Material

3/26/2012
PROPERTIES OF
HARDENED CONCRETE
314
314
Hardened Concrete Properties
315
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Strength of Concrete
In concrete, strength is related to the stress
required to cause fracture and is synonymous
with the degree of failure at which the applied
stress reaches its maximum value
In concrete design and quality control, strength
is the property generally specified. This is
because, compared to most other properties,
testing of strength is relatively easy.
Furthermore, many properties of concrete are
directly related to strength and can be deduced
from the strength data
316
Stress-Strain Relation of Normal

Concrete in Compression
317
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Stress-Strain Relations for Cement

Paste, Aggregate, and Concrete
Concrete is a highly complex

heterogeneous material
whose response to stress
depends not only on the
response of the individual
components but also upon
the interaction between
those components
318
Interface Transition Zone

(ITZ) in Concrete
ITZ, generally the weakest link of the chain, is
considered the strength-limiting phase in concrete
The structure of the ITZ, especially the volume of
voids and microcracks present, have a great influence
on the stiffness or the elastic modulus of concrete
The existence of microcracks in the ITZ at the
interface with steel and aggregate is the primary
reason that concrete is more permeable than the
corresponding paste
319
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ITZ - The Weakest Link of the

Chain
320
Behavior of Concrete in
Compression
321
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Failure Modes in Concrete
322
323
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324
Factors Affecting Compressive

Strength
1. Characteristics and proportions of
materials
Water to cement ratio
Air entrainment
Cement type
Aggregate
Mixing water
Admixtures
325
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Factors Affecting Strength –

Water/Cement Ratio
Abram’s law
A
 w
c
B
326
Factors Affecting Strength – Air

Entrainment
Air entraining agents improve the
workability and cohesiveness of fresh
concrete and tend to reduce bleeding and
segregation. However, entrained air
results in some reduction in concrete
strength.
327 327
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1% Air Voids Reduces the

Strength by about 5.5%
328
328

Cement Type
329 329
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Aggregate Type
The bond between aggregate and mortar is an
important factor determining concrete strength.
Bond strength is affected by the shape of the
aggregate, its surface texture and cleanliness. A
smooth rounded aggregate will result in a weaker
bond between the aggregate and mortar than an
angular or irregular
aggregate or an
aggregate with a
rough surface texture.
330
331
331
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Chemical Admixtures
Accelerating admixtures increase the rate of
hydration thereby providing an increased early
strength
Retarding admixtures decrease the early
strength of concrete due to the delay in setting
time
Water reducing admixtures do not have any
significant effect on the hydration of the cement.
Therefore, when these admixtures are used to
improve workability no significant change in
strength should be expected.
332 332

Mineral Admixtures
Silica fume is
generally used to
increase strength
Fly ash and blast
furnace slag may
reduce the initial
strengthen gain
while they may
increase the long-
term strength
333
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334
334
Factors Affecting Compressive

Strength
2. Curing conditions
Time
Humidity
Temperature
3. Testing parameters
Specimen parameters
Loading conditions
335
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Factors Affecting Strength -

Time
336 336

Humidity
337 337
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Temperature
338
Concrete Strength: Maturity

Concept
339
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Maturity of Concrete
The fraction of cement that has hydrated
Maturity = f (age, curing temperature)
10
10 280
340
Effect of Maturity on
Compressive Strength
341
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Practice Question
Determine the maturity of a concrete member

after 7 days of hot water curing at 35oC. If the
same concrete is subjected to a winter condition
(mean temperature of 5oC), estimate the time
taken to reach the same strength to that
obtained in 7 days from hot water curing.
342

Specimen Height to Diameter
Ratio
344
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Loading Rate
345
Factors Affecting Concrete

Strength
346
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Deformation of Concrete
Besides strength, deformation is another
important concrete property and is of vital
interest in structural design
Types of deformation in concrete

Load induced: elasticity and creep
Moisture induced: shrinkage and swelling
Temperature induced: expansion and contraction
347
347
348
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Elasticity
The definition of pure elasticity is that

strains appear and disappear immediately
on application and removal of stress
349
Categories of  – e Response
350
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Typical Stress-
Strain Curve for
Concrete
351
Modulus of Elasticity
Initial tangent modulus is the tangent to
the curve at the origin
The secant of the stress-strain curve on
unloading is often parallel to the initial
tangent modulus
Initial tangent modulus – no practical
significance
Initial tangent modulus is approximately
equal to the dynamic modulus
352
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Modulus of Elasticity
A practical way of measuring the modulus of
elasticity is the secant modulus
All strains occurring at a given stress is
considered elastic and the slope of the secant
between the origin and any point will give the
secant modulus
Since concrete is loaded in practice to a range
of about 40% of its strength, it is common to
define its modulus of elasticity in term of its
secant modulus of elasticity, which is taken to
this range
353
Estimation of Modulus of Elasticity

from the Compressive Strength
354
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Factors Affecting Modulus of

Elasticity
Modulus increases with
Increasing age
Decreasing water to cement ratio
Increasing concrete strength
Increasing aggregate modulus
355
Poisson’s Ratio
356
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Shrinkage and Creep
These two time-dependent deformations are

caused by the same internal process, which
involves movement of water
Shrinkage: the driving force for water movement
is environmental conditions causing diffusion of
water outward (i.e., water is being lost)
Creep: the driving force is stress, which causes
water to move from one location to the other
within the concrete (i.e., no water is being lost)
357
357
Shrinkage
Volume changes accompany loss of

moisture (by evaporation or by hydration)
from either fresh or hardened concrete
The term ‘drying shrinkage’ refers to
hardened concrete while ‘plastic
shrinkage’ is used for fresh concrete
358
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Plastic Shrinkage
Loss of water from fresh concrete (early volume
change) while it is still in a plastic state (8 hrs)
If not prevented, can
cause cracking
Most common situation is
surface cracking due to
evaporation of water from
the surface (pavement)
Lost of water exceeds
the water by bleeding
359
359
Controlling Factors
Surface evaporation rate > 1.0 kg/m2 per hour:
cracking certain
Surface evaporation rate > 0.5 kg/m2 per hour:
cracking possible
Evaporation rates in a given environment can be
estimated
Factors affecting evaporation rates are wind
velocity, RH, and temperature
360
360
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Rate of
Evaporation
 The following environment
encourages cracks due to
plastic shrinkage
Temperature of both air and
concrete are high
Relative humidity of air is low
Strong wind blowing over
freshly placed concrete
(excess of 8 km/h)
 Hot weather (any
combination of the above
conditions) encourages
plastic cracks.
Source: Effect of ambient 361
conditions on rate of evaporation 361
(ACI 305) 361
Minimize Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

The most effective method of controlling plastic
shrinkage is through controlling the evaporation rate at
the surface and temperature of concrete
Reduce placement temperature of concrete
Place concrete when ambient temperature is
low (early morning or late night)
Install temporary windbreaks to reduce the
wind velocity over the surface of concrete
and provide sunshades to control the surface
temperature of the slab
Cover concrete with wet polythene sheet or
spray it with a membrane curing compound
362
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Drying Shrinkage
It takes place after the concrete has set and
hardened
It takes place in the first few months
The cause is the withdrawal of water from
concrete stored in unsaturated air
A part of this shrinkage is recovered on
immersion of concrete in water, i.e. reversible
shrinkage
There is also irreversible shrinkage
363
Moisture Movement in Concrete
364
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Shrinkage Induced Cracking
365
Passive Shrinkage Control –

Contraction Joints
Most used in slabs and
pavements
Cut soon after completing the
finishing operation
A way to regulate the location of
the cracking
Joints define where the crack
will form, rather than allowing
for random crack formation
Then seal the joint to prevent
moisture ingress 366
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Passive Shrinkage Control –

Contraction Joints
Cut soon after completing the finishing
operation
367
367
Creep
Creep is defined as the increase of strain
in concrete with time under sustained
stress
If a loaded specimen is viewed as being
subjected to a constant strain, the creep
decreases the stress progressively with
time. This is called relaxation
All the factors which influence shrinkage
influence creep also in similar way
368
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Creep in Concrete
369
369
Creep in Concrete
370
370
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Creep Under a Constant Stress
371
Relaxation for Concrete
372
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Effects of Creep
It affects strain, deflection and stress
distribution in reinforced concrete
structures
For example: Creep of concrete
increases the deflection of reinforced
concrete beams and, in some cases,
may be a critical consideration in design
373
373
Factors Affecting Shrinkage

and Creep
Aggregate
Volume fraction
Type of aggregate
Water to cement ratio
Relative humidity
Other factors
374
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Factors Affecting Shrinkage and

Creep – Aggregate Fraction
375

and Creep – Type of Aggregate
376
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Factors Affecting Shrinkage and

Creep – W/C Ratio
377

and Creep – Relative Humidity
378
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TESTING ON
HARDENED CONCRETE
379
379
Need for “Standard” Tests

Why testing hardened concrete properties?
To provide information on quality of concrete
Variables affects testing results
Specimen geometry, specimen preparation, moisture
content, temperature, loading rate, and type of testing
machine and loading fixture
Different test procedures yields different results
“Standard” test methods are proposed to
minimize confusion that would result if everyone
were to use different test procedures.
380
380
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Test on Compressive Strength

ASTM British Standard
Specimen geometry Cylinder 150 mm dia., 300 mm long Cube 150 mm
Curing temperature 23 ± 2oC 20 ± 2oC
Loading rate 0.15 to 0.35 MPa/s 0.2 to 0.4 MPa/s
End preparation Required No need
381
381
End Preparation
Capping
Grinding
382
382
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ASTM Cylinders vs. BS Cubes

Cubes do not need for end preparation
Cube to cylinder strength ratio ranges from
about 1.3 for low strength concrete to about
1.04 for higher strength concrete
Friction between the platens
and the specimen ends
creates much more
confinement in cubes than
in cylinders
383
383
Effect of Height to Diameter

Ratio on Cylinder Strength
384
384
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Test on Tensile Strength

Tensile strength is about 10% of compressive
strength
Direct tensile tests suffer from a number of
difficulties related to
Holding the specimen properly in the testing machine
without introducing stress concentration
The application of uniaxial tensile load which is free
from eccentricity to the specimen
Indirect methods
Flexural tensile test
Splitting tensile test
385
385
Flexural Tensile Test

Standard test specimens
150 x 150 x 750 mm
100 x 100 x 500 mm
Manner of loading
Third point loading
Central point loading
Loading rate
0.02 to 0.10 MPa/s
Flexural strength or
modulus of rupture Third point flexure test
(MOR) is calculated 386
386
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Third Point vs Central Point

Loads
387
387
Calculation of Flexural
Strength
R = PL / bd2
P: max. total load
L: span length
b: specimen width
d: specimen depth
Equation holds only if the beam breaks

between the two interior loading points
388
388
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Modulus of Rupture
Flexural test tends to overestimate the “true”
tensile strength by up to 50%
MOR calculation based on linear elastic beam theory
For direct tensile test, probability of presence of weak
element is higher
Compression
Assumed stress
distribution
Actual stress
distribution
Natural Axis
Tension
389
389
Splitting Tensile Test
Standard test specimens

Cylinder
Cube
Prism
Loading rate
0.02 to 0.04
MPa/s
390
390
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Calculation of Splitting Tensile

Strength
391
391
Comments on Split Tensile

Strength
Simple to perform and gives more uniform
results than other tensile tests
Split tensile strength is closer to the actual
strength than that given by flexural test
The same moulds can be used for casting
specimens for both compression and
tension tests.
392
392
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Core Tests
The examination and compressive strength
testing of cores drilled from hardened concrete
enable the visual inspection of interior regions of
the structural member along with the estimation
of actual concrete strength
393
393
Factors Influencing Core

Moisture and voids
Length/diameter ratio of core
Diameter of core
Direction of drilling
Reinforcement
394
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Non-Destructive Tests (NDT)

NDT is a wide group of analysis techniques used in
science and industry to evaluate the properties of a
material, component or system without causing
damage.
Advantages
Speed
Cost
Lack of damage
Immediate availability of results
Applications
New structures – QC
Existing structures – assessment of structural integrity or395
adequacy 395
Common NDT Techniques

Rebound hardness test (Rebound hammer
test)
Penetration resistance test (Windsor
probe)
Pull-out test
Ultrasonic pulse velocity test
396
396
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Rebound Hardness Test

(Rebound Hammer Test)
Fundamental principle: Rebound of elastic mass
depends on surface hardness
Surface hardness may be correlated to strength
397
397

Sensitive to local variations in concrete; for example, the presence
of a large piece of agg. Immediately underneath the plunger would
result in an abnormally high rebound number; conversely, the
presence of a void in similar position would lead to a very low result
It is necessary to take up to 25 readings in an area up to 300 mm2
and average the results
398
398
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The test method is useful for the following
applications
Approximate estimation of strength
Checking the uniformity of concrete quality
Comparing a given concrete with a specified
requirement
Abrasion resistance classification
399
399

Rebound hammer test measures properties of surface
zone of concrete
Factors influencing the relationship between hardness
(rebound number) and strength of concrete
Surface finish Vertical
Smooth surface gives higher value
Carbonation
Carbonation at surface give higher value
Moisture content of the concrete Horizontal
Dry surface gives higher value
Rigidity of member
Type of aggregate
Direction of impact 400
Horizontal gives higher value 400
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The use of strength calibration charts produced under ideal
laboratory conditions makes it unlikely that a strength
prediction will be to an accuracy better than 30%
401
401
Penetration Resistance
(Windsor Probe)
Fundamental principle: Depth of penetration is inversely
proportional to the compressive strength of concrete
Minimal damage to concrete. Only creates small holes in
the concrete surface.
402
402
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Penetration Resistance
Additional consideration: Depth of penetration

also depends on the hardness of aggregate
Softer aggregate allows greater penetration
403
403
Penetration Resistance Test

vs Rebound Hardness Test
Surface texture and
carbonation have less effect
than in the rebound hardness
test
Greater depth of concrete is
tested
Less No. of tests required than
that of rebound hardness test
Average of 3 tests in triangular
template
404
404
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Pull-out Test
Measures the force required to pull out a
previously cast-in steel rod with an embedded
enlarged end
405
405
Pull-out Force vs
The pull-out force
correlates well with
the compressive
strength of cores or
standard cylinders for
a wide range of curing
conditions and ages
406
406
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Comments on the Pull-out Test
Pull-out test is superior to the rebound hammer

test and to the penetration resistance test
because a larger volume and a greater depth of
concrete are involved in the pull-out test.
Greater damage to concrete. Repair of concrete
is required.
407
407
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

Fundamental principle: Velocity of sound
in solid material is a function of its elastic
property
Modulus of elasticity
Poisson’s ratio
Density
Ed 1  vd 
V
 1  vd 1  2vd 
408
408
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Methods of Measuring Pulse

Velocity through Concrete
409
409
Limitations of
Determination of the modulus of elasticity
of the concrete from the pulse velocity is
not normally recommended
Concrete is a heterogeneous and non-
isotropic material
No physical relation between pulse
velocity and compressive strength
410
410
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Pulse Velocity vs
No simple correlation between compressive
strength and pulse velocity, the correlation being
affected by
Type of aggregate
Aggregate/cement
ratio
Size and grading
of aggregate
Age of concrete
Curing conditions
411
411

The ultrasonic pulse velocity test can give
information about the interior of a concrete
element and therefore useful to determine
The homogeneity of the concrete
The presence of voids, cracks or other imperfections.
Changes in a given concrete element, e.g.
deterioration due to frost or fire
The value of elastic
modulus and dynamic
Poisson’s ratio of the
concrete
412
412
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t1
t2
2 x  Vt1  (1) (1)

2
 t2 
hx    1
2 x 2  h 2  Vt2  (2) (2)
413 1 
t 413
x1 x1
x2 x2
2 x12  h 2  Vt1  (1) (1) t12 x22  t22 x12

h
2 x22  h 2  Vt2  (2) (2) t22  t12 414
414
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Voids in Concrete Can Be Detected

by Ultrosonic Measurement
415
415
Comments on NDT
NDTs do not measure concrete strength;
rather, they provide an estimate of the
concrete strength through correlation with
some other property
Fundamental shortcoming of all NDTs in
which the property of concrete being
measured is affected by various factors in
a manner different from the influence of
those factors on the strength of concrete
416
416
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DURABILITY
417
417
Durability Concern
Maintenance and repair > $2 trillion for US and

Asia
It is estimated that in industrially developed
countries over 40% of the total resources of the
construction industry are applied to repair and
maintenance of existing structures, and less
than 60% to new constructions.
In US and Japan, outlay for repair > new
construction
418
418
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Durability of Concrete
Concrete should be capable of withstanding the

conditions for which it has been designed
throughout the life of a structure.
Lack of durability can be caused by external
agents arising from the environment or by
internal agents within the concrete.
Causes can be categorized as physical,
mechanical, and chemical
419
419
Typical Life Span of Concrete

Structure
420
420
Source: Maekawa, Chaube, and Kishi
53
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Durability of Concrete
Physical causes
The action of frost, Thermal movement
Mechanical causes
Impact; Abrasion; Erosion; Cavitation
Chemical causes
Sulfate attack; Sea water attack; Acid attack; Alkali-
silica reaction; Corrosion of reinforcement
421
421
Frost Damage of Concrete

Concrete can be damaged
during freezing and thawing
cycles
Air-entrained concrete have
much improved frost resistance
Wang, K., et al. Investigation into Freezing-Thawing

Durability of Low Permeability Concrete with and without422
Air Entraining Agent,422
IDOT report, 2009
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Uneven Thermal Loads
423
423
Abrasion and Erosion
Erosion
Abrasion
424
424
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Durability and Transport

Properties of Concrete
Since the chemical attack takes place within the
concrete mass, the attacking agent must be able
to penetrate throughout the concrete.
The rate of the attacking agent penetrates into
the concrete depends on its transport properties
Transport properties of concrete are much
related to its durability
425
425
Transport Properties of
Concrete
Transport properties are the ease with which
liquids or gases can travel through concrete
As far as the ease to movement of fluids through
concrete is concerned, three transport properties
should be distinguished
Permeability refers to flow under a pressure
differential
Diffusion is the process in which a fluid moves under
a differential in concentration
Absorption is the process in which a liquid moves
due to capillary suction 426
426
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Transport Properties of
Concrete
Transport Properties Mechanism Example
Capillary suction Cyclic wetting and drying

Absorption
Liquids Marine structure
Pressure differential
Permeability Water-retaining structures
Liquids and gases
Concentration differential Sulfate bearing ground waters

Diffusion
Liquids, gases and ions Foundation elements
427
427
Influence of Pore Structure on

Concrete Transport Properties
Transport properties are dependent on
Capillary porosity
Pore size
Continuity of pore system
Tortuosity
Transport properties vs W/C ratio
Transport properties vs age
428
428
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Effect of Porosity
(High Kp)
(Low Kp)
429
429
Effect of Pore Size
(Low Kp)
430
430
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Effect of Connectivity
(High Kp)
Same porosity
(Low Kp)
431
431
Schematic Representation of
Materials of Similar Porosity
432
432
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Effect of Tortuosity
(High Kp)
(Low Kp)
433
433
Coefficient of Permeability
Flow in capillary pores in saturated concrete
follows Darcy’s law for laminar flow through a
porous medium:
434
434
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Water Permeability and W/C Ratio

for Mature Cement Paste
(93% of Cement Hydrated)
435
435
Water Permeability and Capillary

Porosity of Cement Paste
436
436
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Water Permeability of Cement

Paste with Progress of Hydration
m/s
437
437
Water Permeability of Cement

Paste & Concrete
438
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Water Permeability Test

(Output Method)
Flow Eqn. (D’Arcy’s law)
dq 1 P
  v  Kp
dt A h
q  h
 Kp 
t  A  P
Kp: permeability coeff. (m/s)
Δq: permeated water in a given time
period Δt
h: thickness of the specimen
P: water head (hydraulic pressure)
A: area exposed to hydraulic pressure
v: flow rate
This method is suitable for porous concrete
439
Indicators of Concrete
Integrity
Good Average Poor
Porosity < 10% 10-15% > 15%
Water permeability
< 10-12 10-12 to 10-10 > 10-10
(m/s)
2 x 10-18
Gas permeability
< 2 x 10-18 to > 2 x 10-17
(m/s)
2 x 10-17
440
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Chemical Attack
Sulfate attack
Alkali-silica reaction
Corrosion of reinforcement
Carbonation
441
Why Is It Important to Study

Chemical Attack?
Concrete quality
Loss of strength, stiffness, impermeability
Premature failure of concrete structures
Economic/Environmental Impacts
Chemical attack decreases concrete service life
Reconstruction has both environmental and
economic impacts, e.g. cement production produces
5 to 10% of the world’s CO2 emissions (a greenhouse
gas)
442
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Sulfate Attack
Sulfates of sodium, potassium, magnesium, and

calcium which occur in soil or in groundwater
can react with hydrated cement paste
Sulfates in groundwater are usually of natural
origin but can also come from fertilizers or from
industrial effluents. These sometimes contain
ammonium sulfate, which attacks hydrated
cement paste.
443
443
Sulfate Attack
Mechanism and Process of Deterioration

Penetration of sulfate ions into concrete
They react with calcium hydroxide to form
gypsum
The formation of ettringite which is accompanied
by volume expansions
The volume expansions cause internal stresses
and cracking
444
444
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Sequence of Sulfate Attack
Reaction Relevant Factor

Chemical Reaction Control Strategy
Step in Concrete
Low W/C,
SO42- (external)
1 Permeability pozzolan addition,
→ SO42- (internal)
slag addition
Ca(OH)2 + SO42- Pozzolan addition,
2 Ca(OH)2 content
→ gypsum + 2OH- slag addition
C3A or C4ASH12 + gypsum C3A content of Type II or V

3
→ ettringite cement cement
445
445
Effects of Cement Type and

W/C Ratio on Sulfate Attack
More important is the prevention of
ingress of sulfates into the concrete.
446
446
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Sulfate Attack
447
447
Sulfate Attack
Source: N. Winter, Understanding Cement

448
448
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Alkali-Silica Reaction
(ASR)
Concrete can be damaged by a chemical
reaction between the active silica constituents of
the aggregate and the alkalis in the cement; this
process is known as alkali-silica reaction (ASR)
Reactants of ASR: reactive silica, alkalis, and
water
Not all types of aggregates contain reactive
forms of silica
449
449
Mechanism and Process of

Deterioration of ASR
The reaction starts with the attack of the siliceous
minerals in the aggregate by the alkaline hydroxides
derived form the alkalis in the cement
The alkali-silicate gel formed attracts water by
absorption or by osmosis and thus tends of increase in
volume
Since the gel is confined by the surrounding cement
paste, internal pressures result and eventually lead to
expansion, cracking and disruption of the cement paste
(pop-outs and spalling) and to map cracking of the
concrete
450
450
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Expansion of Alkali-Silica Gel

When the expansionary pressure exceeds the tensile
strength of the concrete, the concrete cracks.
451
451
ASR Damage
452
452
Source: Georgia Tech
69
3/26/2012
ASR Damage
Concrete thin-section, viewed with a petrographic

microscope, showing a chert aggregate particle (at
the right of the image) from which alkali-silica gel has
extruded into adjacent cracks 453
453
Source: N. Winter, Understanding Cement
Concrete Failure Due to ASR

 Map cracking or
pattern cracking
 The crack width can

range from 0.1 mm to
as much as 10 mm in
extreme cases
 The cracks are rarely

more than 25 mm, or
at most 50 mm, deep
454
Source: AASHTO Innovative Highway Technologies454
70
3/26/2012
Control Strategy for ASR
Do not use alkali-reactive aggregate

Do not use cements having a high alkali content
Use suitable proportions of either fly ash or
slag in the concrete
Ensuring the environment is dry
455
455
Corrosion of Reinforcement
Structural concrete is usually designed in
combination with reinforcing steel bars due to
the low tensile strength of the concrete
The strongly alkaline nature of Ca(OH)2 (pH of
about 13) prevents the corrosion of the steel
reinforcement by the formation of a thin
protective film of iron oxide on the metal surface;
this protection is known as passivity
As long as this film is stable, the steel is immune
to corrosion.
456
456
71
3/26/2012
Two Main Causes Lead to

Disruption of Passivation Film
Penetration of chlorides into the concrete
Depassivation occurs when the chloride ion content
reaches a value in the range of 0.2% to 0.4% by
weight of the Portland cement in the concrete
adjacent to the steel
Fe2+ + Cl- → [FeCl complex]+
[FeCl]+ + 2OH- → Fe(OH)2 + Cl-
Carbonation of the concrete leading to reduction
in pH
Depassivation occurs as pH approaches 9
457
457
458
72
3/26/2012
Sources of Chlorides
Contact with sea water

From de-icing salts
From beach or sea dredged aggregates
From accelerators (chloride-based admixtures
now prohibited)
459
459
Chlorides Ingress from Outside –

