Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Sub. Code: EC 6003 Sub. Name: Antennas & Wave Propagation

Unit 1
Syllabus: Radiation
Potential function and the Electromagnetic field, potential functions for Sinusoidal Oscillations, retarded
potential, the Alternating current element (or oscillating Electric Dipole), Power radiated by a current
element, Application to short antennas, Assumed current distribution, Radiation from a Quarter wave
monopole or Half wave dipole, sine and cosine integral, Electromagnetic field close to an antenna, Solution
of the potential equations, Far-field Approximation.

1.1 Introduction:

Antenna may be considered as a metallic device for radiating or receiving radio waves. It is a transitional
structure between free space and a guiding device i.e. transmission line.
The various commonly used antennas are whip antennas on cars, single turn loop antennas for UHF TV
receiver, roof mounted log-periodic antenna and satellite parabolic reflector receiving antennas. These
commonly used antennas represent only a small segment of antenna systems that were being developed
for specialized and high performance communication links like RADAR system, navigation system and
scientific study.
Wave Propagation: The performance of a communication links depends not only on the antenna used but
also it is strongly influenced by atmosphere and conductivity of ground.
Electromagnetic spectrum and frequency band designation: The electromagnetic wave energy radiated by
antenna oscillates at radio frequency. The wavelength of a wave is related to frequency f and velocity c of a
wave by
C=f

The classification of the radio waves, their nomenclature modes and typical services are shown in table
1.01. The range of frequencies is broken down into several bands designated as shown in table 1.02.

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 Table 1.01
S. No. Frequency Designation Typical Service

01 3 – 30 Hz Extremely Low Detection of buried metal objects

Frequency (ELF)
02 30 – 300 Hz Super Low Frequency Ionospheric Sensing, Electric Power
(SLF) Distribution, Submarine Communication
03 300 Hz – 3KHz Ultra Low Frequency Audio Signals on Telephone
(ULF)
04 3 – 30 KHz Very Low Frequency Navigation Sonar, position location
(VLF)
05 30 – 300 KHz Low Frequency Radio Beacons, Weather broadcast stations for
(LF) air navigation
06 300 – 3000 KHz Medium Frequency AM Broadcasting, Coast Guard
(MF) Communication, direction finding
07 3 – 30 MHz High Frequency Telephone, Telegraph, short wave
(HF) broadcasting
08 30 – 300 MHz Very High Frequency Television, FM Broadcast, Air Traffic Control,
(VHF) Police, Mobile Radio Communication
09 300 – 3000 MHz Ultra High Frequency Television, Satellite Communication, RADAR,
(UHF) Microwave Ovens, Cellular Telephone
10 3 – 30 GHz Super High Frequency Airborne RADAR, Microwave links, Satellite
(SHF) Comm., Remote Sensing, radio astronomy
11 30 – 300 GHz Extremely High RADAR, Advanced Communication Systems,
Frequency (EHF) Remote Sensing, radio astronomy

Table 1.02
Microwave Band Designation
S. No. Frequency
Old New
01 500 – 1000 MHz VHF C
02 1 – 2 GHz L D
03 2 – 3 GHz S E
04 3 – 4 GHz S F
05 4 – 6 GHz C G
06 6 – 8 GHz C H
07 8 – 10 GHz X I
08 10 – 12.4 GHz X J
09 12.4 – 18 GHz Ku J
10 18 – 20 GHz K J
11 20 – 26.5 GHz K K
12 26.5 – 40 GHz Ka K

1.2 Review of Electromagnetic Theory

Electromagnetic fields are produced by time-varying charge distributions which can be supported by time-
varying current distributions. Consider sinusoidally varying electromagnetic sources. Sources having

Page 2 of 22
 arbitrary variation with respect to time can be represented in terms of sinusoidally varying functions using
Fourier analysis. A sinusoidally varying current i(t) can be expressed as a function of time, t, as
= 0 + 𝜑)

where I0 is the amplitude ,ω is the a gula f e ue , a d ϕ is the phase. The a gula f e ue , ω, is

related to the frequency, f by the relation ω = f. The current i(t) is given by
= 0 + 𝜑)

Where ϕ’ = ϕ + / . The efo e, e eed to ide tif hethe the phase has been defined taking the cosine
function or the sine function as a reference. We have chosen the cosine function as the reference to define
the phase of the sinusoidal quantity.
Since os ωt + ϕ =Re{ej ωt+ϕ } where, Re{} represents the real part of the quantity within the curly brackets,
the current can now be written as
𝑗 𝜔𝑡+𝜑
= { }
𝑗𝜑 𝑗𝜔𝑡
= { }
The quantity 0 𝜑 is known as a phasor and contains the amplitude and phase information of i(t) but is
independent of time, t.

1.3 Fundamental of Electromagnetic Radiation

An antenna is a structure usually made of good conducting material, designed to have a shape and size
such that it radiates electromagnetic power in an efficient manner. When antenna is excited by time
varying currents, it radiates electromagnetic waves. In order to radiate efficiently, the minimum antenna
size must be comparable to the wavelength.
To calculate the field radiated by an antenna Ma ell’s e uatio s a d a au ilia fu tio , Reta ded
Potential is used. Ma ell’s e uatio s des i e all electromagnetic phenomena.

 E  B / t … . .

