASER
Construction of He-Ne laser:
It is a gas laser invented by scientist Ali Javan, William Bennett and Donald Herriott in 1961.
In this gas laser the active medium consists of a mixture of He and Ne (atomic percentage of
10:1) filled in a long discharge tube. Electrical discharge is being passed through the gas to
excite the gas atoms. Electrons in the discharge tube impart the energy to He atoms, and the
excited atoms transfer energy to Ne atoms by collisions. It is a four level laser system. The
construction of He-Ne is shown in Figure-11.

High voltage
power supply
Glass window

Laser light out

100% Reflective He-Ne gas Partially

Mirror mixture Reflective Mirror

Figure-11. Construction of He-Ne laser.

Working principle of He-Ne laser:

The excitation process of He-Ne laser is shown in Figure-12. The energy levels associated
with He and Ne atoms taking part in laser production are shown in the Figure-12. The
electrons in discharge tube transfer energy to He atoms by collisions. F3 level is a metastable
state and the atoms can not emit photons spontaneously. These excited atoms loose energy by
collisions with Ne atoms. As the discharge tube is narrow the collision probability is high.
Also He and Ne atoms are present at 10:1 ratio, resulting in high rate of collisions.

Metastable 20.61 eV 20.66 eV

level E6 (5S)
Metastable
F3 (2S) level 18.70 eV E = hν
E3 (3p)
Spontaneous Emission
16.70 eV
E2 (2S) Metastable level
F1 (1S) Energy loss by collision
E1 (2p)
Ground He atom Ne atom Ground level
level

Figure-12. Working principle of He-Ne laser.

The metastable E6 level (20.66 eV) is of nearly same energy as that of F3 level (20.61) eV of
He atom. The energy can be transferred to Ne atoms by resonant energy transfer (additional
energy 0.05 eV is being supplied in the form of kinetic energy of He atom). The population
inversion occurs between E6 and E3. Single photon spontaneously emitted induces stimulated
emission between the levels. The laser photons have the energy corresponding to the energy
difference of E6 to E3, i.e. photons of wavelength λ = 632.8 nm. After laser emission the
atoms can now relax to E2 level by spontaneous emission. However, E2 level is a metastable
state and spontaneous emission is not possible. The atoms can lose energy by collisions and
relax to ground state E1. Thus Ne atoms can once again be available for next excitation. This
indicates that the discharge tube should be narrow to increase collision probability and hence
transfer of energy resonantly. If the atoms do not loose energy by collisions atoms will get
accumulated at E2 energy state and finally the laser emission will be stopped.
Numerical on Laser:
λ=632.8 nm) of power 50 mW if the
* What is the intensity of He-Ne laser beam (λ
diameter of the beam is 1 mm?. What will be the intensity if the diameter is equal to the
square of the wavelength?

Ans: Intensity of laser beam I is related to power P according to the following relation-

I = P/A, where A = cross-sectional area of the laser beam

Here, A = π*D2/4 = 3.14*(1*10-3)2/4 = 0.785x10-6 m2

P = 50 mW = 5x10-2 W

Hence, I = (5x10-2 W)/(0.785x10-6 m2) = 6.37 x 104 W/m2

In the second case cross-sectional area = A = π*D2/4 = 3.14*(632.8*10-9)2/4 = 0.314x10-12 m2

Hence I = (5x10-2 W)/(0.314x10-12 m2) = 15.9 x 1010 W/m2

* Ruby laser emits photons in the form of 1 mili-Joule pulses. If the wavelength is 694
nm what is the Cr3+ ions concentration or doping level in ruby crystal? Assume that n
photons corresponds to n Cr3+ ions.

Ans: If there are n number of photons coming out from ruby laser then

Total power P = nhν = nhc/λ

Here h = Planck constant, c = speed of light

From the relation P = nhν = nhc/λ

We can write

10-3 Joule = n* 6.62*10-34*3*108/(694*10-9)

OR n = 34.9 x 1014 ions.

* He-Ne laser of wavelength 700 nm has 50 mW power. Diameter of laser beam is 5 mm.
The beam is focused by a lens of focal length 20 CM. Calculate the areal spread and
intensity of the image.

Ans:

Angular spread = 1.22λ/d = 1.22* 700*10-9/(5*10-3) = 1.7*10-4 rad

Areal spread = f*angular spread = (20*10-2*1.7*10-4)2 = (0.34*10-4)2 meter

= 0.1156*10-8 m2

Hence, intensity I = 50*10-3/(0.1156*10-8) W/m2 = 432*105 W/m2

= 4.32 x 106 W/m2