Contact with Sea Water
460
460
73
3/26/2012
Schematic Representation of
Carbonation Process
pH = about 9
pH = 12.6 – 13.5 461

461
Depth of Carbonation
462
462
74
3/26/2012
Carbonation Depth of OPC

Mortars
Exposure Time 463

463
Factors Affecting
Rate of Carbonation
Factors affecting properties of concrete
W/C ratio
Type of cement
Curing
Environmental conditions
CO2 concentration
Temperature
Relative humidity
464
464
75
3/26/2012
Factors Affecting
Rate of Carbonation
Factors Mechanisms Results
Higher W/C ratio increases the Carbonation rate

W/C ratio
porosity of concrete increases
Initial water Longer water curing period Carbonation rate

curing period decreases the porosity of concrete decreases
CO2 Higher concentration, higher Carbonation rate

concentration consumption rate of Ca(OH)2 increases
Higher temperature increases Carbonation rate

Temperature
reaction rate increases
465
465
Effect of CO2 Concentration on

Carbonation Rate
Concentration of CO2
466
466
76
3/26/2012
Effect of W/C Ratio on

Carbonation Rate
467
467
Effect of Curing on Carbonation

Rate
468
468
Source: Skjolsvold
77
3/26/2012
Process of Corrosion of Steel

Reinforcement in Concrete
Fe2+ + 2OH- → Fe(OH)2
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e- ½ O2 + H2O + 2e- → 2OH-
O2, H2O
2Fe(OH)2 → 2Fe(OH)3 → Fe2O3∙nH2O
469 469
Corrosion Mechanism
Corrosion is essentially an electrochemical process
It involves the formation of a cathode and an anode, with
electrical current flowing in a loop between the two
Anode-cathode pairs can be set up on a steel surface
where different sites have different electrochemical
potentials or tendencies for oxidation
An electrical potential difference between possible anode
and cathode sites can be the result of differences in
composition, differences in residual strain, or differences
in oxygen or electrolyte concentrations in contact with
the surface
470
470
78
3/26/2012
Corrosion Mechanism
In the anode, the iron metallic atoms are oxidized to Fe2+
ions, which dissolve into the surrounding solution
The corrosion itself is in the anode, where there is
ionization and dissolution of the metallic
In the cathode, the cathodic reaction consumes
electrons and leads to the formation of OH- ions
For the cathodic reaction to occur, moisture must be
present and a supply of oxygen should be available
½ O2 + H2O + 2e- → 2OH-

Fe → Fe2+ + 2e- 471
471
Corrosion Mechanism
The ions formed at the cathode and anode migrate
through the aqueous solution in the pores of the paste of
the concrete surrounding the steel bar
The electrical current loop consists of elections flowing in
the steel bar and ions moving in the concrete pore solution
between the anode and the cathode
The Fe2+ and OH- ions which are moving in the pore
solution interact chemically, close to the anode, to
produce an iron oxide, which is a byproduct of the
corrosion reaction, known as rust Fe + 2OH → Fe(OH)O ,→H O2Fe(OH) → Fe O ∙nH O
2+ -
2
2 2
3 2 3 2
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e- ½ O2 + H2O + 2e- → 2OH- 472

472
79
3/26/2012
Corrosion of Reinforcement
The corrosion of the steel in concrete produces

two types of deleterious effects
Reduction of the cross-section area of the steel
at the anode, thus reducing the load-bearing
capacity of the reinforcing bar
The formation of rust results in an increase in
volume compared with the original steel so the
swelling pressures will cause cracking and
spalling of the concrete
473
473
Damage Induced by Corrosion
474
474
80
3/26/2012
Corrosion Introduced Cracking

and Spalling
475
475
Corrosion Protection
Prevention of corrosion lies in controlling the ingress of
chlorides by the thickness of cover to reinforcement and
by the penetrability of the concrete in the cover
The five C’s
Proper Cover of at least 50 mm
Lower W/C ratio and sufficient Cement
Sufficient Curing time
Denser concrete, good Compaction
Avoid using Chlorides
Pozzolan addition, slag addition
476
476
81
3/26/2012
SPECIAL CONCRETES
477
477
Special Concretes
High Strength Concrete (HSC)
Lightweight Concrete (LWC)
Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)
Self Compacting Concrete (SCC)
478
478
82
3/26/2012
High Strength Concrete

(> 60MPa)
Conventional concrete can be made to have strength
more than 100 MPa at 28 days
The fundamental parameter is low porosity which is
achieved by cement contents in excess of 500 kg/m3 of
concrete, low W/CM ratio (< 0.35), and by adequate
compaction and curing
Using good quality and well-graded aggregates. Smaller
maximum size of aggregate. Aggregate particles should be
approximately equi-dimensional. To ensure good bond
between the aggregate and matrix.
To achieve a normal workable mix, a superplasticizing
admixture is necessary 479
479
Strength vs Brittleness
480
480
83
3/26/2012
Advantages of High Strength

Concrete
Column sections can be reduced in size or, for
the same cross-section, the amount of steel
reinforcement can be reduced
In tall buildings, there is an economic advantage
because of an increased floor area for rental
In bridges, the use of high strengths can reduce
the number of beams.
481
481
Disadvantages of High
Strength Concrete
Relatively low shear strength due to increased
brittleness
Increased creep and shrinkage due to a lower

aggregate content
482
482
84
3/26/2012
Typical Mix Proportions for High

Strength Concrete (lb/yr3)
Water Tower Place, Texas Commerce Tower, Test mixture for High
Material
Chicago (1975) Houston (1980) Strength Concrete (1984)
Cement, Type I 846 658 1000
Pozzolan
Class F fly ash 100 - -
Class C fly ash - 167 -
Silica fume - - 200
Crushed stone
¾ in., max. - 1923 -
5/8 in., max. 1800 - -
½ in., max. - - 1682
Sand 1025 974 905
Water 300 272 266
Water-reducing admixture
ASTM C 494 tpe A (oz) 25 25 -
Superplasticizer - - High dosage 483
Water/CM 0.32 0.33 483 0.22
HSC Mix Design:

Rules of Thumb
Use lower W/CM Ratio

Use higher cement content
Use superplasticizer
Use mineral admixtures (SF, FA, Slag)
Use high strength coarse aggregate with smaller
max size
Expect higher cost
484
484
85
3/26/2012
Lightweight Concrete
(300 ~ 1850 kg/m3)
Advantages
The reduction of self-weight, thus using smaller
sections and the corresponding reduction in the size
of foundations
The formwork need withstand a lower pressure than
would be the case with ordinary concrete
The total weight of materials to be handled is reduced
with a consequent increase
in productivity
LWC gives better thermal
insulation than ordinary
concrete 485
485
Density vs Thermal
Conductivity
486
486
86
3/26/2012
Methods of Production of LWC

By using porous lightweight aggregate. This type
of concrete is known as lightweight aggregate
concrete
By introducing large voids within the concrete or
mortar mass. This type of concrete is variously
known as aerated, cellular, foamed or gas
concrete
By omitting the fine aggregate from the mix so
that a large number of interstitial voids is
present. This concrete is know as no-fines
concrete
487
487
Fiber Reinforced Concrete

(FRC)
FRC is defined as concrete made with hydraulic
cement, containing fine or fine and coarse
aggregate, and discontinuous discrete fibers
The fibers can be made from natural material or

are a manufactured product such as glass, steel,
carbon, and polymer
488
488
87
3/26/2012
Types of Steel Fibers
489
489

Generally, the fibers are not added to increase
the concrete strength, though modest increases
in strength may occur
The principal role of the fibers is to control the
post-cracking behavior of concrete in tension.
Once the concrete matrix has cracked, fibers
provides bridging across the cracks as they
begin to open and transmit stress across a
cracked section.
Fibers provide post-cracking ductility (i.e.
toughness) to the concrete.
490
490
88
3/26/2012
Flexural Behavior of FRC vs

Plain Concrete
491
491

The workability of fiber reinforced mixes
decreases as the fiber content increases and as
the aspect ratio (l/d) increases
Fiber volumes currently used in practice
Steel: < 1.0%
Polypropylene: < 0.5%
High fiber volume (> 3%) may be achieved
through special processing techniques (high
cost and impractical)
FRC has been used for floor slabs, pavements,
slope stabilization, and tunnel linings
492
492
89
3/26/2012
Mix Proportions
(Plain Concrete vs FRC in lb/yr3)
Material Plain Concrete FRC
Cement 752 875
Water (W/C = 0.45) 338 394
Fine aggregate 1440 1282
Coarse aggregate 1150 1024
Fibers (2% by volume) - 265
Source: A.N. Hanna, PCA Report RD 049.01P, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Ill., 1977
493
493
Self Compacting Concrete

(SCC)
Self compacting concrete also known as self
consolidating concrete is a highly flowable,
nonsegregating concrete that can spread into
place, fill the formwork
and encapsulate the
reinforcement, without
any mechanical
consolidation.
494
494
90
3/26/2012
Advantages of SCC
Increased productivity (faster placement rate, no
vibration and less screeding, less manpower)
Reduced noise due to vibration
Better surface finish
Ease of filling restricted sections and hard-to-
reach area
Improved consolidation around reinforcement
and bond with reinforcement
Improved pumpability
495
495
Self Compacting Concrete

Two important properties of SCC are its
flowability and stability, i.e. resistance to
segregation
The most important basic principle for flowing
and unsegregable concretes is the use of
superplasticizer (high-range water-reducing
admixture) combined with a relatively high
content of powder materials in terms of Portland
cement, mineral additions, ground fillers and/or
very fine sand.
496
496
91
3/26/2012
Measurement of Fresh
Properties of SCC
Flowability is measured by the slump flow test.
The spread typically ranges
from 455 to 810 mm
Stability is measured by
visual stability index (VSI)
VSI is based on bleed water
observed at the edge of spread
VSI ranges from 0 (highly stable)
to 3 (unacceptable stability)
Viscosity is measured by the rate at which the concrete
spreads
T50 measures the time taken for the concrete to reach a spread
diameter of 50 cm 497
497
92
CV1013/CV2003
Civil Engineering Materials
Part 3: Concrete
L.17-L.39
CV1013/CV2003
Part 3: L.17-L.39
Asst Prof Yang En-Hua

Office: N1-01c-79
Tel: 6790-5291
Email: ehyang@ntu.edu.sg
2
2
INTRODUCTION
4
4
Concrete Supports Quality of Life
5
5
Concrete Applications
Residential and commercial buildings
Bridges, flyovers, culverts
Dams, tunnels, water tanks
Swimming pools
Roads, runways, pipes
Foundations, piles, sewers
Offshore platforms
Nuclear power stations, radiation shields etc.
Fire and corrosion protection of steel structures
Many more applications…
6
6
Concrete Facts
The most used man-made material
The 2nd most used material
Total value of concrete infrastructure > 17 trillion
US dollars
Annual consumption of concrete in the world
18 billion ton/year (as of 2006)
About 3 tons per person
More than 10x that of steel
Why is concrete widely used as a construction
material?
7
7
Concrete as A Construction
Material - Advantages
Ease of production from local materials and experience
(cost benefit)
Mouldability to achieve any shape and size
A durable material in principle
Excellent material for fire resistance
Requires less energy to produce than other construction
materials
Aesthetic possibilities through the use of color, texture,
and shape
A material with tailorable properties
8
8
Energy Consumption for

Production of Several
Construction Materials
Material Energy Requirement (GJ/m3)

Aluminum 360
Steel 300
Glass 50
Concrete 3.4
9
9
Example Concrete
Structures in Singapore
10
10
What is Concrete?
Artificial stone produced from sand and stone

together with cement paste (cement + water)
Cement paste fills the space between stone and
sand particles
Concretus (a Latin word)
Compact
Condensed
To grow together
11
11
Paste, Mortar, or Concrete?
Sand
Stone
12
12
Ingredients of Modern Concrete

Binder materials
Portland cements (various types)
Cement + supplementary
cementitious materials (SCM)
Aggregates 150 m to 5.0 mm
Fine aggregates < 5mm
Coarse aggregates > 5mm
Water 5.0 to 20/40 mm
Admixtures
Fiber
13
13
Proportions of Ingredients
Optional components
• Admixture
• Supplementary
cementitious materials
• Silica fume
• Fly ash
• Slag
• Pozzolans
Volumetric composition of concrete
• Fibers
• Cement or binder = 6 to 16 %
• Steel
• Water = 12 to 20 % • Polypropylene
• Fine aggregates = 20 to 30 % • Glass
• Coarse aggregates = 40 to 55 % • Carbon
• Nylon
• Air content = 1 to 3 % (non air-entrained)
• Natural etc.
= 4 to 8 % (air-entrained)
14
14
Specifying Mix Compositions
By relative proportions in weight
1 : 2 : 4 : 0.55
Cement Fine Coarse Water
Agg. Agg.
Simple and concise

Does not show actual quantities
Mainly used in old days
15
15
Specifying Mix Compositions
By quantities of ingredients to produce on cubic

meter of compacted concrete
315 kg : 630 kg : 1260 kg : 175 kg

Cement Fine Coarse Water
Agg. Agg.
Actual quantities needed

Richness of concrete
16
16
Example
A concrete batch is produced with the following
batch quantities: Cement = 10 kg; Water = 5
liters; Fine aggregate = 20 kg; and Coarse
aggregate = 40 kg. Aggregates are in saturated
surfaced dry condition. Given: specific gravity of
cement and aggregates are 3.15 and 2.60,
respectively. Assuming no entrapped air,
determine the following
Unit weight or wet density of concrete; and
Mix composition of this concrete
17
17
Solution
18
18
Practice Question
A concrete mix is produced in the laboratory using the following batch
quantities: 16 kg of cement (C); 4 kg of fly ash (F); 10 kg of water (W); 40 kg
of fine aggregate (FA) and 80 kg of coarse aggregate (CA). The relative
density (or specific gravity) of cement, fly ash, fine aggregate, and coarse
aggregate are 3.15, 2.40, 2.60, and 2.65, respectively. Assume that the
aggregates are in the saturated surface dry (ssd) condition. If the amount of
entrapped air in compacted concrete is 2%, determine the following:
Mix proportions by weight
Volumetric proportion of concrete components (in percentage)
Unit weight (or wet density) of concrete
Mix compositions, i.e. cement, aggregate and water content in kg/m3
Yield of the concrete batch
If a concrete slab on ground, having the length of 3 m with 500 mm width and
100 mm thick, to be made, determine the number of batch weights, allowing
20% wastage of concrete.
19
19
Typical Properties of Structural
Concrete
Compressive strength 35 MPa
Flexural strength 6 MPa
Tensile strength 3 MPa
Modulus of elasticity 28 GPa
Poisson’s ratio 0.18
Tensile strain at failure 0.001
Coefficient of thermal expansion 10 x 10-6/oC
Ultimate shrinkage strain 0.05-0.1%
Density
Normal weight 2300 kg/m3
Lightweight 1800 kg/m3
25
25
Concrete as A Construction
Material - Disadvantages
A brittle material with very low tensile strength
and tensile ductility. Should generally not be
loaded or designed in tension
Even in compression, concrete has a relatively
low strength-to-weight ratio, i.e. high load
capacity requires large masses
Concrete undergoes considerable irreversible
shrinkage due to moisture loss and also creeps
significantly under an applied load
26
26
Advantages and Disadvantages
of Concrete as A Construction
Material
Advantage Disadvantage
Ability to be cast Low tensile strength
Economical Low ductility
Durable Volume instability
Fire resistant Low strength-to-weight ratio
Energy efficient
On-site fabrication
Aesthetic properties
27
27
Environmental Impact of Concrete

Enormous raw material and energy consumption
Global concrete demand > 18 billion tons annually as of
2006
1 ton of cement clinker requires 1.7 tons of non-fuel raw
materials
Cement production is 10x more energy intensive than
general economy and is account for 2% of global primary
energy use (4000-7500 MJ per tonne of cement)
Land scarring
CO2 emission and climate change
Production of 1 ton of cement clinker generates equal
amount of green house gas
Cement production accounts for 5-10% of global CO2
emissions
Surface runoff 28
28
Urban heat island
Next Great Challenge for Civil
Engineers: Co-existence Between
the Natural and Built Environment
Greenhouse Energy
gas emissions consumption
Land scarring 29
29
Or a battle?
What You Will Be

Learning From This
Subject …
30
30
Cementitious Materials and
Their Hydration
Hydrated cement paste
31
31
Photo courtesy of Mr. Jim Margeson, NRC-IRC
Properties of Other Concrete

Ingredients
Water
Aggregates
32
Admixtures 32
Mix Design: How to Design A
Concrete Mix w.r.t. A Specified
Compressive Strength?
33
33
Source: PCA
Fresh and Hardened Properties of

Concrete and the Tests
Compression test on hardened concrete
Slump test on fresh concrete
34
34
Concrete Durability
Deterioration due to alkali-

aggregate reaction
Deterioration due to corrosion of

steel reinforcing bars
35
35
Syllabus
36
36
CEMENT & HYDRATION
37
37
Nature of Concrete
38
38
Roles of Cement/Binder Paste
Coats the aggregate particles

Fills the spaces between aggregate
particles
Binds the aggregate particles
Provides strength & stiffness to concrete
Responsible for permeability and time-
dependent deformation (shrinkage &
creep)
39
39
(~80 A.D.)
Pyramid of Cheops (~3000 B.C.)
40
Pantheon 126AD
40
Historical Note on Cement
Ancient cementing materials
Ancient Egyptians: Calcined impure gypsum (Non-
hydraulic cement)
Greeks and Romans: Calcined limestone
Romans: Lime, volcanic ash or burnt clay tile (ground
together)
Portland cement: Joseph Aspdin [1824]
Heating a mixture of finely-divided clay and limestone in
a furnace until carbon dioxide had been driven out
Modern cement: Isaac Johnson [1845]
Heating a mixture of finely-divided clay and limestone
until clinkering 41
41
Cement
(EN 197-1:2000)
Cement is a hydraulic binder, i.e. a finely
ground inorganic material which, when
mixed with water, forms a paste which sets
and hardens by means of hydration
reactions and processes and which, after
hardening, retains its strength and stability
even under water
42
42
Raw Materials of Portland
Cement
Limestone, Chalk [CaCO3 = CaO (lime) + CO2]
Calcareous materials
Clay, Shale – silica (SiO2) & alumina (Al2O3)
Argillaceous materials
Iron Ore – Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)
Flux to lower the clinkering temperature
Gypsum – Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4·2H2O)
Control the rate of setting of cement
43
43
Manufacture of Portland Cement

Cement, how it is made http://youtu.be/n-Pr1KTVSXo
Collect the raw materials such as; limestone, clay, sea
sand, shale, and etc.
Grind the raw material into a very fine powder
Mix them in predetermined proportions
Burn them in a large rotary klin at a temperature of
about 1400oC when the material sinters and partially
fuses into clinker
The clinker is cooled and ground to a fine powder, with
some gypsum added, and resulting product is the
commercial Portland cement 44
44
Scheme of Cement Production
45
45
Clinker and Unhydrated Ordinary

Portland Cement Particles
Clinker (6 to 50 mm in diameter) Ordinary Portland cement
46
46
Major Chemical Compounds of
Ordinary Portland Cement
47
47
Minor Chemical Compounds of

Ordinary Portland Cement
Alkalis react with silica

causing disintegration &
expansion of concrete
48
48
Composition Limits of Portland
Cement
49
49
Example – Calculate the Bogue

Composition of the Cements
Percentage in Cement No.

(1) (2) (3)
Oxide
CaO 66.0 63.0 66.0
SiO2 20.0 22.0 20.0
Al2O3 7.0 7.7 5.5
Fe2O3 3.0 3.3 4.5
Others 4.0 4.0 4.0
Compound
C3S
C2S
C3A
C4AF 50
50
Solution
Case 1
C3S = 4.07 C – 7.60 S – 6.72 A – 1.43 F – 2.85 SO3
= 4.07 (66.0) – 7.60 (20.0) – 6.72 (7.0) – 1.43 (3.0) – 2.85 (0) = 65.3
C2S = 2.87 S – 0.75 C3S = 2.87 (20.0) – 0.75 (65.3) = 8.4
C3A = 2.65 A – 1.69 F = 2.65 (7.0) – 1.69 (3.0) = 13.48
C4AF = 3.04 F = 3.04 (3.0) = 9.12
Case 2
C3S = 4.07 (63.0) – 7.60 (22.0) – 6.72 (7.7) – 1.43 (3.3) – 2.85 (0) = 32.7
C2S = 2.87 (22.0) – 0.75 (32.7) = 38.6
C3A = 2.65 (7.7) – 1.69 (3.3) = 14.8
C4AF = 3.04 (3.3) = 10.0
Case 3
C3S = 4.07 (66.0) – 7.60 (20.0) – 6.72 (5.5) – 1.43 (4.5) – 2.85 (0) = 73.2
C2S = 2.87 (20.0) – 0.75 (73.2) = 2.5
C3A = 2.65 (5.5) – 1.69 (4.5) = 7.0 51
51
C4AF = 3.04 (4.5) = 13.7
Influence of Change in Oxide

Composition of Compound
Composition
Percentage in Cement No.
(1) (2) (3)
Oxide
CaO 66.0 63.0 66.0
SiO2 20.0 22.0 20.0
Al2O3 7.0 7.7 5.5
Fe2O3 3.0 3.3 4.5
Others 4.0 4.0 4.0
Compound
C3S 65 33 73
C2S 8 38 2
C3A 14 15 7
C4AF 9 10 14 52
52
Minor changes in oxide composition changes C3S:C2S ratio significantly
Properties of Major Compounds
53
53
Fineness of Cement
Smaller cement particles have more surface
area to react with water
Fineness controls the
rate of hydration
(heat & strength gain)
Too fine is more
expensive and can
be harmful
54
54
Fineness on Surface Area
55
55
Measurement of Cement
Fineness
Surface area measured indirectly (cm2/g)
Blaine test – Measures air Wagner Turbidimeter – Measures
permeability against known sedimentation rate suspended in kerosene -
standard material finer settles slower
56
56
Physical Properties of Portland
Cement
Specific gravity Gcement  3.15
Measured for cement particles without air voids
Bulk unit weight (weight required to fill a container) is highly
variable.
Cement should not be measured by volume
Particle shape: Angular SEM of unhydrated OPC particles
[Photo courtesy David Lange, UIUC]
Particle Sizes: 0.1 to 90 m
57
57
Hydration of Cement
58
58
Hydration of A Cement Grain
With Time
59
59
When Water Is Added to

Cement, What Happens?
Dissolution of cement grains
Growing ionic concentration in “water” (now a
solution)
Formation of compounds in solution
After reaching a saturation concentration,
compounds precipitate out as solids (“hydration
products”)
In later stages, products form on or very near the
surface of the anhydrous cement
Volume of hydration product = 2.14x volume of 60
60
cement
Hydration of Calcium Silicates
(75% of Cement)
2C3S + 6H → C3S2H3 + 3CH
2C2S + 4H → C3S2H3 + CH
C3S hydration is more rapid and evolving more heat
C3S is responsible for the setting of cement (or
concrete) and contributes to early age strength (2-3
hrs to 14 days)
C2S hydration occurs more slowly and contributes to
later age strength after ~7-14 days
C3S produces more CH (source for sulfate attack)
61
61
Hydration of Tricalcium
Aluminate
Pure C3A hydrates rapidly and produce flash set
C3A + 6H → 3C3AH6
In the presence of gypsum, C3A hydration is
controlled and flash setting is avoided
C3A + 3CSH2 + 26H → C6AS3H32
Gypsum Ettringite
Ettringite, i.e. calcium sulfoaluminate (source for
sulfate attack)
The aluminates hydrates faster than silicates
with increased heat of hydration
62
62
Microstructure of Hydration
Products
C-S-H Calcium Hydroxide Ettringite
63
63
Photo courtesy of Paulo Monteiro, UC-Berkely
Characteristics of Hydration
Products
Phase % by Vol. Strength Remarks
Calcium Silicate Hydrate 50 – 60 Provides major