∇× = + … . .
Ma ell’s E uatio s
∇. D = … . .
∇. B = … . .
Where E : Electric field intensity (unit: volt per metre, V/m)
H : Magnetic field intensity (unit: ampere per metre, A/m)
D : Electric flux density (unit: coulomb per metre, C/m)
B : Magnetic flux density (unit: weber per metre, Wb/m or tesla, T)
J : Current density (unit: ampere per square metre, A/m2)
: Cha ge de sit u it: oulo pe u i et e, C/

The fi st is Fa ada ’s la of induction; the second is Ampe e’s la as amended by Maxwell to include the
displa e e t u e t ∂D/∂t, the thi d a d fou th a e Gauss’s laws for the electric and magnetic fields. The
displa e e t u e t te ∂D/∂t in Ampe e’s la is esse tial i p edi ti g the e iste e of p opagati g
electromagnetic waves. Eqs. (1.1.1) are in SI units. The quantities E and H are the electric and magnetic
field intensities and are measured in units of [volt/m] and [ampere/m], respectively. The quantities D and B
are the electric and magnetic flux densities and are in units of [coulomb/m2] and [Weber/m2], or [tesla]. B
is also called the magnetic induction.

Page 3 of 22

Page no: 3
 The ua tities a d J a e the olu e ha ge de sit a d ele t i u e t de sit of any external charges.
They are measured in units of [coulomb/m3] and [ampere/m2]. The right-hand side of the fourth equation
is zero because there are no magnetic monopole charges.
The ha ge a d u e t de sities , J a e thought of as the sou es of the ele t o ag eti fields. For
wave propagation problems, these densities are localized in space; for example, they are restricted to flow
on an antenna. The generated electric and magnetic fields are radiated away from these sources and can
propagate to large distances to the receiving antennas. Away from the sources, that is, in source-free
regions of space, Ma ell’s e uatio s take the si ple fo :

 E  B / t … . .

∇× = + … . .
Sou e F ee Ma ell’s E uatio s
∇. D = … . .
∇. B =
… . .

1.4 Basic Maxwell’s Equations

Ma ell’s e uatio s a e itte i diffe e tial a d i teg al fo s. Fo the p ese t stud , the
differential form of equations is more suited. The relevant equations involving electric field intensity E,
electric flux density D, magnetic field intensity H, magnetic flux density B, current density J and the charge
de sit a e as gi e elo .

∇× = + / (in general),

∇× = / (if J = 0) and ∇ × = (For DC Field) …1.4.1

∇× =− / (in general) and ∇ × = (For static Field)
…1.4.2
∇. D = (in general) and ∇. D = (for charge free region i.e., = ) …1.4.3
∇. B = …1.4.4
The field quantities involved in equations 1.4.1 and 1.4.3 are connected by the following relations:

D = εE
…1.4.5
B = μH
…1.4.6
J = σE = E/ρ
…1.4.7

here ε is the pe itti it , is the pe ea ilit , σ is the o du ti it a d is the esisti it ρ = /σ of the

edia. It is to e oted that the s ol ep ese ts e ti el diffe e t ua tities.
Besides the above, the other relevant relations are

𝑙 𝑙 𝑣 𝑣
𝑉= ∫ = ∫∫ = ∫∫∫ …1.4.8
4 𝜀 4 𝜀 4 𝜀
= −𝛻𝑉
…1.4.9

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Page no: 4
 −𝜌
∇ V= (in general) and ∇ V = if ρ= …1.4.10
𝐸

In equation 1.4.8, V is the s ala ele t i pote tial; l , s a d a e li e, surface and volume charge
densities; and R is the distance between the source and the point at which V is to be evaluated.

𝑙 𝑣
= ∫ = ∫∫ = ∫∫∫ …1.4.11
4 4 4
B = ∇xA …1.4.12
𝛻 =− (in general) and ∇ A = if J=0
…1.4.13
In 1.4.11, A is the vector magnetic potential, I is the current, K is the surface current density and J and R are
the same as defined earlier.

1.5 Retarded (Time Varying) Potential

Some of the relations listed above are derived for the static or dc field conditions. Since radiation is a time
varying phenomena, the validity of these relations needs to be tested. To start with consider Eq. 1.4.9
When its curl is taken, it is noted that

𝛻× = 𝛻 × −𝛻𝑉 ≡ …1.5.1
This result is obtained in view of the vector identity that the curl of a gradient is identically zero.
But from 1.4.2, ∇ × =− / for a time-varying field.
The discrepancy is obvious and can be addressed by using 1.4.12.
Let

= −𝛻𝑉 + 𝑁
…1.5.2
𝛻× = 𝛻 × −𝛻𝑉 + 𝛻 × N = + 𝛻×N=− / = − 𝛻×A /

Thus, 𝛻×N=− 𝛻×A / = −𝛻 × / = 𝛻× − / )

Or, 𝛻×N=− / …1.5.3

Substitution of equation 1.5.3 in section 1.3 gives a new relation 1.5.4 which satisfies both the static and
the time-varying conditions:

= −𝛻𝑉 − /
…1.5.4
In the second step, the validity of third equation of (1.4.3) is to be tested by using the relation of (1.4.5)
and 1.5.4

𝛻. = 𝛻. 𝜀 = 𝜀𝛻.
= 𝜀𝛻. −𝛻𝑉 − /
= 𝜀 −𝛻. 𝛻𝑉 − / 𝛻. =
From the above relation,

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Page no: 5
 𝛻 𝑉+ / 𝛻. = − /𝜀
…1.5.5
The RHS of 1.5.4 leads to the following relations:

