Chapter 3: Cells and Tissues

NUCLEUS
CELLS
● Control center of the cell
● Contains DNA
● Structural units of all living things
○ DNA is needed for building proteins
● Human body has 50 to 100 trillion cells
○ DNA is necessary for cell
reproduction

CELL THEORY ● THREE REGIONS OF THE NUCLEUS:

○ Nuclear envelope (membrane)
1. Cell is the basic structural & functional unit of ○ Nucleolus
life ○ Chromatin

2. Activity of an organism depends on the ● STRUCTURE OF THE NUCLEUS:

collective activities of its cells - Largest organelle
- Surrounds by the nuclear envelope;
3. Biochemical activities of cells are dictated by - Contains fluid, nucleoplasm, and
their structure which determines their chromatin
function
● FUNCTIONS OF THE NUCLEUS:
4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis - Control center of the cell;
- Responsible for transmitting info;
- Providing instructions for protein
synthesis
FOUR COMPONENTS OF THE CELLS

1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen
4. Nitrogen

● Cells are about 60% water

THREE MAIN REGIONS OF THE CELL

1. Nucleus
2. Cytoplasm
3. Plasma membrane
 NUCLEAR ENVELOPE (MEMBRANE) CHROMATIN

● Double membrane that bounds the nucleus ● Composed of DNA wound around histones
● Contains nuclear pores for exchange of (proteins)
material with the rest of the cell ● Scattered throughout the nucleus and
● Encloses the jellylike fluid called the present when the cell is not dividing
nucleoplasm ● Condenses to form dense, rod like bodies
called chromosomes when the cell divides
● STRUCTURE OF NUCLEAR ENVELOPE:
○ Double membrane structure pierced ● STRUCTURE OF THE CHROMATIN
by large pores. ○ Granular, threadlike material
○ Outer membrane continuous with composed of DNA and histone
the ER proteins
○ “Beads on a sting”
● FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEAR ENVELOPE:
○ Separates the nucleoplasm from ● FUNCTIONS OF THE CHROMATIN
the cytoplasm; ○ DNA constitutes the genes, which
○ Regulates passage of substances carry instructions for building
to and from the nucleus proteins.

PLASMA MEMBRANE
NUCLEOLUS
● Transparent barrier for cell contents
● Contains one or more dark-staining nucleoli ● Contains cell contents
● Sites of ribosome assembly ● Separates cell contents from surrounding
● Ribosomes goes into the cytoplasm through environment
nuclear pores to serve as the site of protein
synthesis ● STRUCTURE OF PLASMA MEMBRANE:
- Made of a double layer of lipids with
● STRUCTURE OF THE NUCLEOLUS: proteins embedded within.
○ Dense spherical - Proteins and some lipids have
(non-membrane-bounded) bodies; attached sugar groups
○ Composed of ribosomal RNA and
proteins ● FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE:
- Serve as an external cell barrier
● FUNCTIONS OF THE NUCLEOLUS: and acts in transport of substances
○ SIte of ribosome subunit structure into or out of the cell.
- Maintains an electrical condition
that is essential for functioning of
excitable cells.
- Externally facing proteins act as
receptors, transport proteins, and in
cell-to-cell recognition
 FLUID MOSAIC MODEL ROLES OF SUGARS

● Two layers of phospholipids arranged “tail to ● Glycoproteins are branched sugars

tail” attached to proteins that abut the
● Cholesterol and proteins scattered among extracellular space
the phospholipids ● Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich
● Sugar groups may be attached to the area on the cell’s surface
phospholipids, forming glycolipids.

CELL MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS

● Cells are bound together in three ways:

○ Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act
as an adhesive or cellular glue

○ Wavy contours of the membranes

of adjacent cells fit together in a
tongue-and-groove fashion

○ Special cell membrane junctions

are formed, which vary structurally
depending on their roles

PHOSPHOLIPID ARRANGEMENT IN THE

PLASMA MEMBRANE MAIN TYPES OF CELL JUNCTIONS

● Hydrophilic (water loving) polar “heads” are ● Tight Junctions

oriented on the inner and outer surfaces of ○ Impermeable junctions
the membrane
● Hydrophobic (water fearing) nonpolar “tails” ○ Bind cells together into leakproof
form the center (interior) of the membrane sheats
○ This interior makes the plasma
membrane relatively impermeable ○ Plasma membranes fuse like a
to most water-soluble molecules zipper to prevent substances from
passing through extracellular space
between cells.
ROLES OF PROTEINS
● Desmosomes
○ Anchoring junctions, like rivets, that
● Responsible for specialized membrane prevent cells from being pulled
functions: apart as a result of mechanical
○ Enzymes stress
○ Receptors for hormones or other
chemical messengers ○ Created by button like thickenings
○ Transport as channels or carriers of adjacent plasma membranes
● Gap Junctions 3. Organelles: Metabolic machinery of the cell
○ Allow communication cells that perform functions for the cell
a. Many are membrane-bound,
○ Hollow cylinders of proteins allowing for compartmentalization of
(connexons) span the width of the their functions.
abutting membranes
● STRUCTURES OF THE CYTOPLASM:
○ Molecules can travel directly from - A thick solution that fills each cell
one cell to the next through these and is enclosed by the cell
channels membrane.
- Mainly composed of water, proteins,
and salts.

● FUNCTIONS OF THE CYTOPLASM:

- It is the medium for chemical
reactions.