(C-S-H) cohesive force
Calcium Hydroxide 20 – 25 Reduces porosity Causes sulfate

(CH) attack
Calcium Sulfoaluminates 15 – 20 Not significant Causes sulfate

(C6AS3H32) attack
Unhydrated cement ~5 Significant only in

low porosity pastes
64
64
Heat of Hydration of Cement
The hydration reaction of Portland cement are
all exothermic, meaning liberates heat
Quantity of heat evolved depends on
Chemical composition
Temperature
Time
Fineness of cement
Heat evolved (J/g)
65
65
Example
66
66
Solution
67
67
Solution
68
68
Practice Question
69
69
Development of Structures in
Hydrating Cement Paste
72
72
Development of Structures in
Hydrating Cement Paste
73
73
Microstructure of Hydrated
Cement Paste
74
74
Structure of Cement Paste
Fresh Several months old
Mix water in Unhydrated Hydrates

capillary pores cement (gel)
75
75
Voids in Hardened Cement Paste

Gel pores (0.5 – 10 nm): Interlayer hydration space
Space between C-S-H gel atomic layers
Gel porosity = 26% (independent of w/c ratio and age)
Water held by strong hydrogen bonds
Loss of water leads to high shrinkage
High temperature & low humidity (<11%RH) removes gel water
Capillary voids (10 nm to 10 m)
Reduces strength/stiffness and increases permeability
Depends on initial porosity (w/c ratio) and degree of hydration
Entrained air (10 m – 1 mm)
Microscopic bubbles caused by admixtures
No effect on permeability; improved durability
Entrapped air ( > 1 mm)
Large pockets caused by handling
76
Decrease strength and increase permeability 76
Initial Porosity of Cement Paste
77
77
Practice Question
Determine the initial porosity of binder paste

when the water to binder ratio is 0.40. The
GGBS content is 65% of the total binder by
weight. Sp. Gr. Of GGBS and cement are 2.90
and 3.15, respectively.
78
78
Water to Cement Ratio
The most important property of hydrating cement
Extra water beyond hydration needs causes
capillary voids
Increases porosity and permeability
Decreases strength
Decreases durability
Water to cement ratio (W/C) is expended to
water to cementitious material ratio (W/CM)
when supplementary cementitious materials are
used as the binder system
81
81
Abram’s Law on W/C Ratio and

Concrete Compressive Strength
Abram’s law
A
 w
B c
82
82
Degree of Hydration (Maturity)
Fraction of cement hydrated, , ranging from 0 to 1
Minimum w/c ratio for completion hydration: 0.42
83
83
Setting of Portland Cement

Setting: stiffening of the cement paste from a fluid to a rigid stage
• Initial set: paste is beginning to stiffen considerably and can no longer be
molded. Generally occurs in 2 to 4 hrs.
• Final set: paste has hardened to the point at which it can sustain some load.
Generally occurs in 5 to 8 hrs.
84
84
Tests on Time of Setting -
Penetration of Weighted Needle
The time from the addition of the
water to the initial and final set are
known as the setting times.
Vicat Needle (ASTM C 191)
Initial set occurs when needle
penetrates 25 mm into paste
Final set when there is no visible
penetration
85
85
Remarks on Setting
Handling, placing, & vibrating must be completed
before initial set
Finishing between initial and final
Curing after final set
False Set: premature stiffening within a few minutes
Due to humidity in cement during storage
Remix vigorously without adding water to resolve this
problem
False set is different than a flash set – cannot be fixed
86
86
Soundness
Soundness: Ability to retain is volume against
expansion after setting
Expansion after setting due to delayed or slow hydration
or other reactions
Autoclave expansion test (ASTM C151) is used to check
the soundness of the cement paste
Cement paste bars are subjected to heat and high pressure
Frame for measuring

length of sample
before and after
Sample molds Autoclave
autoclave conditioning
87
87
Compressive Strength of Cement

ASTM C109
• Average of three 50 mm mortar cubes
• Proportional to compressive strength of cylinders
• Compressive strength of concrete cannot be
accurately predicted from cement strength
Mold
Prepare sample Compression Typical failure
test 88
88
Standard Portland Cement Types
(ASTM C150)
I Normal
II Moderate Sulfate Resistance
Lower C3A content
III High Early Strength
Finer; greater surface area
Becoming cheaper & more common
We can strip forms earlier and speed up production
IV Low Heat of Hydration
Lower C3S and C3A content
For large, massive pours to control heat of hydration
V High Sulfate Resistance 89
89
Lower C3A content
Typical Chemical Composition and

Properties of Portland Cements,
ASTM Types I to V
ASTM Typea I II III IV V
C3S 55 55 55 42 55
C2S 18 19 17 32 22
C3A 10 6 10 4 4
C4AF 8 11 8 15 12
CSH2 6 5 6 4 4
Fineness (Blaine, m2/kg) 365 375 550 340 380
Compressive strengthb (1 day, MPa) 15 14 24 4 12
Heat of Hydration (7 days, J/g) 350 265 370 235 310
a Canadian Standards Association designations are 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50, respectively
b Test on 50 mm mortar cubes (ASTM C 109)
90
90
Practice Question
91
91
Supplementary Cementitious
Materials (SCM)
Inorganic material
Particle size similar or smaller than that of cement
Used as either partial cement replacement (or addition)
Property modification of concrete
Reduce energy cost and economic benefit
Environmental benefit
Added separately as concrete ingredient
Incorporated in cement (Blended cement)
Common SCM
Fly ash
Silica fume
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag
96
96
Fly Ash
By-product of coal combustion in power stations
Most commonly used SCM in civil engineering
structures
Particle size is similar to cement
Two types of fly ash (ASTM C 618)
Class C fly ash: pozzolanic and cementitous
Class F fly ash: pozzolanic
97
97
Silica Fume
By-product from in the manufacture of silicon
metal and alloys
Super Pozzolan
High fineness (particle size is 1/100th of cement)
High silica content (>95%)
Challenge on handling
Wet: slurry in water
Dry: densified form
Challenge on dispersion
98
98
Ground Granulated Blast-furnace
Slag (GGBS)
Residues from the blast furnace production of iron
Molten slag is rapidly chilled by quenching in water to
form a hydraulically active calcium aluminosilicate
glass (granulates)
The granulated material are ground to similar size as
cement for use as a SCM
GGBS is both cementitous and pozzolanic
GGBS needs to be activated by alkaline compounds
(commonly activated by Portland cement) otherwise it
reacts very slow with water (several months)
The rate of hydration of activated slag is slow, similar
99
99
to that of C2S, as is the heat of hydration
Pozzolanic Reaction
A pozzolanic material is one contains active silica and
is not cementitious in itself reactive but will, in a finely
divided form and in the presence of moisture,
chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary
temperatures to form cementitious compounds
Pozzolanic reaction slow
CH + pozzolan (S) + H → C-S-H
Addition of pozzolan has similar effect to raising C2S
content of cement (i.e. lower heat evolution and lower
early strength)
Slow reaction requires prolonged moist curing;
100
otherwise pozzolan act mainly as a filler100
SCM on Fresh Concrete
101
101
SCM on Hardened Concrete
Reduces early age strength & increases ultimate strength

(FA & GGBS); both early & ultimate strength increase (SF)
102
102
SCM and Sustainability
1.7
103
103
AGGREGATES
104
104
Stone As A Building Material
105
105
Aggregates for Concrete Mixes
106
106
Roles of Aggregates in
Concrete
107
107
Concrete Properties VS Aggregate

Properties
108
108
Classification of Aggregate: Size
109
109
Aggregate Sizes
Coarse aggregate material retained on a sieve
with 4.75 mm openings
Fine aggregate material passing a sieve with 4.75
mm openings
Maximum aggregate size – the
largest sieve size that allows all the
1”
aggregates to pass
Nominal maximum aggregate size
4.75mm
– the first sieve to retain some
aggregate, generally less than #4 sieve =
four openings/linear
10% inch
110
110
Classification of Aggregate:
Source
Natural
Natural sand & gravel pits, river rock
Quarries (crushed)
River gravel
Geological classification
Igneous: Basalt; Granite
Sedimentary: Limestone; Sandstone
Metamorphic: Marble; Quartzite
Crushed rock
111
111
Natural Aggregate Mining
Sand from river deposit
Quarry
112
112
Crushed Aggregate
Production
113
113
Classification of Aggregate:
Source
Manufactured & recycled materials:
Pulverized concrete & asphalt
Steel mill slag
Steel slugs
Expanded shale
Styrofoam
114
114
Aggregate Properties
Aggregates’ properties are used to determine if
aggregate is suitable for a particular application
and are needed for concrete mix design
Shape and texture
Soundness and durability
Hardness and abrasion resistance
Absorption
Typical source properties
Specific gravity
Strength
Gradation Needed for PCC mix design
Cleanness and deleterious materials
Alkali-aggregate reactivity 115
115
Aggregate Shape on
Concrete Fresh Properties
116
116
Particle Shapes of Aggregates
Rounded: river gravel
Better packing, lowest voids ratio 33%
Less interlocking between particles
Angular: crushed rock
Loose packing, higher voids ratio
Interlocking between particles is good
Flaky: small thickness
Elongated: length considerable
Flaky & elongated: thin & long
Bad for concrete durability because of easy breakage and
difficulty compacting
117
Should be restricted to 10-15% in concrete 117
design
Angular Rounded Flaky
Elongated Flaky & Elongated
118
118
Particle Shape Characterization
Angularity number
Voids ratio – 33
Higher the number, more angular the aggregate
The range for practical aggregate is between 0
(rounded) and 11 (angular)
Flaky
Particle is flaky if its smallest
dimension (thickness) is less
than 60% of the “middle” dimension
Particle is elongated if its largest dimension
(length) is more than 1.8 times of the “middle”
dimension Elongated
119
119
120
120
Surface Texture of Aggregate
121
121
Soundness & Durability

Resist weathering
water freezing in voids fractures & disintegrates aggregates
Test method uses “salt solution” to simulate freezing (ASTM
C88)
Prepare sample Soak 16 hrs – dry 4 hrs Measure gradation

minimum mass Repeat cycle 5 times
specified gradation
122
122
Hardness & Abrasion Resistance
Resist load damage
Los Angeles abrasion test
During construction
(ASTM C131, C535)
Traffic loads
•Prepare sample •Charge drum w/ •Sieve

•Minimum mass sample
original •Steel spheres 123
•Specified gradation •500 revolutions 123
Absorption
Internal impervious pores
pores partially filled Free moisture
Bone/oven dry – Air dry – Saturated surface dry – Moist –

dried in oven moisture condition moisture condition moisture condition
to constant mass state undefined state undefined state undefined
WOD Wm WSSD=W OD+Wp Wm
Moisture content Absorption Moisture content
Wm  WOD WSSD  WOD Wm  WOD
M
WOD
100 A
M
WOD
100 M 
WOD
100
Absorption is the moisture content when the aggregates are in the SSD condition
Free moisture is the moisture content in excess of the SSD condition.
Percent free moisture = M - A
Important for proportioning concrete 124
negative free moisture – aggregates
124 will absorb water
positive free moisture – aggregates will release water
Example
A sample of sand has the following

properties:
Moist mass = 625.2 g
Dry mass = 589.9 g
Absorption = 1.6%
Determine: (a) total moisture content, and (b)
free moisture content.
125
125
Solution
(a) Mass of water = 625.2 – 589.9 = 35.3 g

Total moisture content
= (35.3/589.9) x 100 %
= 6.0 %
(b) Free moisture = 6.0 – 1.6 = 4.4 %
126
126
Practice Question
A sample of 10 kg of wet sand was dried
in an oven at 105oC until a constant weight
was reached. The oven-dried weight was
9.355 kg. What is the moisture content of
the sand? If the oven-dried sand has the
capacity to absorb water equals to 2% of
the oven-dry weight to become saturated,
what will be the weight of the saturated
surface dry aggregate?
127
127
Specific Gravity
Knowing density of aggregate is required in
concrete mix design to establish weight-
volume relationships
Density is expressed as specific gravity
Specific gravity (SG) is a dimensionless ratio
relating density of aggregate to that of water
density of solid
SG 
density of water
Density of water @ 4C is 1000 kg/m3
130
130
Effects of Voids in Aggregates
Permeable pores in aggregates create
multiple definitions of specific gravity
Apparent, ASG Impermeable pores
Bulk-dry, BSGOD
Bulk-saturated surface dry
, BSGSSD
Permeable pores 131

131
Apparent Specific Gravity
Dry weigth of Agg. 1

ASG  
Vol. of Agg.  impermeable pores  w
WOD

(Vs  Vi )  w
Solid Impermeable pore 132

132
Bulk Specific Gravity, Oven Dry
Dry weight of aggregate 1

BSGOD  
Vol . of Agg.  both permeable and impermeable pores  w
WOD

(Vs  Vi  V p )  w
WOD

VSSD  w Permeable pore
133
133
Bulk Specific Gravity, SSD
SSD weight of aggregate 1

BSGSSD  
Vol . of Agg .  both permeable and impermeable pores  w
WOD  W p

(Vs  Vi  V p )  w
WSSD

VSSD  w
134
134
BSGSSD for Concrete Mix Design
Water in permeable pores of aggregate does not

participate in cement hydration and should not
be count into W/C ratio
Effective volume that SSD aggregate occupies
in concrete include permeable pores
BSGSSD is used in concrete mix design as the
reference state for mix design purpose
135
135
Determination of SG and
Absorption for Coarse Aggregate
(ASTM C127)
Sample of a coarse aggregate is soaked for 24
hours and rolled in a large absorbent cloth to
remove all visible surface moisture to achieve the
SSD condition
Weighed suspended in water, Ww
The sample is then dried to SSD condition again
and weighed, WSSD
Finally, the sample is bond dried and weighed, WOD
136
136
http://youtu.be/NlN3OgiMcms
Wbuoy  VSSD  w
Ww  WSSD  Wbuoy  WSSD  VSSD  w
WSSD
VSSD  w  WSSD  Ww Ww
WSSD WSSD
 BSGSSD  
VSSD  w WSSD  Ww
137
137 W buoy
BD SSD
WSSD WSSD
BSGSSD  
WOD WOD
BSGOD  
WOD WOD WOD
ASG   
(VSSD  V p )  w (WSSD  Ww )  W p WOD  Ww
WSSD  WOD
Absorption (%)  100
WOD
138
138
Example
A sample of coarse aggregate weighs 5360 g

when oven dry, 5545 g when saturated surface-
dry, and 3338 g submerged. What is the bulk
specific gravity (SSD)? What is absorption
capacity?
139
139
Solution
W OD = 5,360 g
WSSD = 5,455 g
W w = 3,338 g
BSGSSD = W SSD / (W SSD - W w)
= 5455 / (5455 - 3338)
= 2.57
A = (W SSD - W OD) / W OD
= (5455 – 5360) / 5360
= 1.8 %
140
140
Example
A 1000-g sample from the stockpile of the same

aggregate as in the previous example weighted
637 g when immersed in water. Calculate the
free moisture content of the aggregate in the
stockpile.
141
141
pores partially filled

W stock = 1,000 g
Air dry –
W w = 637 g moisture condition
state undefined
BSGSSD = 2.72 Wm
Moisture content
A = 1.8% W Wm OD
M 100
BSGSSD = W SSD / (W SSD - W w) W OD
→ W SSD = 637 x 2.72 / (2.72 - 1) = 1,007 g

W stock is 7 g less than W SSD
A = (W SSD - W OD) / W OD
→ W OD = 989 g
M = (1,000 – 989) / 989 = 1.1%
142
142
Practice Question
143
143
Determination of SG and
Absorption for Fine Aggregate
(ASTM C128)
Sample of a fine aggregate is soaked for 24 hours to
achieve SSD condition
A 500-g SSD sample (WSSD) is planed in pycnometer,
a constant volume flask
Water is added to the constant volume mark on the
pycnometer and weighed, Wpyc,w+s
Remove the sample and water from the pycnometer
and re-fill the pycnometer with water only to the same
volume mark and weighed, Wpyc,w 146
146
The sample is then bond dried and weighed, WOD
+ = - =
W pycn,w W SSD W tot W extra W pycn,w+s

VSSD Vextra
VSSD  Vextra
VSSD  w  Vextra  w  Wextra  Wtot  W pycn ,w s  W pycn,w  WSSDs  W pycn ,w s
WSSD WSSD
 BSGSSD  
VSSD  w W pycn ,w  WSSD  W pycn,w s
147
147
WSSD WSSD BD SSD

BSGSSD  
VSSD  w W pycn ,w  WSSD  W pycn , w s
WOD WOD
BSGOD  
VSSD  w W pycn ,w  WSSD  W pycn , w s
WOD WOD
ASG  
(VSSD  V p )  w (W pycn , w  WSSD  W pycn , w s )  W p
WOD
 Pycnometer used for FA
W pycn , w  WOD  W pycn , w s Specific Gravity
WSSD  WOD
Absorption (%)  100
WOD
148
148
Example
A sample of fine aggregate weights 500 g

when SSD and 492.6 g when OD. A flask
weighing 35.3 g empty weighs 537.6 g
when filled with water and 846.2 g when
filled with the aggregate sample and
water. What are the bulk specific gravity
(SSD) and absorption capacity?
149
149
Solution
W OD = 492.6 g
WSSD = 500.0 g
W pycn,w = 537.6 g
W pycn,w+s = 846.2 g
BSGSSD = W SSD / (W pycn,w + W SSD - W pycn,w+s)
= 500 / (537.6 + 500 - 846.2)
= 2.61
A (%) = (W SSD - W OD) / W OD x 100
= (500 – 492.6) / 492.6 x 100
= 1.5 %
150
150
Bulk Unit Weight & Voids in
Aggregates
Sometimes we need to know the mass or weight
of aggregate required to fill a volume, e.g. the
volume of coarse aggregate in a cubic yard of
concrete, for the proportioning of concrete
Bulk unit weight or bulk density is the weight of
aggregate required to fill a “unit” volume. Typical
units are cubic meters and cubic feet
Voids in aggregate is the percentage of voids
between aggregate particles
151
151
Test on Aggregate Bulk Unit

Weight (ASTM C29)
Loose Compacted
Shovel dry aggregate into Shovel dry aggregate into
container container
Limit drop < 2” above rim of Fill to 1/3 of volume
container Rod 25 times
Strike off aggregate level with Repeat 3x to fill container
top of container Strike off aggregate level with
top of container
Determine weight of aggregate
in container, W agg Determine weight of aggregate
in container, W agg
Compute unit weight, UW
Compute unit weight, UW
Wagg
UW 
Vbox
 UW 
percent of voids  1  152    100%152
 BSGOD   w 
Example
Coarse aggregate is placed in a rigid bucket
and rodded with a tamping rod to determine its
unit weight. The following data are obtained:
Volume of bucket = 0.01 m3
Weight of empty bucket = 8.4 kg
Weight of bucket filled with dry rodded coarse
aggregate = 25.4 kg
(a) Calculate the dry-rodded unit weight
(b) If the oven-dried bulk specific gravity of the
aggregate is 2.63, calculate the percent voids
in the aggregate
153
153
Solution
(a) Dry-rodded unit weight

= (25.4 – 8.4) / 0.01
= 1700 kg/m3
(b) Volume of particles
= [1700 / (2.63 x 1000)]
= 64.6 %
Volume of voids
= 1 – 64.6 %
= 35.4 %
154
154
Example
An aggregate blend of 40% sand and 60%
gravel has a unit weight of 1,920 kg/m3. If the
oven-dried BSG of the sand is 2.60 and the of
the gravel is 2.70, calculate the volume percent
of void space in the blend.
155
155 155
Solution
Vagg = UW agg / (BSGOD x w)
Vagg = 0.40 x [1,920 / (2.6 x 1,000)]

+ 0.60 x [1,920 / (2.7 x 1,000)]
= 72.2 %
Vv = 1 – Vagg
= 27.8 %
156
156
Practice Question
If the mass of a vessel full of water is 15

kg, the mass of empty vessel is 5 kg. The
mass of the vessel with compacted coarse
aggregate is 21 kg, calculate the bulk
density of coarse aggregate. If the oven-
dried BSG of coarse aggregate is 2,600,
determine the void
157
157
Strength
Strength of concrete cannot exceed strength of
aggregates
Aggregate strength is important in high-strength
concrete and in the surface course on heavily
traveled pavements
Difficult and rare to test the strength of aggregate
particles. Rather, tests on the parent rock (drilled
cylinder, 1.5-2.5” in dia.) or a bulk aggregate
sample as an indirect estimation of strength
Typical compressive strength of 35 – 350 MPa
160
160
Concrete Strength
(The Weakest Link Theory)
161
161
Gradation
Gradation is an
important attribute
to produce
economical
concrete
Max. density (i.e.
min. voids)
Min. cement content
162
162
Sieve Analysis for Gradation
Gradation: Particle size distribution of aggregate
Sieve Analysis: Process of dividing aggregate into
fractions of same particle size in order to determine
gradation of aggregate
Standard coarse sieves: 37.5mm; 19mm; 9.5mm; 4.75mm
Standard fine sieves: 4.75mm; 2.36mm; 1.18mm; 0.60mm;
0.30mm; 0.15mm
Grading Curve: Usually described by the cumulative
percentage of aggregates that either pass through or
retained by a specific sieve size
163
163
164
164
Sieve Analysis for Fine Aggregate
Sample & Fineness Modulus
Sieve size Weight Cumulative Cumulative
No. % retained
(mm) retained (g) % retained % passing
4.75 4 0 0 0 100
2.36 8 241.9 11.9 11.9 88.1
1.18 16 388.9 19.1 31.0 69.0
0.60 30 505.5 24.9 55.9 44.1
0.30 50 543.4 26.7 82.6 17.4
0.15 100 340.8 16.8 99.4 0.6
Pan 11.3 0.6 100 0
Total 2031.8 100
11.9  31.0  55.9  82.6  99.4 280.8

FM    2.81 165
100 100
165
Fineness Modulus
A measure of gradation fineness
FM = ∑ (Cumulative % retained on standard sieves up
to 0.15 mm) / 100
FM   i
R
100
FM cannot be representative of a distribution, i.e. two
different grading curves can have same FMs
Higher FM, coarser aggregate
Lower FM is not economical
166
166
Semi Log Grading Graph
167
167
Example
The following results were obtained from

the sieve analysis of fine aggregate
sample
Sieve size (mm) 9.5 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.60 0.30 0.15 Pan
Retained (g) 0 6 31 30 59 107 53 21
Draw the grading curve for the fine aggregate

Determine the fineness modulus of the fine
aggregate
168
168
Solution
Sieve size Mass % Cumulative Cumulative
BS (ASTM) retained, g retained % retained % passing
9.50 mm (3/8 in.) 0 0.0 0 100
4.75 mm (No. 4) 6 2.0 2 98
2.36 mm (No. 8) 31 10.1 12 88
1.18 mm (No. 16) 30 9.8 22 78
600 m (No. 30) 59 19.2 41 59
300 m (No. 50) 107 34.9 76 24
150 m (No. 100) 53 17.3 93 7
< 150 m 21 6.8 --- ---
Total 307 246
FM 2.46
169
169
Log Log
Practice Question
Using the following data, determine percent retained,
cumulative percent retained, and percent passing for
each sieve. Plot the gradation curve. Determine the
nominal maximum size of aggregate, the fineness
modulus, and the percentage of fines passing a 600
m sieve.
Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate
Sieve Size Wt. Retained Sieve Size Wt. Retained
(mm) (gm) (mm) (gm)
76.0 736 4.75 0
38.1 2626 2.36 80.6
19.0 1030 1.18 122.0
9.50 625 0.60 52.3
Pan 96 0.30 35.1
0.15 101.4
Pan 91.0 170
170
Practice Questions
175
175
Schematic Representations of
Different Agg. Gradation
Continuous
Corresponding grading curves
Uniform
178
178
Types of Gradation
Continuous (Well graded, dense)
Has a good mix of all particle sizes which means the
aggregates use most of the volume and less cement
is needed
One-size gradation (Uniform)
All same size = nearly vertical curve
Gap-graded
Missing some sizes = nearly horizontal section of
curve
Open-Graded
Missing small aggregates which fill in holes between
larger ones
179
Lower part of curve is skewed toward 179
large sizes
General Grading Requirement for

Fine Aggregate (ASTM C33)
120
Sieve Percent
upper bound Passing
100
lower bound 9.5 mm (3/8) 100
80
4.75 mm (No. 4) 95–100
% Passing
60 2.36 mm (No. 8) 80–100
40 1.18 mm (No. 16) 50–85
20 0.60 mm (No. 30) 25–60
0 0.30 mm (No. 50) 10–30

0.1 1 10 0.15 mm (No. 100) 2–10
Sieve Opening (mm)
180
180
General Grading Requirement for
Coarse Aggregate (ASTM C33)
Percentage by mass passing sieves
Sieve size
Nominal size of graded aggregate
mm 37.5 to 4.75 mm 19.0 to 4.75 mm 12.5 to 4.75 mm
75.0 --- --- ---
63.0 --- --- ---
50.0 100 --- ---
37.5 95-100 --- ---
25.0 --- 100 ---
19.0 35-70 90-100 100
12.5 --- --- 90-100
9.5 10-30 20-55 40-70
4.75 0-5 0-10 0-15
2.36 --- 0-5 0-5
181
181
Cleanness and Deleterious