𝛻 𝑉 = − /𝜀 for static conditions

…1.5.6
𝛻 𝑉 = − /𝜀 − / 𝛻. for time-varying conditions
…1.5.7
In the third step, the validity of 1.4.1 is to be tested by using the relations of equations 1.4.6, 1.4.12 and
1.5.4
∇× = + /
…1.5.8
= = /
The LHS of 1.5.8 can be written as

= ∇× / = ∇×∇× / = [∇ ∇. A − 𝛻 ]/
…1.5.9
This relation uses the vector identity ∇ × ∇ × ≡ ∇ ∇. A − 𝛻
…1.5.10

The RHS of 1.5.8 can also be written as

= +𝜀 / = +𝜀 −𝛻𝑉 − / /

= + 𝜀[−∇ 𝑉/ − / ]

= − 𝜀[∇ 𝑉/ + / ]
…1.5.11
On equating LHS and RHS terms, we get

∇ ∇. A − 𝛻 = − 𝜀[∇ 𝑉/ + / …1.5.12
In 1.5.7 and 1.5.12, the term ∇2A is defined in (1.21), whereas the term ∇・A is yet to be defined. As per the
state e t of Hel holtz Theo e , A e to field is o pletel defi ed o l he oth its u l a d
di e ge e a e k o . The e a e so e o ditio s hi h spe if di e ge e of A. T o of these conditions,
k o as Lo e tz gauge o ditio a d Coulo ’s gauge o ditio , a e gi e 1.5.11 and 1.5.11
respectively.
∇. A = − ε 𝑉/
…1.5.13
∇. A = …1.5.14
Using the Lorentz gauge condition, 1.5.7 and 1.5.12 can be rewritten as

𝛻 𝑉 = − /𝜀 − 𝜀 𝑉/ / = − /𝜀 − 𝜀 𝑉/
…1.5.15
𝛻 𝑉=− + 𝜀 /
…1.5.16
For sinusoidal time variation characterized by ejωt

V = V0ejωt and A = A0ejωt

𝛻 𝑉 = − /𝜀 + 𝜀𝑉
…1.5.17

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Page no: 6
 𝛻 =− + 𝜀 …1.5.18
If a d J i the e p essio s of V a d A given by 1.4.8 and 1.4.11 of Sec 1.3, they become functions of time
and this time t is replaced by t’ such that t’ = t-r/v. ρ and J a e epla ed [ ] a d [J] espe ti el .
Equation 1.4.8 and 1.4.11 of Sec 1.3 can now be rewritten as

[ ] 𝑣
𝑉= ∫ …1.5.19
𝑣 4 𝜀
[ ] 𝑣
= ∫ …1.5.20
𝑣 4

As an example if ρ = e−r os ωt, and t is replaced by t’,

one gets [ρ] = e−r os[ω t −R/υ ]. In this expression, R
is the distance between the elemental volume dv
located in a current-carrying conductor and the point
P as shown in Fig. 4– , a d υ is the elo it ith
which the field progresses or the wave travels. V and
A given by 1.5.19 and 1.5.20 are called the retarded
potentials. If t’_ = t + /υ, V a d A are termed as
advanced potentials.
Figure 1-1 Geometry of the configuration
With Reference to the figure 1.1, equations 1.5.19 containing the element volume dv and an
and 1.5.20 can be written as arbitrary point P.

′
, …1.5.21
𝑉 , = ∫ 𝑣′
4 𝜀 𝑣
′
, …1.5.22
, = ∫ 𝑣′
4 𝑣

In 1.5.19 and 1.5.20,V and A are the functions of the distance r and the time t. To get the retarded
potentials from (19) a d , t is to e epla ed t’ a d the esulti g field e uatio s a e
′
, − /𝑣 …1.5.23
𝑉 , = ∫ 𝑣′
4 𝜀 𝑣
′
, − /𝑣 …1.5.24
, = ∫ 𝑣′
4 𝑣

Si ila l , ad a ed pote tial e p essio a e o tai ed epla i g t −R/υ t +R/υ i 1.5.21 and 1.5.22.
Equation 1.5.22, the starting point for the study of radiation process, is rewritten in the following
alternating form on replacing R by r.
− /𝑣
= ∫ 𝑣 …1.5.25
4 𝑣

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Page no: 7
 1.6 Far Field due to an Alternating Current Element (Oscillating Dipole)
With reference to Fig. 1.6.1 consider that a time
varying current I is flowing in a very short and very
thin wire of length dl in the z-direction. This current
is given by Idl os ωt. Since the current is in the z
direction, the current density J will have only a z-
component (i.e., J = Jzaz). The vector magnetic
potential A will also have only a z-component (i.e., A
= Azaz).
Thus  2 A   2 AZ    J Z …1.6.1
Though the cylindrical coordinate system can
suitably accommodate the configuration of a
filamentary current carrying conductor, wherein
o l the Az o po e t e ists a d the A a d Aφ Figure 1.6.1 Configuration of filamentary
components are zero. current carrying conductor
But since the 3-dimensional radiation problem needs to be tackled in spherical coordinate system, Az is to
be transformed to the spherical coordinate system. This transformation results in
Ar  AZ Cos , A   AZ Sin andA   …1.6.2
In view of the relation 𝑙 ̅ = ̅ = ̅ 𝑣 for filamentary current, eq 1.5.25of sec. 1.4 can be written as
𝑙 − /𝑣
𝑍 = …1.6.3
4
In view of 1.6.2 and 1.6.3,
𝑙 − /𝑣 𝑙 − /𝑣
𝑟 = 𝜃𝑎 𝜃 =− 𝜃 …1.6.4
4 4
Further from the relation B = ∇ ×A, the components of∇ ×A are obtained as below,

