This document is the first lecture for a course on radio frequency (RF) propagation basics. It introduces the topics that will be covered, including the RF spectrum, electromagnetic waves, RF propagation mechanisms like ground waves, sky waves and space waves, and the effects of the atmosphere on RF propagation. Key points are that RF signals occupy frequencies between tens of kHz to hundreds of GHz, propagation speed depends on frequency and wavelength, and waves can propagate through reflection, refraction, diffraction and scattering.
This document is the first lecture for a course on radio frequency (RF) propagation basics. It introduces the topics that will be covered, including the RF spectrum, electromagnetic waves, RF propagation mechanisms like ground waves, sky waves and space waves, and the effects of the atmosphere on RF propagation. Key points are that RF signals occupy frequencies between tens of kHz to hundreds of GHz, propagation speed depends on frequency and wavelength, and waves can propagate through reflection, refraction, diffraction and scattering.
This document is the first lecture for a course on radio frequency (RF) propagation basics. It introduces the topics that will be covered, including the RF spectrum, electromagnetic waves, RF propagation mechanisms like ground waves, sky waves and space waves, and the effects of the atmosphere on RF propagation. Key points are that RF signals occupy frequencies between tens of kHz to hundreds of GHz, propagation speed depends on frequency and wavelength, and waves can propagate through reflection, refraction, diffraction and scattering.
This document is the first lecture for a course on radio frequency (RF) propagation basics. It introduces the topics that will be covered, including the RF spectrum, electromagnetic waves, RF propagation mechanisms like ground waves, sky waves and space waves, and the effects of the atmosphere on RF propagation. Key points are that RF signals occupy frequencies between tens of kHz to hundreds of GHz, propagation speed depends on frequency and wavelength, and waves can propagate through reflection, refraction, diffraction and scattering.
EEE-475 Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 1 EEE-475
BASICS OF PROPAGATION
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 2
Introduction EEE-475
In this lecture we will study RF and propagation
basics in the following headings; ➢ RF spectrum, ➢ EM Waves, ➢ RF propagation, ➢ Atmospheric effect on RF propagation.
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RF Spectrum EEE-475
▪ The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is
the range of all types of EM radiation. ▪ Visible light from a lamp and radio waves broadcast from a radio station are two types of EM radiation. ▪ Other types of EM radiation that make up the EM spectrum are microwaves, infrared (IR) light, ultraviolet light, X- rays, and gamma rays. ▪ The lowest energy is at the longest wavelength, and the highest is at the shortest wavelength. Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 4 RF Spectrum EEE-475
Before giving information about RF spectrum, we
have to notice the location of the RF band in the EM spectrum.
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EEE-475 RF Spectrum If we extend the RF spectrum, we will encounter the following figure.
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EEE-475 RF Spectrum ❑ RF signals occupy a frequency range between a few tens of KHz to several hundred GHz in the EM spectrum. ❑ At the lowest part of RF (3-30 kHz) is only suitable for narrow-band communication signal propagating as ground waves over very long distances. ❑ Frequencies between 3-30 MHz ionospheric propagation regularly permit intercontinental broadcasting and comms. ❑ In other frequency ranges, propagation and refraction shows normal behavior. Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 7 RF Spectrum EEE-475
The RF spectrum is divided into different
operational bands by different organizations according to the usage situations of the devices.
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RF Spectrum EEE-475
RF is divided into several operational bands for convenience.
ITU (International Telecommunication Union)
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 9 EEE-475 RF Spectrum The classification RF Bands according to the IEEE standards Frequency of the RF band Band Range Meaning of the Letters
according to IEEE HF 0.003 - 0.03 GHz High Frequency
VHF 0.03 - 0.3 GHz Very High Frequency is shown in the UHF 0.3 - 1 GHz Ultra High Frequency table. L 1 - 2 GHz Long wave S 2 - 4 GHz Short wave C 4 - 8 GHz Compromise between S and X Used in World War II for fire control, X X 8 - 12 GHz for cross (as in crosshair). Exotic. Ku 12 - 18 GHz Kurz-under K 18 - 27 GHz Kurz (German for 'short') Ka 27 - 40 GHz Kurz-above V 40 - 75 GHz W 75 - 110 GHz W follows V in the alphabet mm or G 110 - 300 GHz Millimeter
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EM Waves EEE-475
Radio waves propagate outwards from a source of
energy transmitter (Tx) and comprise electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields at right angles to one another. E and H components are inseparable.
B D E = − H = J + t t Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 11 EM Waves EEE-475
Radio waves are polarised in the plane of E.
- Vertically Polarised: E-field is vertical, - Horizantally Polarised: E-field is horizantal. - Circular or Eliptic Polarised: E-field is circular or eliptic. Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 12 EM Waves EEE-475
The direction of E-field lines is reversed on each cycle
of the signal as the wavefront moves outwards from the source (Tx). The receiving antenna intercepts the moving field, voltage, and current are induced in it. The induction voltages and currents of both Tx and Rx are similar in shape, while the ones in Rx are smaller in amplitude. Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 13 Frequency and Wavelength EEE-475
Radio waves propagate in the air at the speed of
light (300000km/sec). The relationship among wavelength, frequency, and propagation velocity is defined as follows; v= f λ = 3 x 108m/s or λ = (3 x 108/f ) m A signal at a frequency of 1 MHz will have a wavelength of 300 m. Similarly, an RF signal with 100 MHz will have a wavelength of 3 m.
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The Atmosphere EEE-475
The earths atmosphere can be divided into five concentric regions having boundaries that are not clearly defined.
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The Atmosphere EEE-475
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Radio Wave Propogation EEE-475
Depending on several complex factors, radio-waves
can propagate through the atmosphere in various ways, which includes; ➢ Ground waves ➢ Ionospheric (sky) waves ➢ Space waves ➢ Tropospheric waves.