Materials
Deleterious Substances: Aggregate
contaminated by materials that adversely affects
the quality of concrete
Substance Harmful Effect
Delay setting and hardening, may reduce
Organic impurities
strength gain, may cause deterioration
Minus 0.075 mm (No.200) Weaken bond, may increase water requirement
Coal, lignite or other low-density
Reduce durability, may cause popouts or stains
materials
Clay lumps and friable particles Popouts, reduce durability and wear resistance
Soft particles Reduce durability and wear resistance, popouts
182
182
Silt Test for Sand
Silt content = (height of silt layer / height of sand)
Silt content should not be more than 8%
183
183
Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity
Alkali-silica reaction: Silica in some agg. reacts with
the alkalis (Na2O, K2O) in Portland Cement (especially
in warm, humid climates)
Excessive expansion
Cracking
Spalling
Alkali-carbonate reaction: Carbonates in aggregate
can also react to a lesser extent
Minimizing reactivity if a reactive aggregate must be
used
Type II cement – minimizes alkali content of P.C.
Keep concrete as dry as possible
Fly Ash, GGBS, silica fume reduce alkali reactivity 184
184
Sweetening – add 30% crushed limestone to the aggregate
Tests on Alkali-Aggregate
Reactivity
ASTM C227 – tests expansion potential
of cement-agg. combination
expansion of mortar bar at specific temp. &
humidity
ASTM C289 – reactive silicates in agg.
ASTM C586 – reactive carbonates in
agg.
185
185
Sampling Aggregates
Random and representative of
entire stockpile
Sample from entire width of
conveyor belts at several locations
Sample from top, middle, and
bottom of stockpile at several
locations around stockpile
diameter
Use larger sample for testing
Sample Splitter
larger max. size
Sample splitting or quartering
To reduce sample size from large
stockpile to small 1-5 kg sample 186
186
Quartering
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ADMIXTURE
195
195
Admixtures
Classification
Chemical admixtures
Mineral admixtures
Admixtures exclude essential concrete
ingredients
They should be used cautiously and for
good reason
196
196
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Chemical Admixtures for Concrete

Commonly used to improve properties of fresh and
hardened concrete
Materials that are added in small amounts to the
concrete (usually no larger than 5% by weight of
cement) and dissolved in mixing water
Types of admixtures
Set-controlling admixtures
Accelerators
Retarders
Air-entraining admixtures
Water-reducing admixtures
Water reducers
Superplasticizers 197
197
Accelerators
These admixtures accelerate the setting, hardening or
the development of early strength of concrete
Used to
Reduce the amount of time before finishing operations begin
reduce curing time
Increase rate of strength gain
Applications
Urgent repair work
Early formwork removal (productivity)
Cold-weather concreting
Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is most common
198
198
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Retarders
These admixtures delay or retard initial set
Slowing down the early hydration reaction
Usually doesn't reduce final set time much
May reduce early strength
Applications
Hot weather concreting: the normal setting time is
shortened by higher temperature
Unusual placement
Long haul distance
Special finishes (e.g., exposed aggregate)
Sugar is a cheap retarder
199
199
Air Entrainers
These admixtures produce tiny, dispersed air bubbles
into the concrete
Water expands as it freezes causing internal stress that
cracks the hardened cement paste and greatly reduces
durability
Air entrainer provides space for the water to go as it expands
Recommended for all concrete exposed to freezing
Improve workability, resistance to freeze-thaw
cycles, de-icing chemicals, sulfates, & alkalis-silica
reaction
Decreases strength (1% air causes 5% loss in
strength) but can be compensated with lower w/c 200
200
ratio
3
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Mechanism of Air Entraining

Are surface-active agents which acts at the air-water
interface, causing water to foam during mixing, similar
to detergents
The fine foam remains stable until it is “locked” into the
cement paste during hardening
201
201
Thin section of concrete with air voids dyed blue
Different from entrapped air which is harmful larger bubbles

Frost resistance improves with decreasing void size 202
202
Small voids reduce strength less than large ones
4
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Water Reducers
(Normal and Mid-Range)
These admixtures lower the water required (8-12%
reduction) to attain a given slump
Use to
Improve workability at same w/c ratio
Increase strength at same workability
Reduce cost at same w/c ratio and workability
Cement Compressive
Water/Cement Slump Strength (MPa)
(Source: Hewlett 1978) content
Ratio (mm)
(kg/m3) 7 day 28 day
Base mix 300 0.62 50 25 37
Improve
300 0.62 100 26 38
workability
Increase
300 0.56 50 34 46
strength
203
Reduce costs 270 0.62 50 25.5 37.5
Mechanism of Water Reduction

Without Water Reducer: Unlike
charges attract, causing cluster
of cement grains or flocculate
Molecule of
Water Reducer
With Water Reducer: Repulsion of

like charges pushes the cement
grains apart
204
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Mechanism of Water Reduction
Cement particles in the absence of dispersing agent Effect of dispersant on the cement-water mixture
Addition of water reducer results in:

Liberating water entrapped by surrounding cement particles so that it can
contribute to fluidity of concrete
Making additional surfaces of cement particles available for early hydration
205
205
Source: “Concrete Admixture” by Dodson, V.H.
Superplasticizers
(High-Range Water Reducers)
These are a more recent and more effective
type of water reducer (12-30% reduction)
Used to produce flowing concrete in situations
where placing in inaccessible locations or where
very rapid placing is required
Also used to produce very-high
strength concrete, using
normal workability but a very
low w/c
206
206
6
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FRESH CONCRETE
211
211
Outline
Workability
Factors affecting workability
Workability tests
Cohesion and segregation
Bleeding
212
212
7
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Workability of Concrete
Definition
Effort required to manipulate a concrete
mixture with a minimum segregation.
Low workability
http://youtu.be/tqP1DDYt2Gk
High workability
http://youtu.be/C9g5fAkpWNA
213
213
Two Main Components of

Workability
Consistency describes the ease of flow. It is
measured by slump-cone test or Vebe
apparatus.
Cohesiveness describes the tendency to bleed

or segregate.
214
214
8
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Factors Affecting Workability
Water content
Aggregate type and grading
Aggregate/cement ratio
Presence of admixtures
Fineness of cement
Time
Temperature
215
215
Effect of Water Content on

Slump
•Reducing strength
•Segregation
•Bleeding
216
216
9
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Effect of Agg. Shape on Slump
217
217
Effect of Agg. Size on Slump
Slump decreases as specific surface are of aggregate increases (smaller size), since
218
this requires a greater proportion of water to wet aggregate particles,
218 thus leaving a
smaller amount of water for lubrication.
10
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Influence of
Aggregate to
Cement Ratio
on Workability
If water to cement (w/c)
ratio is kept constant,
the decrease of
aggregate to cement
(agg/c) ratio will
increase water content.
Therefore, it will
increase the workability
219
219
Effect of Admixtures on Slump

The principal admixtures affecting improvement in
workability of concrete are water-reducing and air-
entraining agents.
The extent of increase in workability is dependent on
the type and amount of admixture used and the
general characteristics of the fresh concrete
220
220
11
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Effect of Time & Temperature on

Workability
Some water from

the mix is absorbed by the
aggregate, some is lost by evaporation,
and some is removed by initial chemical reactions.
The reduction of water content will cause Slump Loss
221
221
Factors Affecting Workability

of Fresh Concrete
Workability
Constituent material Time Ambient conditions
Wind
Cement Water Admixture Aggregate Temperature Humidity
speed
Coarse- Surface
Max. size Shape Grading Absorption
fine ratio texture
222
222
Source: Jackson & Dhir
12
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Workability Tests
Slump test
Compacting factor test
Vebe test
223
223
Slump Test
Use inverted cone http://youtu.be/Hmo7tMsRD1g
Fill it up with three

layers of equal volume
Rod each layer 25
times
Scrape off surface
Cone lift away vertically
Slump measurement: Unit: mm
Downward movement
of the concrete
Developed in US by Chapman, 1913 224
224
13
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Slump Test
225
225
Slump Test
226
226
14
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Types of Slump
227
227
Types of Slump
Zero Slump
Very low workability
True Slump
Low to medium workability
Shear Slump
Poorly designed mix
Less cohesiveness
Collapse Slump
Very high workability;
Flowing concrete
228
228
15
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Compacting Factor
Test Procedure
Upper hopper is filled with concrete
Bottom door of upper hopper is then
released and concrete falls into lower
hopper
Bottom door of lower hopper is released
and concrete falls into cylinder
Excess concrete is cut and net weight
of concrete in known volume of cylinder
is determined
The density of concrete in cylinder is
now calculated, and this density divided
by density of fully compacted concrete
is defined as Compacting Factor 229
229
http://youtu.be/SRo2vYw_QPI
Compacting Factor Test
Compacting factor test is more accurate than

slump test, especially for concrete mixes of
medium and low workability, i.e. compacting
factor of 0.9 to 0.8, because the test is more
sensitive and gives more consistent results
For concrete with very low workability, 0.7 or
below, the test is not suitable
Concrete can not be fully compacted for comparison
in the manner described in the test
230
230
16
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Vebe Test
Time for standard cone to
be compacted flat by glass
plate on vibrating table
It is assumed energy
required for compaction is
a measure of workability,
and this is expressed in
Vebe seconds, i.e. time
required for remolding to
be complete
http://youtu.be/8n2wpCwYtq4 231
231
Vebe Test
Good laboratory test,
particularly for very
dry mixes
Treatment of
concrete during test
is comparatively
closely related to
method of placing in
practice
232
232
17
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Cohesion and Segregation
Concrete with good workability ought to be

cohesive, should not segregate
Segregation can be defined as separation

of constituents of a heterogeneous mixture
so that their distribution is no longer
uniform
233
233
Segregation
Tendency for
Sand-cement mortar to separate
from coarse aggregate
Cement paste to separate from
fine aggregate
Caused by
Excessive vibration
Dropping fresh concrete
from a height
Poor grading
High slump
234
234
http://youtu.be/aHNxq-Eda0c
18
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Bleeding (Water Gain)
A form of segregation in which some of the

water in mix tends to rise to the surface of
freshly placed concrete
Create a porous and weak layer of non-durable
concrete and zones of poor bond between
cement paste and large aggregate particles or
reinforcement
235
235
Bleeding
Cause by Control of bleeding

Lack of fines (300 mm and Increasing cement fineness or
below) using SCM (i.e. pozzolans)
High free water content Increasing hydration rate (C3A)
236
Water reducing admixture Reducing free
236water content
overdose
19
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Interaction Between Bleeding

and Evaporation
237
237
To prevent plastic shrinkage
Bleeding Rate of OPC and

Silica Fume Concrete
238
238
20
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Suggested Valued of Workability

of Fresh Concrete for Different
Placing Conditions
Values of workability
Degree of Compacting factor, max.

Placing condition Vebe time, slump for 20
workability size of agg.
mm agg.
10 mm 20 mm 40mm
Hand compaction of heavily reinforced High Vebe N/A

0.95 0.95 0.95
sections (flowing) 125-150 mm slump
Concreting of lightly reinforced section
Medium 5-2 s Vebe time,
by hand or vibration of heavily reinforced 0.88 0.90 0.92
(plastic) 25-75 mm slump
sections
Concreting of lightly reinforced sections

with vibration; road pavements and slabs Low 10-5 s Vebe time,
0.82 0.84 0.85
with hand-operated vibrators and (stiff plastic) 5-50 mm slump
vibration of mass concrete
Concreting of shallow sections with Very low 20-10 s Vebe time,

0.75 0.78 0.80
vibrations (stiff) 0-25 mm slump
239
Concreting by intensive vibrations with Extremely low 239 30-20 Vebe time
0.65 0.68 N/A
vibropressing, centrifugation etc. (very stiff) Slump N/A
MIX DESIGN
248
248
21
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Introduction
Many types of concrete

Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) prevalent
“concrete” = PC Concrete
Engineers are directly responsible for the

Design of the mix
Final quality of concrete
249
249
Concrete Ingredients
Aggregates
Fine
Coarse
Portland Cement (PC)
Water
Admixtures  Paste = PC + Water
 Mortar = PC + Water + Fine agg.
 Concrete = PC + Water + Coarse
and Fine agg.
250
250
22
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Quality of Concrete
Depends on:
Chemical composition Transporting
Aggregate Hydration
Water Placing
Admixtures Vibrating
Proportions Curing
Mixing
251
251
Order of Operations for Concrete

specific operations must be performed in a certain order
• final quality is influenced by every step
I. mix design (proportioning)

II. trial mixes & testing
III. batching
------------------------------------------------------------start the clock
IV. mixing
V. transporting
VI. pouring (placing)
VII. vibrating (consolidating) Sampling and testing
-------------------------------------------------------------initial set here
VIII. finishing
-------------------------------------------------------------final set here
IX. curing 252
X. maintenance 252
23
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Proportioning of Concrete
Mixes (Mix Design)
Mix design can be defined as the process of selecting
suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their
relative quantities with the purpose of producing and
economical concrete which has certain minimum
properties, notably workability, strength, and
durability
Remains largely an empirical procedure
Most design procedure are based on achieving a
specified compressive strength at some given
workability and age; it is assumed that if this is done,
other properties will also be satisfactory
253
253
British Method of Mix Design

(DOE Method)
Step 1: Determining W/C ratio based on strength
requirement
Step 2: Determining water content based on
workability requirement
Step 3: Determining cement content based on W/C
ratio in step 1
Step 4: Determining total aggregate content based on
water content in step 2
Step 5: Determining proportion of find and coarse
aggregates
254
254
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Relationship Between Compressive

Strength and W/C Ratio
Abram’s law
A
fc  w
c
B
255
255
Strength Requirement
Structural engineer “specifies” a strength of

concrete used for design calculations – fc
Concrete strength is variable
Material engineer designs concrete so only a
small proportion of the concrete will have a
strength less than the strength assumed by the
structural engineer.
256
256
25
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Recall: Statistics
Compressive strength test on 12 concrete samples: 23.8, 24.3,
20.7, 26.2, 24.1, 23.4, 26.8, 22.7, 19.4, 23.4, 21.5, and 19.5 MPa
x x  X 
2
x  x  X 
2 23.8 0.67
X s 24.3 1.73
n n  1 20.7 5.21
275.8 26.2 10.35
 
61.38
24.1 1.25
12 11
 22.98 MPa 23.4 0.17
 2.36 MPa 26.8 14.57
22.7 0.08
19.4 12.84
23.4 0.17
21.5 2.20
19.5 12.13
257
sum 257 61.38
275.8
Distribution of Strength
fc fm Mean strength fm = fc + k x s
Normal Distribution
fm: target mean strength
kxs for mix design
½ the concrete has
a strength less than
fc: specified characteristic
average
strength
k: probability factor
(defective level)
s: standard deviation
Standard deviations
Increasing strength 258

258
26
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Probability Factor as a
Function of Defective Level
Table 1: Probability factor as a function of defect level
Probability Probability of strength in the Probability of strength below
factor, k range fm ± k s, % fm – k s, %
1.00 68.2 15.9 (1 in 6)
1.64 90.0 5.0 (1 in 20)
1.96 95.0 2.5 (1 in 40)
2.33 98.0 1.0 (1 in 100)
3.00 99.6 0.15 (1 in 700)
fm – k s fm + k s
259
259
Minimum Standard Deviation

(DOE Method)
Figure 1: Minimum standard deviation

as a function of strength (DOE method) 260
260
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Approx. Compressive Strength

of Concrete Mix (W/C = 0.5)
Table 2: Compressive cube strength for reference
concrete mix (w/c = 0.5)
Compressive strength (N/mm2)

Type of
Type of cement coarse
Age (days)
aggregate
3 7 28 91
Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC) Uncrushed 22 30 42 49
or
Sulfate Resisting
Portland Cement Crushed 27 36 49 56
(SRPC)
Rapid-hardening Uncrushed 29 37 48 54
Portland Cement
(RHPC) Crushed 34 43 55 61
1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/mm2 = 1 MPa
261
261
Step 1: Determining W/C ratio

Figure 2: Compressive cube
strength vs W/C ratio
Table 2: Compressive cube strength

for reference concrete mix (w/c = 0.5)

55
Compressive strength
Type of (N/mm2)
Type of
coarse
cement Age (days)
aggregate
3 7 28 91
OPC Uncrushed 22 30 42 49
or
SRPC Crushed 27 36 49 56
Uncrushed 29 37 48 54
RHPC
Crushed 34 43 55 61
1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/mm2 = 1 MPa
0.53
Free-water/cement ratio
Check against w/ specified 262
262
W/C ratio (for durability)
28
3/12/2012
Example Question
Using DOE method to design a C40 concrete, min. s = 4 MPa
grade C40 concrete. Assume (over 20 results, Fig. 1);
5% defective level and a Given s value = 3 MPa; select
standard deviation of 3 MPa the higher value of 4 MPa
based on 50 results. The 5% defective level (k = 1.64,
following materials are Table 1)
available for use: ordinary
Portland cement; cursed Target mean strength (fm) = fc +
granite as coarse. A max. W/C k x s = 40 + 1.64 x 4 = 47 MPa
ratio of 0.45 is specified to Ref. pt. in Table 2 (OPC,
satisfy the durability crushed, 28-day)
consideration. Determining W/C Required W/C = 0.52 (Fig. 2);
ratio. Specified max. W/C = 0.45;
select the smaller value of
0.45
263
263
Step 2: Determining Water

Content
Determination of the water content for the required
workability (slump or Vebe time) based on Table 3
Max. size of aggregate
Type of aggregate (crushed or uncrushed)
When the coarse and fine aggregates used are of
different types, the water content is estimated by the
following expression
W = 2/3 Wf + 1/3 Wc
Wf: water content corresponding to the type of fine aggregate
Wc: water content corresponding to the type of coarse aggregate
265
265
29
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Workability as a Function of
Water Content
Table 3: Approx. free-water contents = 2/3 Wf + 1/3 Wc
(kg/m3) required to give various levels of workability
Slump (mm) 0 – 10 10 – 30 30 – 60 60 – 180

Vebe time (s) > 12 6 – 12 3–6 0–3
Max. size
Type of Agg.
Agg. (mm)
Uncrushed 150 180 205 225

10
Crushed 180 205 230 250
Uncrushed 135 160 180 195
20
Crushed 170 190 210 225
Uncrushed 115 140 160 175
40
Crushed 155 175 190 205
266
266
Step 3: Determining Cement

Content
Cement content is calculated using information
obtained in Step 1 and Step 2
Cement content (kg/m3) =

water content (kg/m3, step 2) / W/C ratio (step 1)
Above value of cement content is checked

against any specified min. or max. cement
content (for durability)
267
267
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Step 4: Determining Total

Aggregate Content
Estimate density of fully compacted concrete based on
Figure 3
Water content obtained in Step 2
Relative density of combined aggregate (Gb(SSD) or BSGSSD)
From estimated density of concrete, total aggregate
content is determined
Wagg, SSD = D – Wc – Ww
W agg, SSD: total aggregate content, kg/m3

D: wet density for fully compacted concrete (Fig. 3), kg/m3
W c : total cement content (Step 3), kg/m3
W w : total water content (Step 2), kg/m3
268
268
Concrete Wet Density as a

Function of Water Content
Figure 3: Estimated wet density for fully compacted concrete (specific
gravity is given for saturated and surface-dry aggregate)
2440
2.65
269
269
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Step 5: Determining Proportion of

Fine and Coarse Aggregate
Determining the proportion of fine aggregate based on
Figure 4
Gradation of agg. (percentage of fine agg. passing 600 mm
sieve, detailed grading of fine and coarse aggregates are
ignored)
Max. size of aggregate
Workability
W/C ratio
Calculation
Fine agg. content = total agg. content x proportion of fines
Coarse agg. Content = total Agg. content – fine agg. content
270
270
Figure 4 (a) Recommend

Proportion of Fine Aggregate
Max. Agg. Size 10 mm
271
271
32
3/12/2012
Figure 4 (b) Recommend

272
272
Figure 4 (c) Recommend

273
273
33
3/12/2012
Example Question
A mix is required for a reinforced concrete wall. The characteristic
strength in compression of 35 MPa is required at the age of 28 days,
and the standard deviation is 6 MPa, using a max. size of agg. of 20
mm. Adopt the 5% defective rate.
The available coarse agg. is crushed, and the fine agg. is uncrushed.
The fine agg. has gradation, of which 40% passes a 600 mm sieve.
The coarse agg. in stockpile is in SSD condition. The fine agg. has an
absorption 1%, a total moisture content of 1.45%. Both the fine and
coarse agg. have BSGSSD of 2.65.
From durability consideration, min. cement content is limited to 250
kg/m3, and max. W/C ratio is to be 0.7. Max. cement content is limited
to 550 kg/m3.
The size of the wall sections and the spacing of reinforcement require
a slump of 100 mm.
OPC is to be used.
274
274
Step 1: Determining W/C Ratio
 C35 concrete, given s value = 6 MPa

 5% defective level (k = 1.64, Table 1)
 Target mean strength
(fm) = fc + k x s = 35 + 1.64 x 6 = 44.8 MPa
 Ref. pt. in Table 2 (OPC, crushed, 28-day)
 Required W/C = 0.53 (Fig. 2) ≤ specified max. W/C = 0.7
 W/C = 0.53
275
275
34
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Determining W/C ratio

Figure 2: Compressive cube
strength vs W/C ratio
Table 2: Compressive cube strength

for reference concrete mix (w/c = 0.5)

Compressive strength
Type of (N/mm2)
Type of
coarse
cement Age (days) 49
aggregate 44.8
3 7 28 91
OPC Uncrushed 22 30 42 49
or
SRPC Crushed 27 36 49 56
Uncrushed 29 37 48 54
RHPC
Crushed 34 43 55 61
1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/mm2 = 1 MPa
0.53 276
Free-water/cement
276 ratio
Step 2: Determining Water

Content
 Max. agg. size is 20 mm Table 3: Approx. free-water contents = 2/3 Wf + 1/3
Wc (kg/m3) required to give various levels of
 Required slump is 100 mm workability
 Crushed coarse agg. Slump (mm) 0 – 10 10 – 30 30 – 60 60 – 180
 Uncrushed fine agg. Vebe time (s) > 12 6 – 12 3–6 0–3
 W f = 195 kg/m3 Max. size Type of

Agg. (mm) Agg.
 W c = 225 kg/m3 Uncrushed 150 180 205 225
10
 Free-water content Crushed 180 205 230 250
= 2/3 (195) + 1/3 (225) 20

Uncrushed 135 160 180 195
Crushed 170 190 210 225
= 205 kg/m3
Uncrushed 115 140 160 175
40
Crushed 155 175 190 205
277
277
35
3/12/2012
Step 3: Determining Cement

Content
 W/C = 0.53 from Step 1
 Water content = 205 kg/m3 from Step 2
 Cement content = 205 / 0.53 = 387 kg/m3
278
278
Step 4: Determining Total Agg.