𝜃
𝛻× 𝑟 = [ 𝜃 𝛷 − ]= 𝑟 = …1.6.5(a)
𝜃 𝜃 𝛷
𝑟 𝛷
𝛻× 𝜃 = [ 𝜃 𝛷 − ]= 𝜃 = …1.6.5(b)
𝜃 𝛷
𝑟
𝛻× 𝛷 = [ 𝜃 − ]= 𝛷 = 𝛷 …1.6.5(c)
𝜃

From eq 1.6.5 it may be noted that only 𝛷 survives. It can also be stated that φ derivative is zero (i.e.,
∂/∂φ ≡ 0) for all field components due to the symmetry along φ. From equations 1.6.2 &1.6.5c,

𝑙 𝜃 − − /𝑣
𝛷 = [ − + ] …1.6.5
4 𝑣 𝑣
Now we know that,
= ∫ 𝛻×
𝜀
Thus 𝑟 = 𝜀∫ 𝛻× 𝑟 and 𝜃 =
𝜀
∫ 𝛻× 𝜃 …1.6.6
Since 1 ( H sin  ) 1 (rH )
 H  ar  a its components in radial directions are
r sin   r r

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Page no: 8
 1   Idl 2   r  cos (t  r / v)  …1.6.7
( H )r   sin   sin  t      Er
r sin    4  rv  v r2 
From equations 1.6.6 and 1.6.7
Idl   r  cos (t  r / v)  …1.6.8
Er  cos  sin  t    
4 r  rv  v r2 
Putting t’=t-r/v
2 Idlcos  cos t ' sin t '  …1.6.9(a)
Er  
4  r 2 v  r 3 
Similarly,
Idl sin    sin t ' cos t ' sin t '  …1.6.9(b)
E    rv 2  r 2 v   r 3 
4
Idl sin    sin t ' cos t ' sin t ' 
E    rv 2  r 2 v   r 3 
4
Idl sin    sin t ' cos t ' sin t ' 
E    rv 2  r 2 v   r 3 
4
Idl sin    sin t ' cos t ' sin t ' 
E    rv 2  r 2 v   r 3 
4
Hφ can also be written as,
Idl sin   cos t '  sin t '  …1.6.10
H   r 2 
4 rv 

It can be noted that the magnitudes of the two bracketed terms will become equal if the following relation
is satisfied:
ω 𝑣
= or r = = = ≈ …1.6.11
r rv 6

From 1.6.11 it can be concluded that for r < /6, the induction field will dominate whereas for r > /6, the
radiation field assumes more importance. Thus for r >> /6, only the radiation field needs to be accounted.
The expressions of Eθ, Er and Hφ given by 1.6.9 and 1.6.10 involve three types of terms, which
represent three different types of fields. These are noted below:
1. The terms inversely proportional to r3 represent electrostatic field. Such terms are involved in the
expressions of Eθ and Er .
2. The terms inversely proportional to r2 represent induction or near field. Such terms are involved in
all the field components, i.e., in Eθ , Er and Hφ.
3. Lastly, the terms which are inversely proportional only to r represent radiation (distant or far) field
and are involved in the expressions of Eθ and Hφ.

1.7 The Hertzian Dipole - Relation between a Current Element and Electric Dipole
Ques: Write a note on Hertzian Dipole.
What is Hertzian Dipole? Write the relation between a current element and an electric dipole
writing suitable expressions.

Page 9 of 22

Page no: 9
 A Hertzian Dipole is nothing but an infinitesimal current element I dL. Actually
such a current element does not exist in real life, but is serves as a building block +
in calculating the field of a practical antenna using integration. It is observed that
electric field of the alternating current element contains the terms which dL I
corresponds to the field of an electric dipole.
A Hertzian dipole consisting two equal and opposite charges at the end of the
current element separated by a short distance dL as shown in figure 1.7.1. The
wires between the two spheres where charges can accumulate is very thin as Figure 1.7.1 Hertzian
compared to the radius of spheres. Thus the current I is uniform through the Dipole
wires. Also the distance dL is greater as compared to the redii of the spheres.
Let the current through the wires is sinusoidal,
i = I cosωt …1.7.1
Then the charge accumulated at the ends of the element and current flowing through the wires are related
to each other by the expression,
i= = I cosωt … . .2

therefore dq = I cosωt dt … Sepa ati g a ia les

Integrating both sides with respect to corresponding variables, we get
I sinωt
= … . .3
ω
The expressions for the electric field components due to the separate charges at the ends of the current
element are given by
q dL cosθ
𝑟 = … . .4
4πεr
q dL sinθ
and 𝜃 = … . .5
4πεr
Substituting the values of q, in terms of current I from equations 1.7.3 to 1.7.4 and 1.7.5, the expression for
the electric field components are given by
I dL cosθ sinωt′
𝑟 =
… . .6
4πεωr
I dL sinθ sinωt′
and 𝜃 = … . .7
4πεωr
From the above two equations it is clear that these are the terms which appear in the expressions for
the electric field due to the current element.
When such Hertzian Dipoles are connected end to end forming a practical antenna, it is observed that
the positive charge at one end of the dipole gets cancelled by the equal and opposite charge at lower end
of the next dipole. Hence when the current is uniform along the antenna, then there is no charge
accumulation at the ends of dipole which indicates that 1/r3 term is absent and only induction and
radiation fields are present. The chain of Hertzian dipole forming part of the antenna is shown in figure
1.7.2 (a).