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Radio Wave Propogation EEE-475
Ground Waves (or surface waves) travel close to the
earth and porpogate for relatively short distances at HF and VHF but much greater distance at MF and LF.
100 kHz - 500km
1MHz – 150km(max) 10MHz – 15km(max)
Ground waves are composed of two separate component waves: the
direct wave and the ground reflected wave. Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 18 Radio Wave Propogation EEE-475
The direct path which exists line-of-sight (LOS) basis
between the Tx and Rx. (Ex: Sat-Rx relationship.)
LOS
Note: Direct or line-of-sight wave may interact with the
earth-reflected wave depending on terminal separation (Tx-Rx distance), frequency and polarization. Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 19 Radio Wave Propogation EEE-475
LOS
Ground reflection depends on the surface shape near the
ground for short distances. In long distances reflection from the earth surface allows links up to 100 km over land and 300 km over sea. Attenuation of the wave depends on antenna height, polarization, frequency, ground types, terrain and/or sea state. Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 20 Radio Wave Propogation EEE-475
Ionospheric waves (or sky waves) can travel for
long distance at MF, HF and VHF (under certain conditions).
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Radio Wave Propogation EEE-475
What happens when waves meet certain types of
discontinuity in the atmosphere or a physical obstruction? ❑ Reflection: A plane wave meets a plane object. ❑ Refraction: Wave moves from one medium to another. ❑ Diffraction: A wave meets an edge which has dimensions that are large relative to the wavelength of the signal. ❑ Scattering: A wave encounters one or more objects in its path Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 22 Radio Wave Propogation EEE-475
Reflection: • Occurs when a wave impinges upon a smooth surface. • Dimensions of the surface are large relative to a threshold. • Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls.
Refraction: • Waves are deflected when they go through a substance. • The wave generally changes the angle of its general direction.
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Radio Wave Propogation EEE-475
A demonstration of propagation defects.
Refraction
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Radio Wave Propogation EEE-475
Diffraction (Shadowing): • Occurs when the path is blocked by an object with large dimensions relative to a threshold and sharp irregularities (edges). • Diffraction gives rise to bending of waves around the obstacle.
Scattering: • Occurs when a wave impinges upon an object, causing the reflected energy to spread out or “scatter” in many directions. • Small objects such as streetlights, signs, and leaves cause scattering • Occurs more readily at higher frequencies (typically VHF and above.) • Regularly occurs in the troposphere at UHF (300-3000 MHz) and EHF (30-300 GHz).
Tropospheric wave uses the scattering principle to
achieve beyond the line-of-sight radio communications within the troposphere.
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Radio Wave Propogation EEE-475
➢ Slight bending of radio waves occurs in the
troposphere, causing signals to return to Earth beyond the geometric horizon and allowing you to contact stations that are farther away than would otherwise be possible. ➢ This radio path horizon is generally about 15% farther away than the visible horizon. ➢ Tropospheric bending is evident over a wide range of frequencies, although it is most useful in the VHF/UHF region.
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Radio Wave Propogation EEE-475
• Under normal conditions, the temperature of the air
gradually decreases with increasing height above ground. When there is a stable high-pressure system, a mass of warm air may overrun cold air, causing a temperature inversion. • Radio waves trapped below the warm air mass can travel great distances with little loss. The area between the Earth and the warm air mass is known as a duct.
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Radio Wave Propogation EEE-475
Another illustration of tropospheric ducting is shown in
the following figure.
Also a high-altitude tropospheric duct is shown below.
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 34
Ionosphere EEE-475
• When a radio wave is transmitted into an ionized
layer, the wave’s refraction or bending occurs. • As discussed earlier, refraction is caused by an abrupt change in the velocity of the upper part of a radio wave as it strikes or enters a new medium. • The amount of refraction that occurs depends on three main factors: (1) the density of ionization of the layer, (2) the frequency of the radio wave, and (3) the angle at which the wave enters the layer. Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 35 Ionosphere EEE-475
During sunlight hours the ionosphere separates into three
layers. • D-layer does not refract radio waves but unfortunately attenuates the wave as it travels through in both directions. • E-layer refracts radio waves and is used for daylight communications up to approximately 500 kilometers. • F-layer separates during daylight hours into the indistinct F1 and F2 layers. These layers refract radio waves for ‘long-haul’ daytime communication over 500 km. Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 36 EEE-475 Ionosphere • Once the sun has set, the D-layer decays quite rapidly. The D-layer attenuates radio waves during daylight. However, the attenuation of HF signal transmission decreases after sunset. • The E layer decays more slowly and is often usable well after dusk for effective communications.
• The daytime F1 and F2
layers combine immediately after sunset, separate soon after sunrise, and are called the F-layer. Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 37 MUF & LUF EEE-475
• MUF (Max Usable Frequency) is the highest frequency
allowing communication over a given path at a particular time and date. (it depends on refraction and reflection, so it directly affects layer conditions of the atmosphere.) • LUF (Low Usable Frequency) is the lowest frequency allowing comms over a given path at a particular time and date (it depends on absorption.) • MUF and LUF rises during the day and falls during the night. A typical value of LUF is 4-6 MHz during the day, falling rapidly to 2 MHz at sunset. Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 38 EEE-475 Silent Zone & Skip Distance • Quiet (Silent) Zone: The region that exists between the extent of the coverage of the ground wave signal and the point at which the sky wave returns to earth. • Skip Distance: The distance between the point at which the sky wave is radiated and the point at which it returns to earth.
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Fading EEE-475
• Fading: Where signals are received simultaneously by
ground wave and sky wave constructively and destructively due to the different path lengths, this will produce an effect known as fading.