Content
 Relative density of combined Figure 3: Estimated wet density for fully
compacted concrete
agg. BSGSSD = 2.65
 Free-water content
205 kg/m3 from Step 2
 Wet density of fully
compacted concrete,
D = 2375 kg/m3
2375
 Cement content 387 kg/m3 2.65
from Step 3
 Total aggregate content
= 2375 – 387 – 205 205
= 1783 kg/m3
279
279
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3/12/2012
Step 5: Determining Proportion of

Fine and Coarse Aggregate
 Percentage of fine agg. passing a 600 mm sieve = 40%
 Max. agg. size = 20mm
 Slump = 100 mm
 W/C ratio = 0.53 from Step 1
 Proportion of fine agg. = 45%
 Total agg. content = 1783
kg/m3 from Step 4
 Fine agg. content
= 0.45 x 1783
= 802 kg/m3
 Coarse agg. content 45
= 1783 – 802
= 981 kg/m3
280
280 0.53
Adjustment of Mixing Water

 Absorption of fine agg.
= 1%
 Total moisture content
of fine agg. = 1.45%
 Surface moisture content
= 1.45% - 1%
= 0.45%
 DOE mix design is based on SSD agg.
 Any surface water is assumed to be available for cement hydration reaction
 Therefore, we have to adjust the mixing water to discount the additional water
in moist agg.
 Adjusted fine agg. content = 802 x (1 + 0.45%) = 806 kg/m 3
 Adjusted total water content = 205 – (806 - 802) = 201 kg/m3
281
281
37
3/12/2012
Final Mix Composition
Component Quantity (kg/m3)

Cement 387
Water 201
Fine Aggregate 806
Coarse Aggregate 981
Total 2,375
282
282
Practice Question
Determine suitable mix proportions for a trial mix based on the mix design
procedures given in “Design of normal concrete mixes”, Department of
Environment, U.K., 1988.
Mix Design Specifications
a) Characteristic compressive cube strength at 28 days is 20 MPa
b) Adopt the 5 percent defective rate (k = 1.64)
c) Assume a standard deviation of 4.6 N/mm 2
d) Workability required in terms of slump is 50 mm
e) Maximum free-water/cement ratio is to be 0.7
f) Minimum cement content is limited to 250 kg/m 3
g) Maximum cement content is limited to 550 kg/m 3
h) Maximum size of aggregate is 20 mm
i) Type of aggregate is uncrushed
j) Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is to be used
283
283
38
3/12/2012
Practice Question (Cont’)

k) Aggregates
Bulk specific gravity (SSD)
Coarse aggregate 2.6
Fine aggregate 2.6
Water absorption
Coarse aggregate 0.5%
Fine aggregate 0.7%
Free surface moisture
Coarse aggregate 1.5%
Fine aggregate 5.3%
Grading of aggregate
Table to the right
284
284

Specific operations must be performed in a certain order

III. batching
------------------------------------------------------------start the clock
IV.mixing
V. transporting
VII. vibrating (consolidating)
-------------------------------------------------------------initial set here
VIII. finishing
-------------------------------------------------------------final set here
IX. curing
X. maintenance
292
292
39
3/12/2012
MIXING, PLACING &

CURING
293
293


III. batching
------------------------------------------------------------start the clock
IV.mixing
V. transporting
VII. vibrating (consolidating)
-------------------------------------------------------------initial set here
VIII. finishing
-------------------------------------------------------------final set here
IX. curing
X. maintenance
294
294
40
3/12/2012
Mixing, Placing, & Handling of PCC

Batching
Measuring correct proportions of components
and placing in the mixer
By weight is more accurate because air voids
don't matter
Mixing
Until uniform appearance
Usually batch mixers (one at a time), but
sometimes continuous (conveyors automatically
feed components into mixer)
295
Usually start with 10% of the water295
in the mixer,
then solids with 80% of the water, and then
Central Batch Concrete Plant
Mix ingredients in
predetermined
proportions
Place in trucks
296
296
41
3/12/2012
Slipform Paver
297
297
Mobile Plant
Batcher
batcher mixer at (or
near) the jobsite
298
298
42
3/12/2012
Mixing
Until uniform appearance
Usually batch mixers but sometimes

continuous (conveyors automatically feed
components into mixer)
Usually start with 10% of the water in the

mixer, then solids with 80% of the water, and
then mix in the remaining 10% of the water
299
299
Mixing
Ready Mixed specs. limit the revs. of
the truck barrel to avoid
in a central plant and
segregation
delivered in an agitator
max. 90 minutes from
truck (2 - 6 rpm)
start of mixing to
Shrink-mixed discharge, even with
partially mixed in plant and retarders
delivered in a mixer truck
(4 - 16 rpm)
Truck-mixed
mixed completely in a
mixer truck (4 - 16 rpm)
300
300
300
43
3/12/2012


III. batching
------------------------------------------------------------start the clock
IV. mixing
V. transporting
-------------------------------------------------------------initial set here
VIII. finishing
-------------------------------------------------------------final set here
IX. curing
X. maintenance
301
301
Sampling and Testing
Pull samples at the job site

Test on site
Slump
Air content
Prepare samples for later
testing
Cylinders
Beams
302
302
44
3/12/2012
Slump
Workability is measured by slump test

fill a cone in 3 layers, 25 rods each layer
lift cone off and measure distance it slumps from
original height
303
303
Air Content Test for Fresh Concrete
Measures total air content (entrapped and

entrained)
Only entrained is good but we can't tell the
difference from this test
1) Pressure Method
2) Volumetric Method
3) Gravimetric Method
4) Chase Air Indicator 304
304
45
3/12/2012
Cylinders
6” x12” Standard
Place concrete in
three lifts, rod each
25 times
Cure on site 24 hrs
– Temperature
– Humidity /
submerged in lime
water
305
305

final quality is influenced by every step
III. batching
------------------------------------------------------------start the clock
IV. mixing
V. transporting
-------------------------------------------------------------initial set here
VIII. finishing
-------------------------------------------------------------final set here
IX. curing
X. maintenance
306
306
46
3/12/2012
Placing Concrete
Transfer From Truck….
Chute Conveyor
307
307
Directly into form
Pump
Wheel barrow/ buggy Bucket
308
308
308
47
3/12/2012
Placing Issues
Drop height
< 3 ft
Horizontal movement
Limit to prevent segregation
Pumping
Adjust mix design
tremie chute to limit drop height

309
309
Vibration of Concrete
Consolidation (compaction)
complete before initial set
Manually by
– ramming
– tamping
Mechanically using vibrators
– Internal – poker
5 sec to 2 min in one spot
<10 sec. typical
avoid segregation
through entire depth
penetrate layer below if still plastic
– External –
310
tables and rollers for precast concrete 310
48
3/12/2012

final quality is influenced by every step
III. batching
------------------------------------------------------------start the clock
IV. mixing
V. transporting
-------------------------------------------------------------initial set here
VIII. finishing
-------------------------------------------------------------final set here
IX. curing
X. maintenance
311
311
Finishing Concrete
smoothing and imprinting the surface of the
concrete with the desired texture
must be completed before final set
many types of colors and textures
available these days
stamped concrete uses rubber stamps to
create the look of stone, tile, etc.
312
312
49
3/12/2012
Screeding – strike concrete

off to desired level
Bullfloating eliminates high

and low spots and embeds
large aggregate particles
Power float after strikeoff.313
immediately 313
313


III. batching
------------------------------------------------------------start the clock
IV. mixing
V. transporting
-------------------------------------------------------------initial set here
VIII. finishing
-------------------------------------------------------------final set here
IX. curing
X. maintenance
314
314
50
3/12/2012
Curing Concrete
Maintain moisture and Curing affects:
temperature in the durability
concrete to promote strength
continued hydration water-tightness
and strength gain abrasion resistance
hydration will resume volumetric stability
if curing is stopped resistance to
and resumed freezing and
thawing
resistance to de-
icing chemicals 315
315
315
Compressive strength of PCC at different ages &

curing levels 316
316
51
3/12/2012
Curing Approaches
1. Maintaining presence of water in the

concrete
2. Seal the surface so mix water can’t
escape
3. Heat & additional moisture
317
317
Approach 1. Maintaining
Presence of Water
Must water periodically
Also provides cooling
Methods
ponding: smaller jobs flat-work (floors and
pavement) and laboratory
spraying or fogging: expensive and a lot of
water
wet coverings: burlap, cotton, rugs, etc.
318
318
52
3/12/2012
Spraying
Spraying
Fogging
319
319
Wet
Covering 320
320
53
3/12/2012
Approach 2. Seal the Surface
• impervious paper or
plastic sheets
• membrane forming
compounds
• leave forms in place
Plastic
Sheets 321
321
322
54
3/12/2012
Approach 3. Heat
Insulate
Steam
good for early strength gain and in freezing
weather
Heating coils, electrically heated forms or

pads
usually in precast plants only
323
323
Method Selection
Considerations: Curing – immediately
availability of curing after final set to avoid
materials surface damage
size and shape of Curing period
structure minimum 7 days
production facilities 70% of f’c (3 days for
(in-place or precast) high early strength)
aesthetic appearance other job
requirements 324
economics 324
324
55
3/12/2012


III. batching
------------------------------------------------------------start the clock
IV. mixing
V. transporting
-------------------------------------------------------------initial set here
VIII. finishing
-------------------------------------------------------------final set here
IX. curing
X. maintenance
325
325
56
CV1013/2003-Highway Materials
Dr Wong Yiik Diew
CEE School
S h l (N1-01b-51)
(N1 01b 51)
Email: cydwong@ntu.edu.sg
References:
Atkins, H.N. (1997). Highway Materials, Soils, and Concrete. Prentice-
Hall, NJ [Ch 6, pp. 209-241]
Austroads-AAPA (2002). Asphalt Guide. Austroads Inc. & Australian
Asphalt
p Pavement Association
Mamlouk, M.S. and Zaniewski, J.P. (2011). Materials for Civil and
Construction Engineers. International Version, 3rd Ed., Pearson
Millard R
Millard, R.S.
S (1993)
(1993). Road building in the Tropics
Tropics. Transport Research
Laboratory State-of-the-art Review 9, HMSO, London.
Whiteoak, D. (1990). Shell Bitumen Handbook. Shell Bitumen UK,
Surrey
WYD-1
HIGHWAY PAVEMENT
• a multi
multi-layered
layered structure of selected or
processed matrl
• protects underlying weak substrata from
deformation
• provides a comfortable and safe riding surface
• 2 ttypes off pvt:
t flexible
fl ibl & rigid
i id
WYD-2
Pan Island Expressway (PIE) – Outside Yunnan Garden
Rural highways
Rigid pavement (at
junctions)
Fl ibl & Rigid
Flexible Ri id Pavement
P
• flexible pvt: load distributed over wider area with

depth i.e. highest stress (=force/area) at the top
layer, with increasing lower stress with depth;
mainly asphalt concrete over unbound layers;
• rigid pvt: load distributed uniformly over slab;
mainly Portland cement concrete (PCC)
• can be combination of flexible & rigid
WYD-6
Fl ibl Pvt
Flexible P t Rigid Pvt
P t
WYD-7
Surfacing (wearing course)
Surfacing (binder course)
Upper base Flexible

Base
Pavement
Lower base
Upper subbase
Subbase
Formation
o atio Lower subbase
Foundation
Sub-Formation Capping (for weak S/G)
Subgrade
Components of a flexible pvt

WYD-8
Components of Flexible Pavement
• Subgrade (S/G): soil (cut or fill matrl) underlying

the subbase; weak subgrade Î a capping layer
of an inferior type of subbase materials, or by
stabilising
t bili i upper subgrade
b d
• Formation: level upon which the subbase is
placed;
l d llayers above
b fformation
ti constitute
tit t a
pavement.
• Subbase
S bb (S/B) with
ith subgrade
b d ((and
d capping)
i )
form foundation Î platform upon which the
main structure of a pavement may be laid; good
drainage; one or more layers
WYD-9
• Base: main structural layer;
y be of sufficient
strength to withstand deterioration to itself; one
or more layers
• Surfacing: provides a good ride quality,
maintains adequate
q skid resistance to skidding,
g
and resists crack propagation; often comprises a
wearing course and a binder course, laid
separately;
t l binder
bi d course, jjointly
i tl with
ith wearing
i
course, strongest structural layer
WYD-10
Typical name Typical material
W i course
Wearing LTA W3B Asphalt
A h lt concrete
t
Binder course
LTA B1 asphalt
p concrete
ÍEmulsion tack-coat
Crushed Aggregate
Base Crusher-Run
Crusher Run
Cement Bound Base
Lean Concrete
Natural Sand
Subbase (possibly Gravel
more than one layer))
Crushed Rock
Crushed Concrete
Hardcore (clean)
(Geotextile) Î
Natural Soil
S b d
Subgrade Imported Fill
Stabilised Soil
Flex Pvt (S’pore) WYD-11
Production of hot mix asphalt
WYD-12
Application of hot mix asphalt
WYD-13
ASPHALT CONCRETE
• asphalt concrete Î upper layer(s) of flexible pvt
Î stable, safe and durable surface
• asphalt concrete = mineral aggregates +
bituminous materials + air voids
Í binder
Íaggregate
Í air
i pocket
k t
WYD-14
• functions of bituminous binder: forms a thin
surface
f film
f off binder on all particles which
¾ holds aggregate
gg g p
particles together
g
¾ provides tensile strength and flexural
properties to mix
¾ enhances durability
¾ acts as a “lubricant”
• hot mixes: p
produced,, p
placed & compacted
p at
elevated temp; asphalt cement as binder; e.g.
dense-graded hot mix asphalt (HMA)
• cold mixes: produced, placed & compacted with
little or no heating;
g; asphalt
p emulsion or cutback
as binder
WYD-15
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS (OR BITUMENS)
• a dark-coloured cementitious substance
• comprises high molecular hydrocarbons
• soluble in carbon disuphate
• resistant to many types of chemicals
• excellent waterproofing property
• themoplastic
¾when heated, softens & becomes liquid (thus
coating aggregate particles)
¾when cold, solidifies and binds aggregates
together
WYD-16
temp
low high
elastic solid viscous fluid
Characteristics of bitumen as suited for

road surfacing
• strong adhesion Îcohesive mixes with aggregate
• water resistance
• flexibility & ductility
• durability or resistance to weathering
• low-toxicity
• relatively cheap
WYD-17
Types of bituminous materials
• asphalt: a cementitious matrl
matrl, principally
bitumens
Natural (native) asphalt

• asphalt occurring in nature
• volatile fractions evaporate Î asphalt residue
• e.g. lake asphalt in Trinidad & other Caribbean
areas
• no longer
g in widespread
p use
WYD-18
R k asphalt
Rock h lt
• Asphalt-impregnated
Asphalt impregnated rocks such limestone,
sandstone
• used
d iin llocalities
liti where
h th
they occur
Tar
• produced from destructive distillation of
coal/wood
• very high t ti Î health
hi h concentration h lth problem
bl
WYD-19
Petroleum asphalt
• distilled from crude oil to meet specifications
p for
paving
• separated by vacuum distillation or solvent
extraction, and then blended with other
distillates to meet specifications
• asphalt cement: asphalt prepared to quality and
consistency for road paving works
• polymer/additives may be added to enhance
properties e.g. PMB (polymer-modified binder)
WYD-20
Types & grades of paving petroleum
asphalt
• 3 types:
¾asphalt cement
¾cutback asphalt (liquid asphalt)
¾asphalt emulsion (emulsified asphalt)
• asphalt cement for hot mixes
• cutback asphalt & asphalt emulsion for cold mix
and spraying
WYD-21
Gasoline; light solvent
Distillation Kerosene; light burner oils

p
plant
Diesel; lubricating oils
Rapid curing
cutback
Medium curing
cutback
Slow curing
cutback AC + Water =
emulsified asphalt
AC + Air =
bl
blown asphalt
h lt
Asphalt cement (AC) WYD-22
ASPHALT CEMENTS (AC)
• primarily asphalt products distilled from crude oils
• produced
d d iin various
i grades;
d graded
d db by
penetration, (absolute) viscosity, performance
• Compose of 3 types of hydrocarbons:
asphaltenes, resins and oils
• asphaltenes: hard, powdery, blackish Î
provides strength & stiffness
• resins Î provides ductility and adhesiveness
• oils Î contributes viscosity and fluidity (gives
workability)
o ab ty)
WYD-23
Resins
Oil Asphaltenes
Asphalt Composition Model

WYD-24
Asphalt cement / binder: grading systems
1. Penetration grading
• measures the hardness of a bituminous
material at 25 deg Celsius i.e. low-temp
hardness
• Grades 200-300, ... , 60-70, 40-50
• e.g. 40-50 Pen grade has penetration of 40 to
50 deci-millimetres
deci millimetres
• higher values imply softer asphalts
WYD-25
Penetration in units of 0.1 mm
100g
00g
100g
AC AC
(25 deg C) (25 deg C)
S
Start Aft 5 seconds
After d
Penetration Test
WYD-26
Automatic ring‐and‐ball
Automatic penetrometer
WYD-27
Properties of 60/70 Pen grade binder
Property
y Requirement
Penetration at 25 deg C, 100g, 5 sec (deci-millimetre, d-

mm) 60-70
Softening Point, ring and ball (deg C) 47-56
Flash Point, Cleveland open cup (deg C) Min 232
Thin film oven test , 3.2 mm at 163 deg C for 5 hours
Î Loss on heating (% by mass) Max 0.8
Î Penetration of residue
resid e at 25 deg C
(% of original penetration) Min 54
Î Ductility of residue at 25 deg C at 5 cm/min (cm) Min 50
Solubility in trichloroethylene (% by mass) Min 99
Specific gravity at 25 deg C 1.0-1.11
WYD-28
2. Viscosity grading
• absolute viscosity*, tested at 60 deg C
• measured in poises (P) or Pa.s (SI unit)
[[1 Pa.s=10 P]]
• Grades AC-2.5, AC-5, AC-10, ..., AC-40
• e.g. AC-10 grade has absolute viscosity of
1000±200 P (AC-X = 100X±20%)
• higher values imply harder asphalts
* kinematic viscosity (cm2/s or stoke) is tested at 135 deg C
WYD-29
Capillary tube
viscometer
WYD-30
3. Viscosity
y after aging
g g
• to simulate aging of asphalt during mixing, by
subjecting it to a standard aging test (TFOT)
(TFOT),
then grade the asphalt residue according to its
viscosity
• absolute viscosity, tested at 60 deg C
• measured in poises or Pa.s
• AR-1000,
AR 1000 ... , AR
AR-16000
16000
• e.g.
g AR- 4000 g
grade has absolute viscosity
y of
4000±1000 P (AR-X = X±25%)
• higher values imply harder asphalts
WYD-31
Thin Film Oven
Test (TFOT)
( )
WYD-32
4. Performance grading system
4
• developed by SHRP (Strategic Highway
Research Program)
• marketed as SuperpaveTM (Superior Performing
Asphalt Pavements)
• asphalt binder = asphalt cement (+ modifiers)
• specification based on high and low
temperatures
¾high temp: 46 to 82 deg C, by 6-deg step
¾low temp:p -10 to -46 deg
g C, by
y 6-deg
g step
p
WYD-33
• e.g. PG 58-28 grade suitable for high temp in
range
g 53-58 deg g C, and low tempp down to -28
deg C
• high temp based on
¾average max. air temp for 7 consecutive days
¾corrected to reflect pvt temp at 20 mm deep of
layer being designed
• low temp based on average min. temp at the
surface of layer ((= min
min. air temp for top layer)
WYD-34
CUTBACK ASPHALT
• also known as liquid asphalt
• asphalt cement plus solvent (15-40%) to reduce
viscosity
• type of solvent governs rates of evaporation/
curing and viscosity
• ttype & grade
d off cutback
tb k asphalt
h lt specified
ifi d b
by rate
t
of curing & kinematic viscosity (at 135 deg C)
WYD-35
Types
yp of cutbacks
1. Rapid curing (RC) : 5-10 minutes
• asphalt cement + gasoline
• Grades RC-70,, …,, RC-3000 ((Grade RC-70 =
rapid curing cutback & visc. 70-140 centistokes)
2. Medium curing (MC) : a few days
• asphalt cement + kerosene
• Grades MC-30, …, MC-3000
3. S
3 Slow
o curing
cu g (SC) : a few
e months
o t s
• asphalt cement + low volatile oils
• Grades
G d SC-70,
SC 70 …, SC
SC-3000
3000
WYD-36
Applications of cutbacks
• generally applicable in temporary works or
emergency repairs including
¾production of warm asphalt mixes
¾cold mix for maintenance patching
¾long
g distance haulageg situations
Considerations in usage
g ((of cutback asphalt)
p )
• character of the material left after curing
• workability (viscosity)
• time for curing
WYD-37
ASPHALT EMULSIONS (EMULSIFIED ASPHALT)
• comprising minute asphalt globules suspended

in water (22
(22-42%)
42%) with an emulsifying agent
(3%)
• 2 common ttypes:
¾ anionic: asphalt
p p
particles have ((-)) charge
g
(works well with + charged aggregates e.g.
limestone)
¾ cationic: asphalt particles have (+) charge
((works well in damp
p & - charged
g aggregates
gg g
e.g. silica)
• amount & type of agent affect rate of setting
WYD-38
repulsion between
like charges
+ + +
+
attraction of bitumen
bit
globule to globule
aggregate
gg g
+ + + + + + +
aggregate (with opp. charges)
WYD-39
• type & grade of asphalt emulsions specified by
rate of setting, surface charge & viscosity
• rate
t off setting:
tti
¾Rapid
p setting
g ((RS or CRS)) [[C for cationic]] : 5-
10 minutes
¾Medium setting (MS or CMS) : several hours
¾Slow setting (SS or CSS) : a few months
• examples of anioic asphalt emulsions: RS-1,
MS-2
MS SS 1h (h Î harder base binder)
2, SS-1h
• examples of cationic asphalt emulsions: CRS-1,
CRS 2 CMS
CRS-2, CMS-2,2 CSS
CSS-2,
2 CSS
CSS-1h
1h
WYD-40
• cationic emulsions more commonly used than
anionic types; perform better under adverse
conditions; suit more types of (acidic)
aggregates
• anionic emulsions most suitable for use in dry
conditions or as slow setting grade in soil
stabilisation
Applications
• U
Usedd as bi
binder
d iin cold/warm
ld/ asphalt
h lt mixes;
i
stabilisation of soils/granular materials; tack coat
WYD-41
Considerations in usage: Same
S as ffor
cutback asphalt
Advantages of asphalt emulsion over

cutback
• suitable for moist aggregate or in wet weather
(for cationic emulsions)
• solvent
l i d Î relatively
t nott required l ti l pollution-free
ll ti f &
less costly
• low viscosity at ambient temp, can be used
without additional heat ((energy
gy efficient))
WYD-42
ASPHALT BEHAVIOUR
1. Asphalt viscosity
viscosity-temperature
temperature relationship
• temp increases, viscosity decreases
• applications of viscosity-temp relationship:
¾batching asphalt mix : 1
1.5
5 to 3 0 cm2/s Î
3.0
defines mixing temp.
¾spraying asphalt binder < 2.0 cm2/s Î defines
spraying temp
WYD-43
2. Visco-elastic behaviour
• temp & time of loading Î whether elastic or
plastic or combination:
¾high temp + sustained loading Î viscous
¾low temp + rapid loading Î elastic
¾intermediate Î elastic response
p ((recoverable))
& non-elastic (non-recoverable)
3. Aging behaviour
• mixingg at high
g temp,
p, evaporation/oxidation
p of oils
• exposure to environment over time, oxidation
(oils Î resins Î asphaltenes)
WYD-44
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ASPHALT
Important physical characteristics are:
• temperature susceptibility
• durability
• adhesion
• cohesion
WYD-45
1 Temperature susceptibility
1.
• each asphalt exhibits a different temp
susceptibility
• tempp susceptibility
p y indicated by
y asphalt’s
p
kinematic viscosity (at 135 deg C), absolute
viscosity (at 60 deg C) and penetration (at 25
d C)
deg
• viscosityy of asphalt
p changes
g with temperature
p
and aging effects
• hot climate leads to rutting problems
• cold weather leads to cracking problems
WYD-46
increasing B B” (aged)
viscosity
A
increasing
c eas g
temp
WYD-47
2. Durability
• ability of an asphalt to maintain its original
properties when exposed to weathering and
aging processes
• primary
i d
durability
bilit considerations:
id ti
a. moisture damage
g
¾stripping: loss of adhesion between asphalt
& aggregate due to the action of water
¾softening: loss in cohesion that results in a
loss of strength, stiffness, and other
engineering properties
WYD-48
b. age hardening
¾ loss of the oily components of asphalt
(evaporation)
¾ oxidation during plant mixing, lay-down,
compaction, and in its service life
service
aging
storage, tpt, appln
mixing
ti
time
WYD-49
3 Adhesion
3.
• ability of asphalt to adhere to the surface of the
aggregate
• depends on the aggregate and asphalt
characteristics
i ttestt Î retained
• immersion
i t i dM Marshall
h ll stability
t bilit
4. Cohesion
• ability of asphalt to retain its shape
• indicated by test of ductility at low temperature
WYD-50
QUALITY CONTROL TESTS
Traditional asphalt tests