Page 10 of 22

Page no: 10
 + Charge
Distribution
I +++++
++++
- +++
+ ++
+
Current
I Distribution
-
--
+ ---
----
-----
I

(b) Charge and current distribution

(a) Chain of Hertzian Dipole of linear antenna
Figure 1.7.2
But if the current through the antenna is not uniform throughout then there is an accumulation of
charge as shown in figure 1.7.2 (b), these charges cause stronger electric field component normal to the
surface of the wire.

1.8 Power radiated by a Current Element

Consider a current element placed at a centre of a spherical co-ordinate system. Then the power radiated
per unit area at a point P can be calculated by using Poynting Theorem. The power flow per unit area is
given by Poynting Vector.
According to Poynting Theorem, the instantaneous power is given by,
P  EH … . .1
The Components of the Poynting Vector are given by,
Pr  E H

P   Er H
… . .2
And P  E H r

But we know that when current element is placed at the origin, then the Eφ component of the electric field
is ze o. I othe o ds, the Po ti g e to ill ha e o l θ a d o po e ts.
Let us rewrite the field components of the electric and magnetic fields due to the current element,
replacing 𝑣 by c for the propagation in free space,
2 Idlcos  cos t ' sin t ' 
Er  
4  cr 2  r 3 
Idl sin    sin t ' cos t ' sin t ' 
E    c 2 r  cr 2   r 3 
4

Idl sin   cos t '  sin t ' 

H  
4  r 2 rc 

Page 11 of 22
 The θ o po e t of the i sta ta eous Po ti g e to is gi e
P   Er H

2 Idl cos   cos t ' sin t '  Idl sin    sin t ' cos t ' 
  cr 2   r 3  4  
4 cr r 2 

2I 2 dl 2 sin  cos    sin t 'cos t ' cos 2 t '  sin 2 t ' sin t 'cos t ' 
     
16 2  c2r 3 cr 4 cr 4 r 5 
Usi g p ope t si θ osθ=si θ
I 2 dl 2 sin 2   sin 2t ' cos 2 t '  sin 2 t ' sin 2t ' 
   
16 2  2c 2 r 3 cr 4 cr 4 2r 5 

I 2 dl 2 sin 2   sin 2t ' 1 sin 2t ' 

   4  sin 2 t ' cos2 t ' 
16   2c r
2 2 3
cr 2r 5 
Now 1 1 1  cos 2t '  1  cos 2t '  
sin 2 t ' cos 2 t '  4 
4 
 
cr cr  2  2 
1  2 cos 2t '   cos 2t '
 4  
cr  2 cr 4
Substituting value of the term in the original expression,
I 2 dl 2 sin 2   sin 2t '  cos 2t ' sin 2t '  … . .3
P   
16 2  2c 2 r 3 cr 4 2r 5 
The a e age alues of si ωt’ a d os ωt’ te s o e a o plete le is ze o. This lea l i di ates that
for any value of r, the average value of P θ is always zero over a complete cycle. Thus there will be the
po e flo a k a d fo th i θ-di e tio o l . He e i θ-direction, there will be no net or average flow of
power.
Let us calculate now radial component of the Poynting vector,
Pr   E H

Idl sin    sin t ' cos t ' sin t '  Idl sin    sin t ' cos t ' 
   
4  c 2 r cr 2  r 3  4  cr r 2 

I 2 dl 2 sin 2    2 sin 2 t '  sin t 'cos t '  sin t 'cos t ' cos 2 t '  sin 2 t ' sin t 'cos t ' 
     
16 2  c 3r 2 c2r 3 c2r 3 cr 4 cr 4 r 5 

I dl sin    sin t '  sin 2t '  sin 2t ' cos t '  sin t ' sin 2t ' 
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
     
16 2  c 3r 2 2c 2 r 3 2c 2 r 3 cr 4 cr 4 2 r 5 
I 2 dl 2 sin 2 
  2  1  cos 2t '   sin 2t '  sin 2t '  1  cos 2t '   1  cos 2t '  sin 2t ' 
  c3r 2      
16 2   2  2c 2 r 3 2c 2 r 3  2cr 4   2cr 4  2 r 5 
I 2 dl 2 sin 2    1  cos 2t '   sin 2t ' co s 2t ' sin 2t ' 
2

     
16 2  2c3 r 2 c2r 3 cr 4 2 r 5 

Rearranging the terms,

 I 2 dl 2 sin 2    sin 2t ' co s 2t '  sin 2t '  2 1  cos 2t ' 
Pr       
 16    2 r
2 5
cr 4 c2r 3 2c3 r 2  … . .4

Page 12 of 22

Page no: 12
 Again the a e age alues of si ωt’ a d os ωt’ te s o e a o plete le is ze o. He e the a e age
radial power is given by