• absolute (dynamic) and kinematic viscosity: use
various viscometers
• penetration: test for consistency (see earlier
slide)
lid )
• softening
gppoint: test for consistency
y
• thin-film oven test (TFOT): test for aging (during
construction phase), by conditioning thin sample
in a heated oven and assessing resultant
properties
WYD-51
Softening
P i t Test
Point T t
WYD-52
• ductility:
d tilit ttestt ffor cohesive
h i strength
t th
• solubility:
y test for purity
p y
• flashpoint: test for safe maximum temp
• limitations of asphalt tests
¾empirical Î field experience required e
e.g.
g
penetration
¾does nott cover entire
¾d ti range off pavementt temp
t
e.g. no low temp measured
WYD-53
Flash point test
Ductility test
WYD-54
Superpave asphalt test
• measures physical properties directly related to
field performance (rutting/fatigue cracking/low
temp cracking)
• testing at wide temp range that pavement will
experience
• testing at wide range of aging conditions
especially
i ll when
h di distress
t lik
likely
l tto occur
• tests measure viscosity,
y, aging,
g g, low-temp
p
cracking, resistance to permanent deformation
and fatigue
g cracking g
WYD-55
deflection angle (Θ)
torque (T)
height (h)
radius (r)
Dynamic Shear Rheometer
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. WYD-56
MINERAL AGGREGATES
• hard granular material of mineral composition:
sand gravel or crushed stone
sand,
• 90 to 95 % by weight and 75-85 % by volume of
most HMA (hot mix asphalt)
HMA
WYD-57
Aggregates of various shape and
texture
te tu e
WYD-58
F
Functions
ti off aggregate
t particles
ti l (in
(i HMA)
• provide stability to mix by interlock Î frictional
resistance to displacement
• provide
id a rough
h surface
f ttexture
t with
ith good
d skid
kid
resistance
• form a durable, abrasion resistant material that
withstands environmental degradation
g
• accommodate imposed loads without failure,
and spread loads to lower layers
WYD-59
Aggregate classification: 3 types
• sedimentaryy
• igneous
• Metamorphic
Sedimentary
• siliceous
ili with
ith hi
high
h silica
ili
• calcareous with high
g calcium carbonate
(limestone)
WYD-60
Igneous
g
• extrusive with fast cooling (glass-like
appearance) e e.g.
g basalt
• intrusive with slow cooling (crystalline structure)
e g granite (acidic)
e.g.
• widely used in pavement construction
Metamorphic
• originated from sedimentary or igneous rock
• foliated structure (arranged in parallel planes or
layers) e.g. slate
• non-foliated e.g. marble
WYD-61
Aggregate
gg g sources
• natural aggregates
• processed aggregates
y
• synthetic aggregates
gg g / recycled
y materials
Natural aggregates
gg g
• smooth and round particles
• major
j ttypes usedd iin pavement:
t sand
d (0
(0.075-6.35
075 6 35
mm) & gravel (>6.35 mm)
• may contain clay & silt
• can be untreated pit-run
pit run or bank-run
bank run
WYD-62
Processed aggregates
• crushed & screened natural or bed rocks
• ccrushing:
us g reduces
educes ssize,
e, roughens
oug e s su
surface
ace
texture, makes particle angular
• screening:g facilitates g
gradation
Synthetic
y aggregates/
gg g recycled
y materials
• aggregates manufactured for specific properties
e.g.
g for high
g skid resistance
• by-products of industrial processes e.g.
industrial slag
g
• recycled materials such as reclaimed asphalt
pavement and recycled
y concrete
WYD-63
Aggregate Mining
Sand from river deposit
Quarry
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, WYD-64
Inc.
Aggregate
gg g properties and evaluation
• aggregates required in large quantities
• should satisfyy engineering
g g requirements
q and be
readily available (i.e. cheap)
Required properties
• Properties dependent on aggregate type:
¾ relative density (specific gravity)
¾ toughness
¾ soundness
¾ porosity
¾ surface
f texture
t t
¾ affinity for asphalt (or moisture susceptibility)
¾ resistance
i to polishing
li hi
WYD-65
• P
Properties
ti partly
tl controlled
t ll d b
by production
d ti
process:
¾particle size and aggregate gradation
¾cleanliness ((or clay
y content))
¾particle shape
WYD-66
Relative density (specific gravity)
• manufacture of asphalt
p concrete based on
weight measure
• control of mix based on volumetric properties
• requires knowledge of densities for mix design
calculations
• 2 kinds of voids: permeable (surface) voids &
impermeable (internal) voids
• surface
f voids
id wholly
h ll permeable
bl tto water
t b butt only
l
partially permeable to asphalt (at about 50% to
th t off water)
that t )
WYD-67
impermeable
((internal)) voids
permeable
bl
(surface) void
WYD-68
Three kinds of aggregate
gg g density
y - bulk,,
apparent, effective
• b
bulk
lk density
d it - ratio
ti off mass off aggregate
t over
volume that includes all surface voids
• apparent density - ratio of mass of aggregate
over volume that excludes all surface voids
• effective density - ratio of mass of aggregate
over volume that excludes all surface voids
permeable to asphalt
• hence, apparent density > effective density >
bulk density [if not specified, default is bulk
density]
WYD-69
Volume for
Volume
V l ffor b
bulk
lk
effective density
density
Volume for
apparent density
WYD-70
WYD-71
Toughness
• resistance against abrasion and degradation
during manufacture, construction and in-service
• tests: Los Angeles Abrasion test,
test impact test,
test
10% fines test, crushing test
Soundness
• b
be ffree from
f planes
l off weakness
k for
f better
b tt
resistance to breakdown due to freezing and
th i
thawing
WYD-72
Los Angeles
Abrasion
Machine
Apparatus
A t ffor aggregate
t impact
i t test
t t 10% fines
fi ttestt
and aggregate crushing test (Millard, 1993)
WYD-73
S f
Surface ttexture
t
• affects workabilityy and stabilityy of mix
• rough texture Î stiffer mix, better asphalt
affinity, more skid-resistant
skid resistant
Porosity (permeable surface voids)

• affects amount of binder; must be taken into
account in mix design
• additional binder for ‘porous’ aggregates
• absorptive capacity for asphalt at about 50 %
that for water
WYD-74
WYD-75
Affinity for asphalt (or moisture susceptibility)
• affected by affinity for asphalt
• Hydrophobic aggregate – good affinity for
asphalt
h lt e.g. lilimestone
t
• hydrophilic
y p aggregate–
gg g poor affinity
p y for asphalt
p
e.g. granite
• hydrophilic mixture prone to moisture damage
e.g. stripping
• use anti stripping agent e.g. hydrated lime,
cement powder, liquid anti-stripping agent
WYD-76
Resistance to polishing
• all aggregates
gg g p
polish under traffic
• greater polishing for hard, fine-grained
aggregates under heavy traffic & tight road
aggregates,
geometry (e.g. curves)
Particle size
• HMA requires each size to be present in certain
proportion i.e. follow a gradation envelope to
promote maximum strength
WYD-77
Accelerated Pendulum Skid
polishing machine Resistance Tester
WYD-78
WYD-79
Aggregate size classification (after LTA)
Aggregate Requirement
Coarse Retained on BS 3
3.2
2 mm sieve
aggregate
Fine Passed BS 3.2 mm sieve and
aggregate retained on 75 μm sieve
Mineral filler Passed 75 μm sieve
WYD-80
Filler Characterisation
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

81
Aggregate gradation
• dr sie
dry sieve
e anal
analysis
sis for coarse anal
analysis
sis
• wet sieve analysis
y for determining
g fines
• 3 methods to express gradations: % passing
(common) % retained; % passing & retained
(common),
• plotting grading curves:
¾ semi-log
¾ exponential
WYD-82
Round sieves
LTA Mi
Mix Specification
S ifi ti
Type of road mix W3B Wearing Course B1 Binder Course
Thi k
Thickness off course (mm)
( ) 40- 65
40 50 100
50-100
Max size of stone (mm) 19 35
(BS) Passing 37.5 mm - 100
25 - 95-100
19 100 84-92
13.2 85-95 65-82
6.3 58-68 48-62
3.35 40-50
40 50 35-50
35 50
1.18 21-31 22-35
0.3 11-17 12-19
00
0.075 48
4-8 38
3-8
% Soluble asphalt (60/70 Pen
4.5-6.0 4.5-6.0
Grade)) ((% by
y mass of total mix))
WYD-84
LTA W3B Gradation Envelope
WYD-85
Grading relationship
Pd /PD =(d/D)n … (1)
Pd, PD = % of sample passing sieve sizes d, D
if D = smallest sieve size for 100 % passing
Pd = (d/D)n×100 % … (2)
exponent n larger Î more open gradation:
¾ 0.5<n<0.6
0 5<n<0 6 Î well graded
¾ n < 0.5 for very densely-graded aggregate blend
¾ n > 0.6 for open-graded aggregate blend e.g.
porous mix
WYD-86
WYD-87
WYD-88
WYD-89
WYD-90
WYD-91
Cleanliness
• may contains undesirable fines
• washed sieve analysis or sand equivalent test
Particle shape
• dependent on nature of rock and crushing
p
process
• affect workability, compaction, stability of mix
• preferable – wholly crushed Î angular, sharp-
cornered cubical shape
WYD-92
WYD-93
Angular
g Rounded Flaky
y
El
Elongated
t d Fl k & Elongated
Flaky El t d
Framework of
aggregate
interlock
WYD-95
SuperpaveTM requirements
additional requirements
q relating
g
¾ gradation limits
¾ aggregate angularity (both coarse and fine
aggregates)
¾ amount of thin or elongated particles in the
coarse aggregate
¾ clay content in the fine aggregate
WYD-96
MASS-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP OF MIX
• to determine relative amount of aggregate,
asphalt & air
• important consideration: asphalt absorption (≈
about
b t 50% off water
t absorption)
b ti )
• Note the distinction between absorbed asphalt
p &
effective asphalt
• recall definition of aggregate volumes for bulk,
effective & apparent densities
Î see notes on mass-volume relationship
WYD-97
Surface void not penetrated by
asphalt
Effective
asphalt
Absorbed asphalt
Air void
WYD-98
WYD-99
MASS VOLUME
Air voids VA
MB MBE Effective binder VBE

VB
MBA Absorbed binder VBA

V
M VMM
Aggregate VG
MG VGE
Mass-volume relationships in asphalt mix

WYD-100
Bulk density
d = M/V
M i
Maximum theoretical
th ti l ddensity
it
D = M/VMM
Voids in total mix
VTM = 100×VA/V (%)
Voids in mineral aggregate,
aggregate
VMA = 100×(VBE +VA) /V (%)
Voids filled with binder
VFB = 100×V
100 VBE /(VBE +VA) (%)
WYD-101
VTM Air voids
VMA Effective binder

VFB Total
binder
volume
ou e
Total
T t l
Absorbed binder
compacted
volume
Bulk Effective Aggregate

aggregate aggregate Volume of mix
volume volume excluding air
voids
WYD-102
MASS VOLUME
Air voids VA
MB Binder VB
V
M
MG VMM
Aggregate VG
case off negligible binder absorption

WYD-103
Determination of total compacted volume
Wa = weight while
suspended in air Ww= weight while
suspended in water
Compacted
p volume of specimen
p ρw
= ((Wa-Ww))/ρ
WYD-104
50 kN Marshall
50-kN M h ll Tester
T t
WYD-105
REQUIREMENTS OF ASPHALT CONCRETE
• Stiffness
• Fatigue resistance (thick structural layer/thin
layer)
• Deformation resistance
• Durability
• Workability
• Skid resistance
i t
WYD-106
Binder/aggregate charac. & air voids on mix properties (Austroads-AAPA)
Characteristics for optimising mix property

Mix properties Binder Aggregate
gg g Air
required voids
Content Stiffness Size Angu- Surface
distrn larity texture
Structural stiffness Low High Dense Angular Rough Low
Fatigue resistance High High Dense Angular Rough Low
(structural layers)
Fatigue resistance High Low Dense Rounded Smooth Low
(thin surfacing)
Deformation Low High Dense or Angular Rough High
resistance Open
Durability High - Dense - - Low
Workability High Low - Rounded Smooth -
Skid resistance Low High Coarse Angular Rough High
WYD-107
Mix stiffness
• response of mix to loading
• load spreading ability
• stiffness defined by resilient modulus
F i
Fatigue resistance
i ((thick
hi k or thin
hi layer)
l )
• ability to bend repeatedly without cracking
• thick (structural) layer to be stiff
• thin layer to be flexible
WYD-108
WYD-109
Deformation resistance
• resistance to excessive deformation under
load (at the wheel paths)
• deformation in the form of
¾ rutting, from densification of mix
¾ lateral movement, which is largely
influenced by binder properties
WYD-110
How much Rutting is too much?
WYD-111
D
Durability
bilit
• resistance to disintegration under trafficking
and environment
• major
j considerations
id ti are air
i voids
id and
d
moisture damage
• requires dense gradation of moisture-resistant
aggregate,
gg g high
g degree
g of compaction
p
• requires thicker asphalt film (but compromises
stability & skid resistance)
WYD-112
Workability
• ease of p
placement and compaction
p
• too much coarse aggregate (harsh mixtures)
Î difficult to compact
• too much filler Î difficult to compact
• compaction temperature not too low
WYD-113
Skid resistance
• ability to provide skid resistance under all
environmental conditions
• requires smaller sized, very hard aggregate for
wearing course Î more points of contact
• sufficient air voids to avoid bleeding
• for good drainage,
drainage requires open
open-graded
graded mix
(with special polymer-modified binder, PMB)
WYD-114
Some control measures
• use suitable aggregates
• use binder
bi d suited
it d tto th
the prevailing
ili environment
i t
• mixing temp. - not overly high ( to minimize aging)
• air voids in mix (VTM) - not too high
• air void in mix (VTM) - not too low (to avoid
bleeding of binder)
• sufficient
ffi i t VMA
VMA, to
t ensure sufficient
ffi i t space left
l ft for
f
asphalt
• VFB - not too high (affect stability and
densification) or too low (affect durability)
WYD-115
ASPHALT CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
• select best blend of aggregates and associated
optimum asphalt content
• procedures:
¾select an aggregate blend with proportions that
meet specifications
¾conduct mixes using a target range of binder
contents (e.g. 4.5-6% for W3B)
¾assess volumetric and mechanical properties
¾analyze results to determine that specification
can be met Î choose optimum binder content
¾repeat with a different aggregate blend
• traditional methods: Marshall and Hveem methods
WYD-116
Marshall Method
Î see notes on Marshall Test
• blend aggregates to requirements (e
(e.g.
g LTA
W3B gradation of granitic aggregates & 60/70
Pen grade binder)
• for each batch of aggregates, mix with binder
and compact
• produce a number of specimens, for varying
binder contents (e.g. 4.0%, 4.5%, 5.0% etc)
• determine and plot volumetric values
• conduct mechanical tests & plot stability & flow
values by binder %
• Observation of profiles
WYD-117
Asphalt mixture sample fabrication (mixing)
Oven Chamber
Mixing Bowl
WYD-118
Asphalt mixture sample fabrication (compaction)
Marshall compactor
WYD-119
Loaded at strain rate of Marshall Test
50.8mm/min
Max force = stability

St i att max force
Strain f = flow
fl
Marshall specimen
WYD-120
Sample
p test
results from a
Marshall mix
d i
design
WYD-121
Density versus binder %
• as binder % ↑
¾density first ↑Î binder lubricates grain
movement
¾density then ↓Î binder shoves aggregates
apart
density
binder %
WYD-122
Stability versus binder %
• as binder % ↑
firstt ↑Î lubricating
¾ t bilit fi
¾stability ff t Î better
l b i ti effect b tt
compaction Î higher grain interlock
¾stability then ↓Î ↓ grains shoved apart Î less
grain interlock
stability
binder %
WYD-123
Flow versus binder %
• as binder % ↑Î flow ↑due to thicker asphalt film
flow
binder %
WYD-124
VTM versus binder %
• as binder % ↑ Î air voids ↓ as more voids are
filled up
VTM
binder %
WYD-125
VMA versus binder %
• as binder % ↑
fi t ↓Î aggregates
¾VMA first t gett tighter
ti ht together
t th
¾VMA then ↑ Î aggregates shoved apart by
asphalt
VMA
binder %
WYD-126
VFB versus binder %
• as binder % ↑ Î more voids filled up
VFB
binder %
WYD-127
M
Marshall
h ll design
d i criteria
it i (after
( ft LTA)
Marshall stability (number ≥ 9.00 kN

of blows =2 × 75)
Flow value (in 0.254-mm 8-16 units (2-4 mm)
unit))
Voids in total mix, VTM 3-5 %
Aggregate
A t voids
id fill
filled
d with
ith 75 82 %
75-82
bitumen binder, VFB
WYD-128
stability
9 kN
binder %
allowable binder range to satisfy stability
WYD-129
Air
voids
5%
3%
binder %
allowable binder range to satisfy air voids
WYD-130
Hveem Method
• estimate optimum binder by the centrifuge
k
kerosene equivalent
i l t method
th d
• prepare
p p specimens
p at a range
g of binder contents
above and below estimated optimum
• conduct stabilometer test to obtain stabilometer
values in Hveem apparatus
• conduct swell tests on two samples containing
the optimum binder content
WYD-131
WYD-132
SuperpaveTM Mix Design
g
• major changes in standards, test methods and
design
g pprocedures
• testing, design & evaluation procedures more
closely simulate actual loading and climatic
conditions Î a performance-based approach
• 3 levels of mix design
¾Level 1 for low-volume traffic, up to 1 million
ESAL
¾Level 2 for medium-volume traffic, 1-10 million
ESAL
¾Level 3 for higher-volume and critical
situations
WYD-133
Moisture Susceptibility Test
NTU‐WongYD‐134
Resilient Modulus Test
Specimen in indirect tensile test jig
WYD-135
Dynamic Creep Test
NTU‐WongYD‐136
Beam Fatigue Test
Beam specimens
WYD-137
Rutting Test
Post-tracked 200mm Specimen
Wheel tracking Machine
Specimen in mould
WYD-138
CV2003
- Wood / Timber
Assoc-Prof Chiew Sing-Ping

Office: N1-1C-86/87
6790-5306
cspchiew@ntu.edu.sg
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 1
19th century: Roofs,

Roofs waterwheels,
waterwheels rails,
rails boats
boats, light poles
poles.
1993 record: annual usage 3 billion cubic meter, 55% for fuel
2
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008)
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 3
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 4

Why wood?
Low energy to produce. The downside is that it requires more labour intensive during
construction.
Wood has a much lower strength than steel it is but much lighter (density of wood
typically 750kg/m3 while steel is 7800kg/m3).
Wood’s specific stiffness is comparable to steel’s. This makes wood suitable for
applications where weight saving and stiffness, rather than strength, is important,
e.g., low speed aircraft
Table showing the specific stiffness of different materials
Material Specific Stiffness (E/ρ)

Wood 20 - 30
Mild Steel 25
Aluminium Alloy 25
Concrete 15
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 5
Tree trunks:
• supports the tree
• carries nutrients
• stores food (in sapwood): 20% to 50% of trunk radius is sapwood
sapwood,
(almost 100% for young trees)
6
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008)
In all timbers the outer, or youngest, growth
layers are called the sapwood. In these
layers the moisture absorbed in the roots is
conducted up p to the crown in some cells
while in others the sap from the crown is
stored until required by the cambium. The
sapwood is typically quite narrow, only 12.5
to 50 mm wide. Its main characteristic is its
high moisture content when newly felled and
its often poor natural durability, even once
seasoned, because of the generally high
starch content in the cells which mayy attract
insects to the timber.
The main central part of the tree is called the

heartwood This section of the trunk is
heartwood.
concerned solely with providing the required
mechanical rigidity to the tree. The
heartwood is no longer involved in the food
transfer or storage function.
function
Moisture and salts taken by roots
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 7
Sawing patterns
• Logs sawn through and through produce wide boards but these tend
to cup
p on drying
y g
• Quarter sawing produces narrower boards but these are more stable
in drying and in use
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008)

8
The method of sawing
generally has little effect on
the mechanical p properties
p of
the timber.
In plain sawing, the sections
are more prone to distortion in
seasoning.
In quarter sawn timber, the
timber is generally more
stable in seasoning and may
give better wear resistance
g
e.g. In flooring applications.
The major difference from the
method of sawing,
sawing however
however, is
seen in the appearance of the
Source : Jackson 1978
cut surface.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008)

9
Seasoning
When just felled, timber may have a moisture content in excess of 100 per
cent. Seasoning is the term used to describe the process of drying timber in
a controlled manner to reduce its moisture content without introducing
unwanted defects, such as splits or distortion.
The art in seasoning is to remove this water with as little detrimental effect
on the timber section as possible.
The difficulty in seasoning is that, as a result of its inherent anisotropy,

timber shrinks by different amounts in the tangential, radial and longitudinal
directions, so that depending on the conversion method, pieces will be more
or less prone to distortion.
There are two methods of seasoning timber: natural air seasoning and kiln
drying.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 10

CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 11
General relationship between strength and

moisture content
The moisture
Th i t content
t t att which
hi h the
th
cell wall is saturated with bound
water & at which no free water is
present is called the fibre
saturation point, (FSP).
Increasing
The FSP varies from species to

species but it averages about 28%
species,
Fibre saturation point moisture content.
Sttrength
Addition or removal of water below

the
h FSP hash a pronouncedd effect
ff
on practically all wood properties.
Addition or removal of water above

Increasing
the FSP has a almost no effect on
Moisture Content any wood properties.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 12

Stress grading
In order to design any structure it is necessary to know the strength
properties of the material being used.
used In visual stress grading,
grading all four faces
over the whole length of a section are inspected to assess the various
strength-reducing features which may be present.
Visual stress grading is a relatively slow process, even with an experienced

grader, and it has the major disadvantage that it does not take account of
density, since this cannot be measured accurately during visual grading.
Machine stress grading makes use of the fact that for structural sizes of
timber, there is an acceptably accurate correlation between the stiffness
(modulus of elasticity) and the bending strength (modulus of rupture) of a
section when tested over a short span, the relationship being unique for each
species of timber.
Once tests have established this relationship for a given timber, the grading
machine can be programmed to identify the grades covered by the standard.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 13
Factors affecting
g strength
g properties
p p of timber
characteristics such as knots, direction and slope of grain
Density
moisture content
Biological degradation which can be caused by insect or fungal
attack
Stress Concentration
Defects affecting the strength properties of timber
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 15
Stress-strain
Stress strain for wood in tension and
compression
Source : Young et al (1998)
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 16

Compression loading of wood in different
directions
(a) Axial compression (b) Tangential compression (c) Radial compression
Variation of behaviour with grain direction
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 17
Load-deflection behaviour in bending
Source : Jackson and Dhir 1996
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 18

The strength of wood is highly dependent upon
direction
Tensile strength values in longitudinal: radial: tangential
directions on average are in the ratio of 20: 1.5: 1.
The variation of strength between different directions can
be attributed to the anisotropic structure of the wood
cells.
Wood can be viewed as a bundle of thin-walled tubes
(such as drinking straws). In the longitudinal direction,
the covalent bonds of cellulose microfibrils determines
the behaviour. In the transverse direction, it is
d t
determined
i d by
b the
th hydrogen
h d andd Van
V derd Waals
W l bonds.
b d
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 19
Orientation dependent structural properties

The orientation of cellulose fibrils and tubular holes and the spatial
gradation of porosity leads to anisotropy and in-homogeneity
in homogeneity of the
macroscopic material behavior.
L
T
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 20

Variation of strength with duration of load
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 21
L
Local
l Standards
St d d andd CPs
CP
Plywood SS 1: 1984
Nomenclature of commercial timbers SS 71: 1972
Treatment of timber and plywood with copper/chrome/arsenic wood

preservatives SS 72: 1988
Glossary of terms relating to timber and woodwork SS 173: 1977
Code of practice for the use of timber in buildings CP 1: 2001
Code of practice for structural use of timber CP 7: 1997 Grading in

accordance with the Malaysian Grading Rules by timber graders
registered with the Malaysian Timber Industry Board
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 22

Timber classification
Heavyy hardwood ((e.g.

g Chengal)
g )
Medium hardwood (e.g. Kapur)
Light hardwood (e.g. Jelutong, Meranti)
Softwood (e.g. Damar Minyak)
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 23
Natural
atu a du
durability
ab ty o of ttimber
be
The durability of timber is a measure of its resistance to attack by
insects and fungi.
Th mostt effective
The ff ti means off preventing
ti fungal
f l attack
tt k is
i to
t ensure that
th t
the moisture content of timber remains below ~20%
Timber should be stored under protected conditions until they are being used
24
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008)
Natural durability of timber
All timbers are liable to attack by wood destroying fungi, boring insects and
termites.
termites
All untreated timbers placed in salt water is liable to attack by a variety of

organisms collectively known as marine borers.
Commercial timbers may be placed into four main durability groups (based
on the heartwood only).
Group 1 : Very durable (over 10 years life) e.g. Giam
Group 2 : Durable (5 - 10 years life) e.g. Chengal
Group 3 : Moderately durable (2 - 5 years life) e.g. Teak, Bakau
Group 4 : Not durable (up to 2 years life) e.g. Jelutong, Durian
Note that timber in the lower durability classes, if adequately protected with
efficient preservative,
preservative can be very durable e.g.
e g very permeable timber like
Kempas which absorbs high loadings of preservatives, can be more
durable then untreated Group 1 timber.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 25
Ti b seasoning
Timber i & preservation
ti
Timbers
Ti b should
h ld be
b seasoned d by
b naturall or kiln-drying
kil d i means to a
moisture content appropriate to the position in which it is to be used.
Timber
Ti b withith MC above
b 20% is
i prone to
t attack
tt k by
b decay
d b t below
but b l
this MC, it is reasonably immune.
The hardwood of groups 1 & 2 are highly resistant to decay and

insect attack and do not require treatment if kept in dry and out of
ground contact.
Sapwood of all species is not durable.
For preservative treatment, timber must first be seasoned below the

fibre saturation point
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 26

Preservative treatment
Tar oils
Water borne preservatives
O
Organici solvent
l t preservatives
ti
Chemicals can be applied to timber using a variety of methods
including
gppressure impregnation,
p g hot and cold soaking,
g dipping,
pp g
spraying and brushing
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 27
Ti b tile
Timber til - pop up
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 28

CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 29
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 30

Green ( MC >19%)) stresses and moduli of elasticity
y for
strength groups (CP7 : 1997)
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 31
Dry ( MC <19%) stresses and moduli of elasticity for

strength groups (CP7 : 1997)
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 32

Notes
Stress graded timber is not readily available in
Singapore.
Hence, standard structural grade is commonly used.
The Select grade is intended for special purposes e.g.
strength/weight
g g ratio is to be maximum.
The Common grade is intended for less important parts
of the structure.
Standard timber lengths are 4 m, 5 m, and 6 m. Lengths
over 6 m are difficult to obtain and expensive
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 33
Timber deterioration sources and forms

Source Form of deterioration
Bacteria Discoloration of surface
Chemicals Discoloration of surface with disintegration of cellular structure
Fire Charring of surface of thick sections
Fungi
Moulds Discoloration of surface
Dry rot )
Microscopic rots ) Discoloration of surface with
Wet rots ) disintegration of cellular structure
Insect Infestation
Marine borers Fight-holes at surface with tunnelling
Bettles causing disintegration of structure
Mechanical
Loading )
Abrasion ) Fracture of fibres
Erosion ) Surface deterioration
Sunlight Discoloration and embrittlement of surface
Water
Flowing Discoloration and erosion of surface
Intermittent Expansion and contraction leading to cracking and splitting of cellular structure

CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 34
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 35
Ti b in
Timber i fire
fi
Timber is combustible. When the temperature exceeds 250°C, timber starts to
d
decompose, giving
i i offff flammable
fl bl gases andd turning
i to charcoal.
h l Small
S ll sections
i i a fire
in fi
for a sufficient period may be completely burned through.
In large
g sections, however, timber may y be safer material than steel or reinforced
concrete, since its unique properties may leave it still in place after a fire which would
cause steel or concrete sections to collapse. The reasons are:
(1) Timber chars at predictable rates; 40 mm per hour for structural softwoods and 30
mm per hour for the more dense hardwoods. Structural members can, therefore, be
designed to allow for this rate of loss of section.
(2) Ti
Timber
b is i a very goodd thermal
th l insulator.
i l t Hi h external
High t l fire
fi temperatures
t t are nott
transmitted into a section and thus the interior maintains a low temperature and
retains load-carrying properties.
(3) Thirdly, the char on the exterior with an even lower thermal conductivity, acts as an
effective insulation layer. As it builds up, it also blocks the production of flammable
gases from the interior, so reducing their contribution to maintaining burning.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 36

Wood-based composites
Structural timber have some natural limitations:
• The size of sawn timbers, in terms of both length
g and cross-sectional dimensions,
is limited by the size of a tree; and
• the presence of knots and other imperfections, particularly in larger timbers, puts a
severe limit on the allowable stress levels.
Hence, wood-based composites have been produced (e.g., plywood, glued-laminated

timber, particleboard, and so on) for the following purposes:
• Producing different sizes and shapes, ranging from panel products to very large
beams, or curved beams
• Producing materials with better mechanical properties than those of structural

timber and
• For economic considerations, finding a use for more of the volume of the tree and
for wood wastes and scrapped wood.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 37
Plywood
Plywood usually contains an uneven number of veneers so that the
properties are 'balanced'
balanced about the central veneer or core
Grading systems for veneers vary between countries but are

generally based on
near perfect as peeled
Imperfect as peeled but repaired
Imperfect as peeled but not repaired
Plywood is dimensionally stable and can be used for large

uninterrupted surfaces
Common uses for p plywood
y are sheathing,
g, p
paneling,
g, floors and
structural diaphragms, concrete formwork, furniture and fittings
38
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008)
Plywood
Thin veneer are glued together in layers (or plies),

plies) with the grains of the
successive plies at right angles to each other. The principal advantages
compared to sawn lumber are as follows:
Because of its cross-laminated structure, plywood is very split resistant.
Its properties along the length of the sheet are similar to its properties
across the
th width.
idth
Because knots extend only through 1 ply, they are not particularly
detrimental to strength.
strength
Shrinkage and swelling are minimized, because the tendency of an

individual ply to swell or shrink perpendicular to the grain is restrained by
the resistance to movement of the adjacent plies at right angles to the ply in
question.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 39
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 40

Glulam beams and arches
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 41
Gl d l i t d Timber
Glued-laminated Ti b (Glulam)
(Gl l )
Manufactured by gluing together a large number of relatively short

pieces of dimension lumber (each up to 50 mm thick) to build up
timbers, which may be up to at least 40 m in length and up to over 2 m
deep;
They may be straight or curved. The pieces are glued together so that
the grain directions in all of them are essentially parallel.
parallel The
mechanical properties are thus not as limited by knots or other
imperfections as they would be in sawn timber, and hence the design
stresses are actually
ll somewhat
h higher
hi h even than
h those
h off the
h select
l
structural grade of sawn timber.
Although
Alth h glulam
l l members
b are generally
ll more expensive
i th
than sawn
timbers because of the cost of the laminating and gluing process
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 42

Glued-laminated Timber (Glulam)
Advantages over sawn timber:
It is easy to produce much larger sections than can be sawn as a single

member, and the sections may be curved.
IIn fact,
f t it can be
b made d to
t almost
l t any size
i and d used
d for
f archesh and d portals,
t l
roof, lintel and floor beams, for columns, rafters and 'A' frames, cross wall
purlins and joists. Members can be of uniform or varying depth.
They can be straight or curved to suit aesthetic requirements or to provide

more structurally efficient designs than can be achieved with straight
members.
Because the thin laminations are well seasoned before the glulam member
is fabricated, checking and other seasoning defects are minimized.
It is possible to use material of a lower grade in those sections of a member

which are less highly stressed.
This type of material lends itself to innovative architectural effects.

CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 43
CV2003
- Steel
Assoc-Prof
Assoc Prof Chiew Sing
Sing-Ping
Ping
Office: N1-1C-86/87
6790 5306
6790-5306
cspchiew@ntu.edu.sg
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 1
Singapore’s Iconic Structures around the Marina Bay:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUIblskxswI
// /
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008)

2
Types of material to be covered
Steel
Wood/Timber
Polymers, Plastics and fibre–reinforced
composites
Masonry
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 4

Video clip – How steel is made
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=33yRS77iL0w
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 5
Overview of Steelmaking Process
Meltshop operations
Rolling operations 6
Various Steel Products
Hot-rolled coils Cold-rolled coils Coated coils Slitted coils
Plates Sheet piles Hot-rolled sections Rail sections
Reinforcing bars Wire rods UOE pipes Spiral-welded pipes
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 7
Major applications of steel

Rolled sections
Plates
Fasteners
Reinforcing bars
Cables (Parallel wire & twisted wire)
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 8

St l – Outline
Steel O tli
Crystal structure
Alloying
Heat treatment
Cold working
Engineering properties
Construction steel products
Welding
Corrosion
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 9
Introduction
Iron is the fourth most abundant elements in the earth’s crust.

It requires considerably less energy to extract it from its ore than
most of the other engineering metals e.g. for 1 kg of each metal: iron
(54 MJ), aluminium (280 MJ), copper (108 MJ), magnesium
(415 MJ),
MJ) titanium
tit i (550 MJ).
MJ)
The chemical composition of steel is very important since it has a
significant effect on the microstructure of the material and hence on
its mechanical behavior and properties.
Steel is basicallyy an alloyy of iron and carbon,, but several elements
are used in various proportions and combinations to produce
different types.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 10

Steel Structure at Nano-,
Micro and Macro-level
Micro- Macro level
Grains in metals (Grain size distribution in high grade steel)

http://www.jomesa.com/english/image_analysis/metallography/
metallography_high_grade_steel.htm
Crystalline structure of metals (Atoms are located at

the lattice points in a simple cubic metal)
11
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008)
Physical Metallurgy – Crystal Structure

A crystal is a regular,
regular repeating arrangement of atoms or molecules
Can we see it?
The scanning tunneling

microscope (STM)
(S ) makes it
possible to image the
electron cloud associated
individual atoms at the
surface of a material. Right
is an STM image of a
platinum surface showing
the regular alignment of
atoms.
atoms
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 12

B d C t
Body-Centered
dCCubic
bi Crystal
C t l Structure
St t
One atom on each corner and one in the centre of the cell volume
Atom
Unit Cell
(a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells.
Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 13
F
Face-Centered
C t dCCubic
bi Crystal
C t l Structure
St t
One atom on each corner and on each face
Atom
Unit Cell
((a)) hard-ball model;; (b)

( ) unit cell;; and (c)
( ) single
g crystal
y with manyy unit cells.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 14

H
Hexagonal
l Closed-Packed
Cl dP k dC Crystal
t l St
Structure
t
Unit Cell Atom
(a) unit cell; and (b) single crystal with many unit cells.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 15
3 Primary Metallic Crystal Structures
Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP)
g factor 0.74
Packing
[Mg, Zn, Cd, Co, Ti]
Face Centered Cubic (FCC)
Packing factor 0.74

[Cu, Ni, Fe (> 910 oC), Pb, Ag, Au]
Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)
Packing factor 0.68

( 910 oC),
[[Fe (< ), Cr,, Mo,, Nb,, V]]
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 16

Similarities and differences between FCC and HCP
The crystal structure of a metal

has a significant impact on the
metal's
t l' material
t i l properties.
ti
• FCC: Gold and lead are easily
plastically deformed because their
FCC crystal structure has many
slip planes -- planes along which
p
displacements can slide.
• HCP: metals such as titanium
and cobalt have fewer slip planes
and are thus less easily plastically
deformed.
• Iron: changes from FCC to BCC
Cubic lattice structures allow slippage
pp g to
as temperature is reduced through
occur more easily than non-cubic
900 ºC.
lattices, so hcp metals are not as ductile
as the fcc metals.
metals
17
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008)
Solutions and Compounds
Most metals are alloyed with other elements to obtain better

mechanical properties
p p
An alloy y is a homogeneous
g mixture of two or more
elements, at least one of which is a metal (Wikipedia)
Bronze = 88% Cu (Copper) + 12% Sn (Tin)
Brass = 90% Cu (Copper) + 10% Zn (Zinc)
Steel = Iron (Fe) + alloying elements (C, Si, Mn, P, S, Cr, Ni, Mo)
Solid solution: alloying elements are fully dissolvable in the base

metal ((completely
p y miscible system)
y )
Intermediate compound: alloying elements are partially
dissolvable in the basis metal (p
(partially
y miscible system)
y )
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 18

Ch
Characteristics
t i ti off iron-carbon
i b alloy
ll
The changes in composition and mechanical properties are affected

by the changes in the carbon content in annealed plain carbon
steels.
Strengthening of a metal to increase its resistance to yielding or
plastic deformation can be obtained by changes in microstructure
that impede the motion of dislocations.
dislocations
Structural steels can be strengthened through mechanisms such as
1
1. the introduction of interstitial and substitutional atoms
(alloying),
2. the generation and concentration of dislocations (work or strain
hardening) and
hardening),
3. the formation of additional grain boundaries (heat treatment).
Alloying and heat treatment processes combine synergistically to

produce a tremendous variety of microstructures, and hence
properties, in structural steels.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 19
i t
interstitial
titi l and
d substitutional
b tit ti l atoms
t
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 20

Linear defects - dislocations
Dislocations are areas were the atoms are out of position in the crystal
structure. The
Th movement off dislocations
di l i when
h a stress is i applied
li d allows
ll slip
li –
plastic deformation to occur.
Discovered by Taylor,
O
Orowan andd Polyani
P l i iin
1934 with aid of TEM
Dislocation as seen under TEM (transmission

electron microscopy)
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 21
Dislocation – source of plasticity

1. Edge dislocation
2. Screw dislocation
dislocation
di l ti movementt
║ stress
dislocation movement ┴
stress
Analogy of dislocation movement: 1) moving heavy carpet; 2) caterpillar

CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 22
Strengthening by grain boundaries
Dislocation pileups at grain boundaries indicate these boundaries are very strong
obstacles to dislocation motion
23
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008)
grain boundaries
Transition zones between crystals of different orientation – hinders deformation
((b))
(a)
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 24

Various Fe solutions & compounds
Ferrite (α and δ) : The BCC form of iron and of solid solutions based on it.
Austenite (γ) : The higher density, FCC form of iron and of solid solutions based on it.
Cementite (Fe3C)): The compound as a complex hexagonal g crystal

y structure with carbon in
interstitial positions. It is very hard (harder than martensite) and brittle. This compound contains
6.67%C, and is present in all commercial steels. The degree of dispersion strengthening and
hence the properties of the steel are controlled by properly regulating the amount, size, and shape
of the Fe3C phase.
Graphite: The most stable form of carbon in the Fe-C system but usually found only in the cast
irons. Its form and distribution (flakes, aggregates, nodules or spheroids) control the strength and
ductility of cast irons.
Pearlite: A microstructure formed by the cooling of the austenite at the eutectoid. It consists of an
intimate lamellar mixture of α ferrite and cementite.
Martensite: No-equilibrium microstructure formed by cooling austenite too rapidly for carbon to
diffuse out of the solid solution to form Fe3C. The entrapped carbon distorts the lattice and retards
the shear transformation from FCC to BCC, causing the product of the shear transformation to be
a tetragonal lattice. Its hardness increases and ductility decreases with increasing carbon content.
Bainite: Non-equilibrium microstructure consisting of supersaturated ferrite and cementite, formed

when austenite breaks down at large under cooling by a combination of shear and diffusive
processes.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 25
Fe C diagram: two eutectic points

Fe-C
Pig iron @ 1150 oC,
C 44.3%C
3%C
Phase diagram
for Fe – C (Illston)
o
Pearlite @ 723 C, 0.8%C
26
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008)
Fe-C diagram: from iron to steel
Fe-C diagram (Young)
Pig iron: 4.3 %C
Cast iron: 2.0 ~ 4.3 %C

A3
Steel: < 2.0 %C
A1
Structural steel: < 0.3 %C
Wrought iron: < 0.035 %C +

glassy slag
27
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008)
F C di
Fe-C diagram: various
i phases
h & C%
Refer to Fig.13.2 (Young)
Cementite (6.7 %C): Fe3C
Pearlite (0.8 %C): a laminated structure of α ferrite (0.025 %C) and

cementite (6.7 %C) (Intermediate compound)
δ Ferrite (0.1 %C): BCC Fe

γ Austenite (2.0 %C): FCC Fe (Solid solution of C in Fe)
α Ferrite (0.025 %C): BCC Fe
Pearlite contains alternating g layers

y of ferrite and cementite. The
significance of pearlite is that the properties of steel are highly dependent
on grain size and content of pearlite phase in steels
Ferrite: soft but ductile As pearlite% increases, steel becomes

Cementite: hard but brittle stronger/harder, but less ductile
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 28

The evolution
Th l ti off the
th microstructure
i t t off hypo-eultectoid
h lt t id andd
hyper-eultectoid steels during cooling in relationship to the Fe-
Fe3C phase diagram
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 29
Mi
Microstructure
t t off steel
t l (x500):
( 500)
0.4% C 0.8% C
Source : L.H. Van Vlack, Elements of Materials Science and Engineering, 5th Ed. Addison-wesley 1985
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 30

H d
Hardness and
d strength
t th versus the
th amountt off carbon
b
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 31
D tilit and
Ductility d toughness
t h versus the
th amountt off carbon
b ghness, Joules
Toug
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 32

R t off cooling
Rate li on the
th structure
t t off steel
t l
In g
general, strength
g depends
p on the nature, distribution, and size of the
phases and/or grains present
Rate of coolingg through

g the transformation temperatures has a major j effect
on the nature of the pearlite formed. Slow cooling will give a coarse pearlite
structure while rapid cooling will produce a fine pearlite, with extremely thin
alternate layers, or lamellae, of ferrite and cementite.
The tensile strength of ferrite is 280-300 N/mm2, that of coarse pearlite is

about 700 N/mm2, while that of fine pearlite formed by rapid cooling may be
as high as 1300 N/mm2.
If a steel is cooled extremelyy rapidly,

p y, the austenite changes
g into a bodyy
centred lattice with all the carbon trapped in interstitial solid solution.
Theoretically, ferrite can hold virtually no carbon in solid solution and this
structure is highly strained and distorted by the large amount of carbon in
enforced solution into a body centred tetragonal form, referred
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 33
Change in mechanical properties associated with work

or strain hardening
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 34

Strain hardening and recrystallisation
Recrystallization is a process in which new strain-free grains are

nucleated and grow
Strain hardening is plastic deformation below the recrystallization

temperature
p where resistance to further deformation increases with
increasing amounts of deformation (and dislocations!)
When it is work
work- or strain
strain-hardened,
hardened, the ductility and toughness of
the metal or alloy decrease
Materials strengthened this way cannot be joined by welding without

softening (annealing) the material in the vicinity of the weld.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 35
The changes in mechanical properties occurring

g cold working
during g
ation
Tensiile strength
h
age elonga
Percenta
Percentage reduction in cross-sectional area during cold working
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 36

The effect of heat
treatment on cold-
worked steel
Source : Bolton 1994
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 37
H t ttreatment
Heat t t off steels
t l
Full annealing
Normalising
Spheroidise annealing
Process annealing or sub-critical annealing
Hardening
Tempering
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 38

Full annealing
To put a hypoeutectoid steel into the softest possible condition.
It involves heating the steel at 30-55°C above the upper critical temperature
(followed by slow cooling within a furnace. This produces a coarse pearlite
st uctu e)
structure).
Full annealing is a lengthy and expensive process
Normalising
This involves heating the steel at 30-55°C above the upper critical
temperature followed by cooling in still air. The faster rate of cooling gives a
finer pearlite structure and the steel, while relatively soft and ductile, is
somewhat
so e at harder
a de tthan
a full
u aannealed
ea ed material.
ate a
Hot worked products, such as structural steel sections, plain reinforcement

bar and forgings,
g g , are allowed to cool in air from the hot work finishing g
temperature, which is just above the upper critical temperature, and are,
therefore, in the normalised condition.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 39
The changes in mechanical properties occurring

occ rring during
d ring
annealing
ge elongation
Percentage elongation
e strength
Tensile
Percentag
Annealing temperature
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 40

Spheroidise annealing
For hypereutectoid steel, the cementite which first separates from austenite
d i
during cooling
li f
forms as a continuous
i networkk aroundd the
h austenite
i graini
boundaries and this will have a major embrittling effect. These steels can be
softened by heating them at a temperature just below the critical
temperature, where the cementite reforms into small spheroidal shaped
particles, and this greatly toughens the material.
Process annealing or sub-critical annealing

Ap
process often used for softening
g cold worked low carbon steels.
The recrystallisation temperature of cold worked ferrite is about 500°C and

annealing at about 550°C will completely recrystalise ferrite, even though
the pearlite will be largely unaffected.
Full annealing of such a steel would involve temperatures just above 900°C
with subsequent high cost.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 41
Schematic representation of heat treatment process for

a hypoeutectoid steel
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 42

Hardening
A steel is hardened by rapidly quenching the steel, from a high temperature, into
water or oil.
oil The very rapid cooling through the critical temperatures causes the
formation of martensite.
For hypoeutetctoid steels, the heat treatment temperature, prior to quenching, is 30-
50°C above the upper critical temperature.
For hypereutectoid steels, it is 30-50°C above the lower critical temperature for
steels.
t l (It is
i nott practicable
ti bl tot harden,
h d b quenching,
by hi plain
l i carbon
b steels
t l containing
t i i
less than 0.3 per cent carbon, although some low carbon alloy steels may be
hardened.)
Tempering
Hardened steels may be tempered by heating within the range 200- 700°C. This
treatment will remove internal stresses created by quenching, reduce the hardness,
and increase the toughness of the steel.
The higher the tempering temperature, the greater will be the reduction in hardness
and the increase in toughness
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 43
Variation of microstructure as a
function of cooling rate for an
eutectoid steel
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 44

Effects of tempering
Source : Bolton W. 1994
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 45
Engineering behaviour
It is
i important
i t t to
t beb aware off
the possible modes of failure of materials e.g. yielding, fracture,
ductile brittle etc
ductile, etc.
the effects of the various stress and environmental factors
The type of fracture depends on the

nature and condition of the material,,
type of stress applied,
rate of application
pp of stress,
temperature and environmental conditions,
component geometry and surface condition,
nature and size of internal flaws
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 46

St
Stress-strain
t i cures for
f some metals
t l
High-tensile
g steel
ess N/mm2
Tensile stre
Copper
Lead
Strain p
per cent
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 47
F il
Failure mode
d
Failure by yielding
Some metals are highly ductile with considerable plastic deformation
before failure. To minimise the possibility of excessive deformation
or failure by yielding in service, it is usual in design to limit the
maximum stress under service load to the yield or proof strength
divided by a safety factor.
Failure by fracture
Most materials contain internal cracks and other defects, and these
can act as points of local stress concentration. When a material is
subject to a stress, any cracks within it can propagate and may lead
to catastrophic fracture before the yield condition
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 48

Toughness
Toughness, a measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy prior

To failure has been evaluated by either
Area under stress-strain diagram

I
Impactt test
t t e.g. Charpy
Ch V-Notch
V N t h ttestt
Fracture mechanics approach (energy to propagate a crack).
Note that these approaches do not measure the same property
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 49
Impact performance for brittle and ductile materials
Curve A
Brittle material
Curve B
Ductile material
Stress
Stress
Strain
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 50

Charpy V-notch impact test
Starting position
Mammer
Specimen
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 51
Plot of defect size against stress for a material

Applied strress
Failure by
yielding
Failure by fast fracture
Critical
Deflect size
size
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 52

F
Fracture
t mechanics
h i
Griffith proposed that the critical stress to cause crack propagation in brittle materials for
plane stress conditions is
1
⎛ 2γE ⎞ 2
σc = ⎜ ⎟
Where ⎝ πa ⎠
σc is the critical stress for fracture,
γ is the fracture surface energy per unit area,
E is the modulus of elasticity and
a is one-half
one half the crack length
The equation is generally written in the form

1
⎛ G E ⎞2
σc = ⎜ c ⎟
⎝ πa ⎠
where Gc is a fundamental property of a material and is termed toughness or critical

strain energy release rate
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 53
The stresses at a crack tip were proportional to (πa)-1/21/2. For an elliptical shaped flaw under plane stress
conditions in a plate of infinite size, the stress intensity factor (Dowling 1999),
K = σM((πa))-1/2
where M is a geometry factor to take account of varying flaw shapes and finite boundaries. Sudden fast
fracture will occur when K reaches some critical value Kc. This critical stress intensity factor, Kc = (GE)1/2, is
a constant
t t off the
th material.
t i l It is
i also
l termed
t d the
th fracture
f t t
toughness
h off the
th material
t i l
Toughness and fracture toughness values for some metals
Material Toughness Fracture Toughness

Glc (kJ m-2) Klc (MPa m1/2)
Steels 30 - 135 80 - 170
Cast irons 0.2 - 3 6 - 20
Aluminum alloys 0.4 - 70 5 - 70
Copper alloys 10 - 100 30 - 120
Nickel alloys 50 - 100 100 - 150
Titanium alloys 20 - 100 50 - 100
Note that there are three modes of cracking and mode 1 is the easiest
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 54

For a ggiven fracture toughness,
g K1c, it is p
possible to calculate the size of
defect necessary to initiate fast fracture at a given value of applied stress or,
alternatively, the level of stress required to cause failure in a component
containing a defect of known size.
size
Flaws in materials can grow in size as a result of fatigue or corrosion. Many

engineering fabrications, such as aircraft structures, bridges and pressure
vessels, are inspected at regular intervals so that components may be taken
out of service, or the damage rectified, before a crack has reached critical
dimensions.
dimensions
The fracture toughness of a material is affected by temperature and rate of

loading An increase in temperature will render dislocations in metals more
loading.
mobile and, hence, will cause a reduction in yield strength. Conversely, a
reduction in temperature will give an increased yield strength with an
accompanying
i decrease
d i ductility.
in d tilit Many
M metals,
t l those
th possessing
i BCC or
HC structures, show a sharp transition from ductile to brittle behaviour as
the temperature is lowered. This does not apply to FCC metals, which retain
ductile behaviour at all temperatures. At high rates of strain, as under
impact loading conditions, the yield stress of a metal is effectively
increased.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 55
Variation of stress with temperature for a BCC metal D il b i l transition

Ductile-brittle ii
(i)fracture metal
(ii)yield stress for slow strain rate
(iii)yield stress for fast strain rate
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 56

Effects
Eff t off carbon
b content
t t on th
the ductile-brittle
d til b ittl transition
t iti off
normalised steels
Source : Dowling 1988
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 57
Effectt off fferrite

Eff it grain
i size
i on the
th ductile-brittle
d til b ittl transition
t iti temperature
t t
of mild steel
Finer grain size gives high strength and better ductility and toughness
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 58

Effects of carbon content on
the hardness of the various
steel microstructure
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 59
Effects of temperature on the toughness and hardness of the various

steel microstructure
energy / J
HV (30)
kg mm-2
Charrpy impact e
Tempering temperature 0C
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 60

Effect of manganese content on the ductile
ductile-brittle
brittle transition
temperature of furnace cooled 0.05%C steel
Cv / J
Temperature 0C
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 61
F ti
Fatigue
When a metal component or structure is subjected to repeated or

cyclic stresses it may eventually fail, even though the maximum
stress
t i anyone stress
in t cycle
l is
i considerably
id bl less
l th the
than th fracture
f t
stress of the material.
Fatigue failure is the result of processes of crack nucleation and

growth or, for components which may contain cracks introduced
during manufacture,
manufacture growth only.
only
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 62

Types of stress
stress-cycles
cycles
Repeating
Alternating
Fluctuating
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 63
S-N
S N curves ((alternating)
lt ti ) for
f (i) metal
t l showing
h i fatigue
f ti limit
li it e.g. steel
t l (ii)
metal showing no fatigue limit e.g. aluminium
Stress σ
Number of stress cycles to failure N
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 64