 I 2 dl 2 sin 2     2 
Pr    3 2
 16    2c r 
2

 2 I 2 dl 2 sin 2 
 Pr 
32 2 r 2 c3
1   Idl sin  
2

 Pr   
2 c  4 rc 
But fo f ee spa e, i t i si i peda e η0= /ε

0   Idl sin  
2

 Pr   
2  4 rc  … . .5
The power component represented by equation 1.83 is in radial direction. Hence it is called radial power.
Equation 1.85 represents the average power flow.
The radiation terms in the expressions of the field contribute to this average power flow. When the point is
away from the current element at far distance, the radiation terms contributes to the average power. But
when the point is very close to the current element, the terms related to the induction and electrostatic
fields are dominant and only 1/r terms contribute to the average power flow.
From the expressions of Eθ and Hφ, the amplitudes of the radiation fields only can be obtained. The
amplitude from Eθ component is given by,

 Idl sin 
E 
4 v 2 r

 E 
 / v  Idl sin 
 2   v  2r
2 v 1
But  and , 
 v
 Idl sin 
E 
2 r … . .6
Similarly the amplitude from Hφ is given by,

 Idl sin 
H 
4 vr
Idl sin 
H 
2 r … . .7
The radiation terms of Eθ and Hφ are in time phase and are related by

E

H … . .8

Page 13 of 22

Page no: 13
 The total power radiated by the current element
can be obtained by integrating the radial Poynting
Vector over a spherical surface. Consider a
spherical shell with the current element IdL placed
at a centre of the spherical co-ordinate system as
shown in figure 1.81. The point P at which power
radiated is to be calculated is independent of an
azimuthal angle φ, so the element of area ds on
the spherical shell is considered as strip.
The element of area ds is given by
ds = 2  r2sinθdθ
… .8.9
Figure 1.81 Element of area on spherical shell in the
form of strip
The total power radiated is calculated by integrating average radial power over the spherical surface,

Power   Pr ds
surface … . .

   IdL sin  
2

  0   2 r sin  d 
2

surface
2  4 rc 

 0    I dL sin  
2 2 2 2
    2 r sin   d
2
 
surface 
2   16 r c
2 2 2


0 2 I 2 dL2 3
  16 c2 sin  d
surface

0 2 I 2 dL2

16 c 2  sin 3  d
surface … . .
In spherical co-o di ate s ste , θ a ies f o to  . Hence putting limits of integration as,
  2 I 2 dL2  3
16 c 2 0
Power  0 sin  d

0 2 I 2 dL2  /2 3    /2

 Power   sin  d   sin  d  2  sin 3  d 
3

8 c 2
0  0 0 
Using the reduction formula for calculating the integral. By the reduction formula,
 /2
 n  1   
0 sin xdx   n   2  if n is even
n

 /2
 n  1
 sin xdx  
n
if n is odd
0  n 

Here n is 3 i.e. hence we can write,

Page 14 of 22

Page no: 14
  /2
 3  1 2
 sin  d   
3

0  3  3

Substituting this value in the equation of power, we get

  2 I 2 dL2  2 
Power  0  
8 c 2  3 

0 2 I 2 dL2
 Power 
12 c 2 … . .
The power represented by the above equation is in terms of the maximum or peak current. We know that,
I
I eff  m
2
or I m  2 I eff

Thus the power can be expressed in terms of the effective current as

  dL
2
0 2 2 I eff 2

Power 
12 c 2

0 2 I eff2 dL2

 Power 
6 c 2 … . .
For free space, 0 =120 
 2 2 4 2
and  i.e. 
c  c2 2
Substituting values in equation 1.8.13
 4 2 
120   2  I eff2 dL2
Power    
6
80 2 I eff2 dL2
 Power 
2
2
 dL 
 Power  80   I eff2 2

   … . .
Equation (1.8.14) is of the radiated power in terms of effective current. We know that power is in the form
of I2R. Thus the coefficient in the above equation is nothing but the resistance. This resistance is called the
radiation resistance of the current element, and represented by Rrad.
2
 dL 
and  Rrad  80 2  
  

1.9 Power radiated by a Current Element

The practical example of the centre-fed antenna is an elementary dipole. The length of such centre-
fed antenna is very short in wavelength. The current amplitude of such antenna is maximum at the centre
and it decreases uniformly to zero at ends. The current distribution of short dipole is as shown in figure
1.9.1.

Page 15 of 22

Page no: 15
 If we consider same current I flowing
through the hypothetical current element and the
practical short dipole, both of same length, then the Current
I
practical short dipole radiates only one-quarter of distribution
the power that is radiated by the current element.
This is because the field strength at every point on
ℓ
the short dipole reduces to half of the values for the
current element and the power density reduces to
one quarter. So obviously for the same current, the
radiation resistance for the short dipole is ¼ times
Figure 1.9.1 Current Distribution of Short Dipole
of the current element.
Hence the radiation resistance of the short dipole is given by
1 
2 2
2 1  2 L
Rrad  short _ dipole   80     20  
4      

2
L
 Rrad  short _ dipole   200  
 … . .
Another practical example of an antenna is a monopole or short vertical antenna mounted on a reflecting
plane as shown in figure 1.9.2.
Let the monopole is of length h. Again if we
consider the same current I, flows through a
monopole of length h and a short dipole of length h I Reflecting
l=2h then the field strength produced by both the plane
antennas is same above the reflecting plane. But the
monopole radiates only through the hemispherical
ℓ
surface above the plane. So the radiated power of a
monopole is half of that radiated by a short dipole.
Hence the radiation resistance of a monopole is half
of the radiation resistance of the short dipole.
Figure 1.9.2 Current Distribution monopole
1 L 
2
1
 Rrad  monopole    Rrad  short _ dipole     20 2   
2 2     
2
1
 10 2  
 … . .
But h= ℓ/2 for monopole
2 2
 2h  h
 Rrad  monopole   10 2    40 2  
   
2
h
 Rrad  monoppole   400  
 … . .
The expressions for the radiation resistance are valid only for the short antennas. But for the dipoles of
le gth up to / a ele gths a d the o opoles of heights up to /8 a ele gths, e a use these
formulae directly.