R l ti
Relationship
hi between
b t endurance
d limit
li it and
d the
th mean stress
t
Endurance limit
(Stress amplitude)
Gerber parabola
Goldman line
Yield stress
Mean stress
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 65
Factors affect the fatigue strength of a material
including
g surface condition e.g.
g ppresence of scratches or notches
can provide stress-raising features for the initiation of fatigue cracks
component design e.ge g sectional changes with small fillet radii,radii

keyways and oil holes in shafts, are all stress-concentration features
nature of the environment e.g.

e g corrosion can occur.
occur Hence,
Hence not only
is the fatigue life very greatly reduced, the rate of corrosion is also
increased. This combined effect is termed corrosion fatigue.
g
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 66

C
Creep and
d relaxation
l ti
Creep is the continued slow straining of a material under the

influence of a constant force. The amount of strain developed is a
function of stress, time and temperature. The creep of metals is
mainly a high-temperature phenomenon and assumes significance
at temperatures above 0.3 Tm, where Tm is the melting temperature
of the metal in Kelvin.
Kelvin Therefore,
Therefore it is not of great importance to civil
and structural engineers.
Relaxation is a phenomenon related to creep,creep and is the slow

reduction of stress with time in a material which is subject to a
constant value of strain. Examplesp are the levels of stress in
tensioned bolts, and in the bars and wires in prestressed concrete.
Prestressing steel must have a high proof strength and low stress
relaxation characteristics as the prestressing force should not fall
below 80 per cent of its initial value during the service life of the
member.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 67
Creep of steel in tension
Heating rate =
100C / minute
Steel stress
(M )
(Mpa)
%)
Strain (%
Steel stress
(Mpa)
Temperature (0C)
Source : Kirby and Preston 1988
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 68

T
Types off steel
t l products,
d t their
th i manufacture
f t and
d forming
f i
Well over 90% of the total world consumption of metals is in the form of
steels and cast irons. In civil and structural engineering the vast majority of
the steels used are plain carbon steels,
steels or slightly modified plain carbon
steels.
Plain carbon steels are those alloys with compositions up to 2% by weight

of carbon. They are cheap compared to alloy steel. Low carbon steels,
which contain up to 0.3% carbon, are generally used in the normalised, cold
worked or cold worked and process annealed conditions.
worked, conditions Low carbon
steels are also weldable and this makes them extremely useful for large
structures such as ships and bridges.
Medium carbon steels are those which contain between 0.3 and
0.6% carbon, and these may be hardened and tempered.
High carbon steels (or tool steels) contain more than 0.6% carbon, and are
always used in the hardened and tempered condition.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 69
Plain carbon steel

Carbon content General properties Typical applications
(wt %)
0.01 - 0.1 Soft, ductile, no use hardening by heat treatment Pressings where high formability is necessary.
except by normalising but can be work hardened.
Weldable.
0.1 - 0.25 Strong, ductile, no useful hardening by heat General engineering uses as “mild steel”.
treatment except by normalising. Weldable. Can be
work hardened. Ductile behaviour can become
brittle at low temperatures.
0.25 - 0.6 Very strong, heat treatable to produce wide range of Bars and forgings from a wide range of
properties in quenched and tempered conditions. engineering components e.g. connecting rods,
Difficult to weld. Can become brittle at subambient springs, hammers, axle shafts requiring strength
temperature. and toughness.
0.6 - 0.9 Strong whether heat treated or not, but ductility Where strength is more important than toughness
lower than when less carbon present. Not weldable. e.g. tools, wearing parts et.
0.9 - 2.0 Wear resistant and can be made very hard at the Cutting tools like wood chisels, files, saw blades.
expense of toughness and ductility. Cannot be Press and blanking tools. Wear resistant
welded. Tend to be brittle if structure not carefully applications where free Fe3C particles in structure
controlled. are useful.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 70

Sequence of rolling operations
for UB
Primary rolls
Horizontal & vertical

roughing rolls
Edging rolls
Horizontal & vertical

finishing rolls
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 71
Eff t off rolling

Effect lli on microstructure
i t t
The amounts of deformation and rolling temperatures can affect the austenite grain
size. Heavy deformations at low temperatures give finer grains.
If the rolling is done at a temperature just above the ferrite + austenite region of the
equilibrium diagram and the section is allowed to cool in air,
air an ordinary normalized
microstructure results.
If the rolling is finished in the ferrite + austenite range,

range the ferrite and austenite are
each rolled out along the rolling direction and a layer-like structure develops. Upon
air-cooling, the austenite decomposes into pearlite, as long cigar-shaped bands in the
material.
Rolling below 723°C is usually restricted to low-carbon steels and is mainly practised
for mild steels containing less than < O.15%C. The presence of pearlite makes rolling
difficult!
If the temperature is above about 650°C the ferrite grains reform as they are
deformed as was the case with austenite.
deformed, austenite The carbide laths in the pearlite are
broken and give rise to strings of small carbide particles extending in the direction of
rolling. The ferrite from the pearlite becomes indistinguishable from the rest of the
ferrite.
ferrite
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 72

Alloying and hot rolling ensure tough, strong steel (from Easterling)
Controlled rolling, one of the modern techniques for producing fine-grained high-strength
steels. After hot rolling the deformed structure recrystallises into fine grains which are
prevented from g
p growing g byy the simultaneous p
precipitation
p of extremelyy small carbides
and nitrides. Cooling to ambient temperatures gives a very fine-grained ferritic structure
with a strength of up to 600 MN m-2.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 73
Effect of rolling on microstructure
If the rolling was done at atmospheric

temperature, the pearlite is still
broken up p in the same way,
y but the
ferrite cannot now reform its grains: it
work-hardens.
Rolling causes “slag” (an inevitable

waste product of steel manufacturing
and present in all steel) to align with
the rolling direction and so form a
zone of weakness at that point. The
thicker the p plate the worse the effect.
This plane of weakness may be
revealed when tension is applied
perpendicular to this point, e.g., by a Lamellar tearing can result from slag inclusions
(from Dowling)
brittle failure near a weld.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 74

Stress strain curve for
steels of different types
Source : Abeles
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 75
Some properties for weldable structural steels other than hollow section BS 4360 (BS EN 10025-2)
Typical minimum yield stress N/mm2 Impact toughness:

Max. carbon Minimum
Temperature at
Grade content (Ladle elongation on 5.65
which 27J to be
analysis) Up to 16 mm thick 63 - 100 mm thick √S° percent
absorbed (°C)
40A (NA) 0.22 235 205 25 -

40B (S235JR) 0.20 235 205 25 20
40C (S235J0) 0.18 235 210 25 0
40D (S235J2) 0.16 235 215 25 -20
40DD (S235K2) 0.16 260 255 25 -30
43A (NA) 0.25 275 245 22 -

43B (S275JR) 0.21 275 245 22 20
43C (S275J0) 0.18 275 245 22 0
43D (S275J2) 0.18 275 245 22 -20
43DD (S275K2) 0.16 275 245 22 -30
50A (NA) 0.23 355 325 20 -

50B (S355JR) 0.20 355 325 20 20
50C (S355J0) 0.20 355 325 20 0
50D (S355J2) 0.18 355 325 20 -20
50DD (S355K2) 0.18 355 325 20 -30
55C (S460J0) 0.22 460 - 19 0
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 76

Notes on structural steel
Structural steel is manufactured in three basic grades; 43, 50 and 55

(
(now k
known as S275,
S275 S355 and d S460 ini new material
t i l standards)
t d d )
The minimum yield strength values vary with sectional thickness,

being higher for thinner sections.
Most structural steels are used in the normalised condition of heat

treatment. During normalising, cooling in still air, thin sections will
cool through the critical temperature range more rapidly than thick
sections Hence,
sections. Hence thin sections will possess a finer grain structure
and thus, higher strength than thick sections of the same material.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 77
The system of structural steel designation is common to the whole of the

European Union.
Each steel is identified by a 7 to 9 character code, code the first character,

character S,
S
signifying that the steel is for structural applications.
This is followed by three digits indicating the minimum yield strength (in
N/mm2) for the smallest thickness.
The final characters give coded information on impact properties,

properties delivery
condition and type of product.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 78

Corrosion protection and weather resistant steels
Steels with an enhanced resistance to corrosion can be manufactured by

making alloying additions of copper and chromium.
These steels, termed weather resistant steels, are detailed in BS 7668 and
S EN 10155.
BS 0 55
After exposure to the weather these steels develop an adherent protective

y rust,, and after about two y
oxide film instead of normal flaky years this
possesses a pleasing purplish-copper colour.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 79
F t
Factors on selection
l ti off structural
t t l steel
t l
the tensile yield strength required;
the toughness, ductility and other properties required;
th availability
the il bilit and
d cost;
t and
d
arbitrary local conditions as may be imposed by specifications and

codes of practice.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 80

CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 81
Steel for concrete reinforcement

Type R, Y, T
The grade number is the characteristic strength of the steel in N/mm

Steel for the reinforcement of concrete - Plain bars (steel grade 300) SS 2 : Part 1 : 1999
Steel for the reinforcement of concrete - Ribbed bars (steel grade 500) SS 2 : Part 2 : 1999
Steel for the reinforcement of concrete - Plain and ribbed bars (steel grades 250 and 460)
SS 2 : Part 3 : 1987
Cold-reduced steel wire for the reinforcement of concrete and the manufacture of welded
fabric - Steel grade 500 SS 18 : Part 1 : 1999
Cold-reduced steel wire for the reinforcement of concrete and the manufacture of welded
fabric - Steel grade 485 SS 18 : Part 2 : 1970
Welded steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete - Steel grades 300 and 500 SS 32 :
Part 1 : 1999
Welded steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete - Steel grade 485 SS 32 : Part 2 :
1986
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 82

P
Prestressing
t i steel
t l
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 83
Steel for structural bolts
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 84

Steel bridge wires
The mechanical properties required for suspension bridge cables

are high
g strength,
g , toughness
g and fatigue
g resistance.
This fatigue property is important because of the fluctuations of

stress caused by variable traffic and wind loadings.
loadings
Corrosion resistance is also important.
Suitable cables are produced from cold drawn steel containing 0.75-
0.85 per cent carbon and 0.5-0.7 per cent manganese, produced to
h
have a minimum
i i t
tensile
il strength
t th off 1600 N/mm
N/ 2.
The wires are galvanised to give a heavy coating of zinc for good
resistance to corrosion.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 85
Steel stress-strain curves at high temperatures
Strength/stiffness reduction
factors for elastic modulus and
yyield strength
g ((2% strain).
)
Elastic modulus at 600°C

reduced by about 70%
70%.
Yield strength at 600°C reduced

b o
by over
er 50%
50%.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 86

D
Degradation
d ti off steel
t l strength
t th and
d stiffness
tiff
Strength and stiffness reductions

very similar for S235, S275, S355
structural steels and hot-rolled
reinforcing
i f i b bars. (SS)
Cold-worked reinforcing
g bars
S500 deteriorate more rapidly.
(Rft)
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 87
Steel and iron castings
Casting is used for the production of complex shapes.
A majorj pprocess used is sand casting, g, in which the liquid

q iron or
steel is poured into a prepared shaped cavity in a mould made from
sand. The rate of solidification of metal within a sand mould is
relatively slow and sand castings tend to have a coarse grain size.
size
In addition a sand casting is likely to possess some porosity and
show some compositional
p segregation,
g g , so that the mechanical
properties of sand castings are inferior to those of forgings.
Casting is likely to be selected when the number of components

required is so small that the high cost of forging dies is not
warranted, the shape is too complex for forging, or components with
adequate
d properties
i can be
b produced
d d more cheaply.
h l
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 88

C t iirons
Cast
C t irons
Cast i contain
t i between
b t 2 and
d 4.5
4 5 % off carbon
b
There are two types of cast irons namely white irons and grey irons.
The former has a low silicon content and the latter contains some or
all of the carbon content in the form of graphite.
The structure of a cast iron is determined by a number of factors,

including the composition and the rate of solidification. The higher
the carbon and silicon contents,
contents the greater will be the tendency for
development of a purely graphite and ferrite structure.
IIn general,
l grey castt irons
i h
have l
low t
tensile
il strengths
t th and
d are brittle,
b ittl
owing to the presence of flake graphite. They possess, however,
comparable compressive strengths to steels. The tensile strengths
of common grey cast irons lie in the range 100 to 350 N/mm2 but
higher strength can be produced.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 89
Cast irons (cont’d)
They are used where tensile strength and toughness requirements

are not stringent and where advantage can be taken of their other
properties. These are relatively low cost, and have good
compressive strength, good castability and machinability, better
corrosion resistance than mild steel and a reasonable fatigue
strength.
strength
Typical applications for cast irons include manhole covers and

frames, gulley drains, rainwater pipes, gutters and fittings, and
components of bridge bearings.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 90

2.5m Diameter Hemispherical Cast Steel Node
National
at o a Artt Ga
Gallery
ey
Welding technology
Gas welding
Much less than arc welding, is still an important process and used
quite widely for maintenance and repair work.
It has some advantages for welding carbon and low alloy steels
since the weld area can be preheated and post heated with the
flame to reduce the cooling rate and, thus, avoid the formation of
brittle martensite.
The flame temperature is lower than the temperature of an electric

arc and the temperature gradients in the vicinity of a weld are also
less.
The filler metal to make the weld is obtained from a metal rod or wire
fed into the flame by the welder and, generally, the filler rod is
coated with a layer of flux. The flux melts and acts to dissolve
surface oxides and form a protective layer over the weld.
weld
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 98
Arc welding
Bare electrode wire and welding rods or coated electrodes
Coating on a electrode is formulated to satisfy three objectives:

(1) to form fusible slags;
(2) to stabilise the arc; and
(3) to generate an inert gas shield during the welding operation.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 99
Shielding methods
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 100

S
Some ttypes off welds
ld
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 101
Weldability and avoidance of defects
During welding,
welding a temperature gradient is established which varies from the
fusion temperature at the weld metal to room temperature at some point in
the parent metal away from the weld. This produces changes in the
metallurgical condition and properties of the parent metal in the vicinity of
the weld, the so-called heat-affected-zone (HAZ).
The micro structural changes in this region can be considerable and are
generally accompanied by a deterioration of its mechanical properties.
g depend on
These changes
(1) the composition of the parent metal,
(2) its original condition, and, possibly,
(3) the cooling rate after the weld.
weld
Weldability may be defined as the capacity of a metal to be joined by

welding into a structure that can perform in a satisfactory manner for an
intended service. The weldability of a steel is a complex property; it covers
both the sensitivity to weld cracking and the toughness in both the weld and
the HAZ required
req ired by
b service
ser ice conditions and temperatures.
temperat res
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 102
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 103
Variation of structure and properties across a weld in a

low carbon steel
Very fine Fine ferrite +

ferrite + peartitle peartitle Normalised
structure
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 104

Weldability decreases as the carbon and alloy content of steel is increased.
A convenient way to assess weldability and to evaluate the effect of alloying
elements on weldability is to use a "carbon-equivalent" (CE) formula, such
as
Mn Cr + Mo + V Ni + Cu
CE = C + + +
6 5 15
The value of CE should not exceed about 0.25 for heavy

y structural steels;; if
not, controlled cooling of the weld is necessary to avoid risks of
embitterment.
Welding has a very strong influence on fatigue strength due to associated

stress concentrations which result from the design of the welded joint,
surface effects,
effects slag inclusions or voids in the weld,
weld mechanical properties
of the weld metal and/or heat-affected zone, and residual stresses.
It is usually found that the fatigue strength is more dependent on the

geometry of the joint, the type of weld, and the freedom from notch effects
than on the strength level of the steel.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 105
Welding defects
(a) good weld (b) incomplete fusion, lack of penetration (c) excess
penetration and overlap (d) gas porosity and inclusions (e) undercut
Fusion line Underfill

Lack of fusion
Lack of penetration
(a) (b)
Overlap Porosity
Porosityor inclusions
or inclusions
Loss of
section
Excess penetration (b)

((a)) (c)
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 106

Corrosion
When corrosion of a metal happens, the effective thickness of a

load- bearing structure is decreased, the level of stress within the
material is raised and this increase could accelerate the corrosion in a
localised area to such a point that the level of stress is high enough to
cause failure.
yp
2 types
Dry corrosion - a direct reaction between the surface metal and
atmospheric oxygen. Direct oxidation is not a problem with most
metals, except at greatly elevated temperatures when the oxidation
rates are high.
Wet corrosion - involves a series of electrochemical reactions in the

presence of an aqueous electrolyte.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 107
Schematic representation of corrosion on metal surface exposed to

a humid environment
Cathodic reaction:
Anodic reaction: Cathodic reaction:
O2+2H2+4 electrons → 4(OH-)
2Fe-4 electrons → 2Fe++ O2+2H2O+4 electrons → 4(OH-)
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 108

Forms of corrosion
General corrosion
Pitti corrosion
Pitting i
Galvanic corrosion
Stress-corrosion
Crevice corrosion
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 109
G
General
l corrosion
i
General corrosion or rusting is the most familiar form of steel

corrosion. It can be considered a uniform corrosion process in which
numerous micro-corrosion cells are activated at the corroded area.
The cells could be minute grains where the boundary tends to be the
anode for example.
anode, example
In atmospheric exposures, oxygen in the air is the usual oxidizing

agent and the water necessary for the reaction is readily available
agent,
in the form of rain, condensation (dew, for example), or humidity
((water vapor
p in the air).
)
In the rusting of ordinary steel, the corrosion product (rust) does not
form an effective barrier to further corrosion, but permits reactants to
penetrate to the steel surface beneath and continue the rusting
cycle.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 110

Pitti corrosion
Pitting i
This is a nonuniform, highly localized form of corrosion that occurs

at distinct spots where deep pits form. (A pit is a small electro-
chemical-corrosion
h i l i cell,
ll with
ith the
th bottom
b tt off the
th pit
it acting
ti as the
th
anode.)
Frequently the source for corrosion pits is a non-homogeneous

metal and the presence of inclusions of an impurity may cause
breaks in the passive coating.
coating
It is much more common with metals and alloys that possess a high
resistance passive film.
film The presence of the film tends to prevent
the spread of corrosion to a wider area and the attack is
concentrated in a series of small localities. Stainless steels are
susceptible to this form of corrosion in the presence of chloride
solutions.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 111
Galvanic corrosion
When two metals of different electrochemical potential are joined or

coupled electrically in the presence of moisture or an aqueous
solution, one will act as the anode and corrode; the corrosion of
steel when it is in contact with copper is a familiar example.
All metals can be characterized by their tendency to corrode, - Zinc

(highest); Aluminium; Steel; Iron; Nickel; Tin; Lead; Brass (copper
and zinc alloy); Copper; Bronze (copper and tin alloy); Stainless
steel; Gold (lowest).
The solution
Th l ti is i to
t isolate
i l t the
th different
diff t metals
t l from
f eachh other,
th e.g.,
by a plastic strip or washer. This principle is used to advantage
when steel is protected by galvanic methods e.g., galvanized steel
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 112

Stress-corrosion
A phenomenon in which there is the initiation of a crack and its

propagation through the material as the result of the combined
effects of a stress and a corrosive environment.
It can lead to brittle failure as corrosion tends to be localized.
Corrosion of this kind can occur in prestressing tendons in concrete.
Crevice corrosion
This form occurs when moisture and contaminants retained in
crevices accelerate corrosion.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 113
Corrosion control
Protective Coatings
g
Galvanic Protection
Cathodic Protection
Corrosion-resistant Steels
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 114

Protective Coatings
The object of a protective coating is to isolate the metal from its
environment,
i thereby
h b preventing i attack k as long
l as the
h coating
i isi intact
i e.g.
paint, epoxy coatings on reinforcing bars
Paints
P i t are easilyil applied,
li d either
ith byb brush
b h or spray. On O drying,
d i paints
i t form
f a
semi -elastic resin coating, the pigment in the paint serving both to colour
and strengthen the semi-elastic coat. Most paints age and weather,
particularly in strong sunlight, and the layer either becomes porous or flakes
off the surface.
Paint surfaces are also fairly soft and may be easily scratched and
damaged. Once oxygen and moisture can reach the metal surface,
g and it can even occur beneath p
corrosion can begin portions of the p
paint-
covered surface.
Paints for use on ferrous metals may y contain active ingredients

g such as red
lead or zinc chromate, both of which tend to make the metal surface passive
by the formation of a fine protective oxide layer, or metal powders such as
aluminium or zinc.
zinc
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 115
G l
Galvanic
i Protection
P t ti
Hot-dip galvanizing is a process in which an adherent, protective

coating of zinc or zinc-iron compounds is developed on the surfaces
of iron and steel products by immersing them in a bath of molten
zinc
Metallizing involves the application of zinc onto the steel surface by

means of a flame spray gun.
Th usefulness
The f l off zinc
i coatings
ti as corrosion
i protection
t ti depends
d d on
(1) the thickness of zinc and its surface oxide film,
(2) the relatively low rate of corrosion of zinc as compared with that of iron
or steel, and
(3) the electrolytic, or sacrificial, protection afforded to iron by zinc
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 116

H t di
Hot-dipped
d Galvanizing:
G l i i Its
It Principle
Pi i l
To deposit zinc on the surface by hot-dipping (immersion into a
molten bath of zinc, 4600C – 4800C)
• Zinc
Layer
• Alloyed
Layer
• Steel Layer
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008)
117
1. De-greasing 3. Fluxing
2. Acid Pickling 4. Galvanizing

CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 118
Cathodic Protection
This method is used for structures located below g ground or immersed in
water, commonly in conjunction with a protective coating, such as asphalt,
tar, or an epoxy, applied to the structure to reduce power consumption.
Because corrosion results from, or is accompanied by, a flow of electrical

current between anodic and cathodic surfaces, it is possible to reduce or
eliminate it by controlling the magnitude and direction of current flow.
By reversing the current to the original anodic steel surface, the steel is
made a cathode and does not corrode. A reverse
reverse-current
current flow is obtained
either by electrically connecting the steel structure to a metal of higher
electromotive energy (commonly zinc or magnesium, in the form of
sacrificial anodes) or by artificially impressing a direct current from an
outside source (for example, a power line and a rectifier).
The steelwork will be protected as long as it receives a steady supply of

electrons and effective protection is provided as long as the proper reverse
current flow is maintained.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 119
Corrosion-resistant Steels
These steels contain a combination of alloying elements selected to

provide a special type of oxide coating after prolonged exposure to
the atmosphere (weathering).
Theyy usuallyy contain copperpp and develop p a resistance to

atmospheric corrosion from four to eight times that of a plain-carbon
steel. In addition to copper, phosphorus, chromium, nickel, and
silicon are among the elements added (usually in combination) to
achieve this special corrosion resistance.
On exposure to
O t the
th atmosphere,
t h th
these steels
t l gradually
d ll develop
d l a
tightly adhering oxide coating that acts as a barrier to moisture and
oxygen and eventually almost prevents further corrosion.
Furthermore, if this coating is damaged, it will heal itself.
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 120

CHANGING FORM – THE ROCK
CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 121

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3/26/2012

Hardened Concrete Properties

Stress-Strain Relation of Normal

Stress-Strain Relations for Cement

Concrete is a highly complex

Interface Transition Zone

ITZ - The Weakest Link of the

Failure Modes in Concrete

Failure Modes in Concrete

Failure Modes in Concrete

Factors Affecting Compressive

Factors Affecting Strength –

Factors Affecting Strength – Air

1% Air Voids Reduces the

Factors Affecting Strength –

Factors Affecting Strength –

Factors Affecting Strength –

Factors Affecting Strength –

Factors Affecting Compressive

Factors Affecting Strength -

Factors Affecting Strength -

Factors Affecting Strength -

Concrete Strength: Maturity

Factors Affecting Strength –

Determine the maturity of a concrete member

Factors Affecting Strength –

Factors Affecting Strength –

Factors Affecting Concrete

Types of deformation in concrete

The definition of pure elasticity is that

Estimation of Modulus of Elasticity

Factors Affecting Modulus of

Shrinkage and Creep

These two time-dependent deformations are

Volume changes accompany loss of

Minimize Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

Moisture Movement in Concrete

Shrinkage Induced Cracking

Passive Shrinkage Control –

Passive Shrinkage Control –

Creep Under a Constant Stress

Relaxation for Concrete

Factors Affecting Shrinkage

Factors Affecting Shrinkage and

Factors Affecting Shrinkage

Factors Affecting Shrinkage and

Factors Affecting Shrinkage

Need for “Standard” Tests

Test on Compressive Strength

ASTM Cylinders vs. BS Cubes

Effect of Height to Diameter

Test on Tensile Strength

Flexural Tensile Test

Third Point vs Central Point

Equation holds only if the beam breaks

Splitting Tensile Test

Standard test specimens

Calculation of Splitting Tensile

Comments on Split Tensile