Page 16 of 22

Page no: 16
 1.10 Power radiated by the Half Wave Dipole and the Monopole

A Dipole antenna is a vertical radiator fed in the centre. It produces maximum radiation in the plane
normal to the axis. For such a dipole antenna, the length specified is the overall length.
The vertical antenna of height H=L/2, produces the radiation characteristics above the plane which is
similar to that produced by the dipole antenna of length L=2H. The vertical antenna is referred to as a
monopole.
In general antenna requires large amount of current to radiate large amount of power. To generate such a
large current at radio frequency is practically impossible. In case of Hertzian dipole the expression for ̅ and
̅ are derived assuming uniform current throughout the length. But we have studied that at the ends of
the antenna current is zero. In other words the current is not uniform throughout the length as it is
maximum at centre and zero at the ends. Hence practically Hertzian Dipole is not used. The practically used
antennas are half wave dipole / a d ua te a e o opole / .
The half wave dipole consists of two legs each of length L/2. The physical length of the half wave dipole at
the f e ue of ope atio is / i the f ee spa e.
The quarter wave monopole consists of a single vertical leg erected on the perfect ground i.e. perfect
o du to . The le gth of the leg of the ua te a e o opole is / .
For the calculation of electromagnetic fields, the assumed sinusoidal current distributions along the half
wave dipole and quarter wave monopole are as shown in figure 1.10.1 (a) and (b) respectively.
+H Imsi β H-z)
Imsi β H-z)
H I H R= r-zcos θ
Z
Z
L=2H Z=0 Perfect
Reflecting
H plane
θ
Imsi β H+z Imsi β H+z
-H
Figure 1.10.1 (a) Assumed sinusoidal current Figure 1.10.1 (b) Assumed sinusoidal current
distribution in half wave dipole distribution in quarter wave monopole
Consider the assumed sinusoidal current distribution in the quarter wave monopole and half wave dipole.
The current element Idz is placed at a distance z from z=0 plane. Let I M be the maximum value of the
current in the current element.
For a half wave dipole antenna, the total radiated power is given by
2
 dL 
W  80 2   I eff2
  
The effective length Leff=dL=2l/  for sinusoidal current, therefore
2
 2l  2
W  80  2
 I eff
  
Fo a half a e dipole the ph si al le gth l= / , the
2   2
2

W  80  2
I eff
  2 

 W  80I eff2 Watts

and Rr  80
In actual the value of radiation resistance is around 73 Ohms.

Page 17 of 22

Page no: 17
 For a Monopole antenna, the total radiated power will be equal to that of radiated by a short dipole i.e.
2
 dL 
W  10   I eff2
2

  
The effective length Leff=dL=2h for monopole antenna, therefore
2
 2l  2
W  80  2
 I eff
  
2
h
W  40   I eff2
2

 
2
h
W  400   I eff2 Watts


And the radiation resistance is given by

2
h
Rr  400   


1.11 Sine and Cosine Integral

Near field due to Sinusoidal Current Distribution

z +H R1
Consider a dipole with sinusoidal current P
distribution as shown in figure 1.11.1. R
Let P be the point at which field is to be
calculated. The element length dh is h r
y
located at a distance h from origin. The
lower and upper tips of the dipole are
R2
located at –H and +H respectively.
The distance between upper tip of dipole
and point P is given by Im
-H
Figure 1.11.1. A Dipole with sinusoidal current distribution

R1  z  H   y2
2
… . . a
The distance between lower tip of dipole and point P is given by
R1  z  H   y2
2
… . .
The distance between the element length dh and point P is given by
R1   z  h  y2
2
… . .
The distance between origin and point P is given by
R1  z 2  y 2 … . . d
The current distribution can be represented as

Page 18 of 22

Page no: 18
 I  I m sin  ( H  h), for , h  0.....(a )
I  I m sin  ( H  h), for , h  0.....(b) … . .
Using equations 1.11.1 and 1.11.2, the z component of the vector potential at point P is given by
 I m  j  H H e j  ( R  h ) H  j ( Rh)
e
0
e j  ( R  h )
0
e j  ( R  h ) 
e  0 R dh  e H R dh  e H R dh 
 j H j H  j H
Az  dh  e
j   0
R … . .
Now Az Az
B   H    A     H X
 y … . .

 I m  j H   e j ( R  h )  j H   e j ( R h )  j H   e j ( R  h )  j  H   e j  ( R  h ) 
H H 0 0
H  e   dh  e   dh   e  y  R dh   e H y  R dh 
j8  0
y  R  0
y  R  H

… . .
Consider first integral term in equation 1.11.5
  e j  ( R  h )  H e
 j y  j ( Rh)
ye j ( R h ) 
H
e
0 y  R dh   

 0  R2

R3 dh
 … . .6
Integrating the above equation
hH
 ye 
 j ( R  h)

 e j H  
 R( R  h  z )
 h 0

j H  e j ( R1  H ) (r  z )e j r  … . .
e   
 R1 ( R1  H  z ) r (r  z ) 

But R12  ( H  z ) 2  r 2  z 2  y 2

Therefore,
H
  e j ( R h )  e j H  H  z   j ( R1  H )  z   j  r 
0 y  R dh   y  1  e  1   e 
 r
 R1  
Similarly for other three integrals
H
  e j ( R h )  e j H  H  z   j  ( R1  H )  z   j  r 
0 y  R dh   y  1 
 R
e

 1   e 
 r
 1 
0
  e j ( R h )  e j H  H  z   j  ( R2  H )  z   j  r 
 y  R dh   y  1 
 R
e

 1   e 
 r
H  2 
0
  e j ( R h )  e j H  H  z   j ( R2  H )  z   j r 
 y  R dh   y  1 
 R
e

 1   e 
 r
H  2 
Therefore the overall magnetic field intensity is given by,
 Im  e j R1 e j R 2 2cos  He j r  … . .
H     
4 j  y y y 
We k o the Ma ell’s e uatio s,

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  H 
D
t
 j E
or
E
1
j
 H  In free space.

 1 H or 1   yH  … . .
Ey   Ez  
j z j y y

But for H , H  is the only existing component, hence

H 1 ( yH ) … . .
 H  ay  az
z y y
Therefore by equation 1.11.9 and 1.11.10, we can write
 j  Im  ye j R1 ye j R2 ye j r 
Ez     2cos  H 
4 y  R1 R2 r 

 e j R1 e j R2 ye j r  … . .
Ez   j30 Im    2cos  H 
 R1 R2 r 

 z  H e j R1 z  H e j R2 z cos  H e j r  … . .
E y  j30 Im   2 
 y R1 y R2 y r 

j30 I m  j R1  j  R2
H  e e  2cos  He j r  … . .
y
From the above equations we can write that,
1. The term e  j  R1 indicates that spherical wave is originating at the top of the antenna.
2. Similarly e  j  R2 indicates that spherical wave is originating from
a) Bottom of the antenna if it is a dipole or
b) Lower tip of the antenna if it is a monopole.

3. The term e j  r indicates that spherical wave is originating from the centre of the antenna for dipole
and at the base if monopole.
4. The amplitude of the wave from centre of antenna depends on the length of the antenna(H), for
e a ple fo a half a e dipole o ua te a e o opole H= / , the a plitude e o es ze o
because
 2     
cos  H  cos     cos    0
   4  2

1.12 Near field(Induction Field) and Far Field(Radiation Field)

We know the magnetic field component is given by

Idl sin   cos t '  sin t ' 

H    r 2 
4 rc  … . .

Amplitude I Term II Term

(Induction Field) (Radiation Field)
It consist of two terms
(i) Induction (Near) Field: The first term varies inversely as square of the distance (i.e. 1/r2) and is known as
near field or induction field. It predominates at points near to the current element where r is small. The

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 field is more effective near the current element only. It represents the energy stored in the magnetic field
surrounding the conductor. This energy is alternatively stores in the field and returned to the source
alternatively during each half cycle. The induction field is not so important from the radiation point of view
and therefore neglected.
(ii) Radiation (Far) Field: The second term varies inversely as distance (i.e. 1/r) and is known as the
Radiation Field or Far Field or the Distant Field, which accounts for the radiation of the Electromagnetic
waves from a conductor under the suitable conditions. This radiation field is of great importance at large
distance.
The radiation component of the magnetic field is produced by the alternating electric field and the electric
radiation components occur from the alternating magnetic field. The flow of current in the conductor
creates the local induction fields, whereas the radiation fields exist as a consequence of induction fields.
Near the conductor the magnetic field is in phase with the current in the conductor, whereas the electric
field varies in phase with the change on either end of the conductor element. In this region the Electric and
magnetic fields have, a phase difference of  /2 radians and are at right angles to each other in space i.e.
Eθ and Hϕ are on phase in far field.
The radiation field Eθ at >> is gi e (from section 1.8)
Idl sin    sin t ' cos t ' sin t ' 
E    
4  c2r cr 2  r 3 
Idl sin    sin t '  (1/r2 and 1/r3 terms are neglected)
E    c 2 r 
4
 Idl sin  sin t ' 2 fIdl sin  sin t ' 1
E    c
4 c.cr 1 
4 cr

Idl sin  sin t '  Idl sin  sin t ' 
E      120
 2 r 
2 r


 r
60 Idl sin  sin   t  
E    c
r … . .
60 Idl
E  
r … . .

Similarly at distance r>>

Idl sin   cos t '  sin t '  Idl sin    sin t ' 
H   Or H    rc 
1
0
4  r 2 rc  4 r2
2 fIdl sin  sin t '
H  
4 cr

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  r
Idl sin  sin   t  
H    c
2 r
Idl sin  sin t ' Maximum value, when θ=900
H 
2 r … . .
Idl
H 
2 r
… . .
The equations 1.12.2 and 1.12.4 constitute the field present in the radiating wave from the current
element I dl osωt.

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