- A platform upon which other

organelles can operate within the
cell.

- Cell expansion, growth and

replication, are carried out in the
cytoplasm

CYTOPLASM

● Three major component of the cytoplasm:

1. Cytosol: Fluid that suspends other elements

and contains nutrients and electrolytes

2. Inclusions: Chemical substances, such as

stored nutrients or cell products, that float in
the cytosol.

● STRUCTURE OF INCLUSION:
- Includes stored nutrients such as
lipids droplets and glycogen
granules, protein crystals, pigment
granules

● FUNCTIONS OF INCLUSION:
- Storage for nutrients, wastes, and
cell products
 MITOCHONDRIA ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

● “Powerhouses” of the cell ● Studded with ribosomes

● Mitochondrial wall consists of a double ● Synthesizes proteins
membrane with cristae on the inner ● Transport vesicles move proteins within cell
membrane ● Abundant in cells that make and export
● Carry out reactions in which oxygen is used proteins
to break down food into ATP molecules
● STRUCTURE OF THE ROUGH ER:
● STRUCTURE OF THE MITOCHONDRIA: - Membranous system enclosing a
- Rodlike, double-membrane cavity, the tunnel, and coiling
structure; through the cytoplasm.
- Inner membrane folded into
projections called cristae. - Externally studded with ribosomes

● FUNCTIONS OF THE MITOCHONDRIA: ● FUNCTIONS OF THE ROUGH ER:

- Site of aerobic respiration (“burning”
of glucose) and ATP synthesis; - Sugar groups are attached to
- Powerhouse of the cell proteins within the tunnels.

- Proteins are bound in vesicles for

transport to the Golgi apparatus
RIBOSOMES and other sites

● Made of protein and ribosomal RNA - External face synthesizes

● Sites if protein synthesis in the cell phospholipids.
● Found at two locations:
○ Free in the cytoplasm
○ As part of the rough ER

● STRUCTURE OF THE RIBOSOME:

- Dense particles consist of two
subunits, each composed of rRNA
and protein.
- Attached to rough ER

● FUNCTIONS OF THE RIBOSOME:

- SItes of protein synthesis

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

● Fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that carry

substances within the cell
● Continuous with the nuclear membrane
● Two types:
○ Rough ER
○ Smooth ER
 SMOOTH ER LYSOSOMES

● Lacks ribosomes ● Membranous “bags” that contain digestive

● Functions in lipid metabolism enzymes
● Detoxification of drugs and pesticides ● Enzymes can digest worn-out or non usable
cell structures
● House phagocytes that dispose of bacteria
and cell debris
● STRUCTURE OF THE SMOOTH ER:
- Membranous system of tunnels and
● STRUCTURE OF LYSOSOMES:
sacs;
- Membranous sacs containing acid
- Free of ribosomes.
hydrolases (powerful digestive
enzymes).

● FUNCTIONS OF THE SMOOTH ER: ● FUNCTIONS OF LYSOSOMES:

- Site of lipid and steroid (cholesterol) - Sites of intracellular digestion
synthesis, lipid metabolism, and - The “stomach” of the cell
drug detoxification

PEROXISOMES
GOLGI APPARATUS

● A stack of flattened membranes associated ● Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes

with tiny vesicles ○ Detoxify harmful substances such
● Modifies and packages proteins arriving from as alcohol and formaldehyde
the rough ER via transport vesicles
● Produces different types of packages ○ Break down free radicals (highly
○ Secretory vesicles (pathway 1) reactive chemicals)
○ In-house proteins and lipids
(pathway 2) ○ Free radicals are converted to
○ Lysosomes (pathway 3) hydrogen peroxide and then to
water
● Replicate by pinching in half or budding from
the ER
● STRUCTURE OF GOLGI APPARATUS:
- Stack of flattened membranes and ● STRUCTURE OF THE PEROXISOMES:
associated vesicles close to the ER. - Membranous sacs of oxidase and
catalase enzymes

● FUNCTIONS OF THE PEROXISOMES:

● FUNCTIONS OF GOLGI APPARATUS:
- Enzymes detoxify a number of toxic
- Packages, modifies, and
substances such as free radicals.
segregates proteins for secretion
- Most important enzyme, catalase,
from the cell, inclusion in
breaks down hydrogen peroxide
lysosomes, or incorporation into the
plasma membrane
 CYTOSKELETON
● STRUCTURE OF MICROTUBULES:
- Cylindrical structures made of
● Network of protein structures that extend tubulin proteins
throughout the cytoplasm
● Provide the cell with an internal framework ● FUNCTIONS OF MICROTUBULES:
that determines cell shape, supports - Support the cell and give its shape
organelles, and provides the machinery for - Involved in intracellular and cellular
intracellular transport movements
● Three different types of elements form the - Form centrioles and cilia and
cytoskeleton: flagella, if present
○ Microfilaments (largest)
○ Intermediate filaments
○ Microtubules (smallest) CENTRIOLES

● Rod-shaped bodies made of nine triplets of

microtubules
● Generate microtubules
● Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during
cell division

● STRUCTURE OF CENTRIOLES:
- Paired cylindrical bodies, each
composed of nine triplets of
microtubules.

● FUNCTIONS OF MICROTUBULES:
- Organize a microtubule network
during mitosis (cell division) to form
the spindle and asters
● STRUCTURE OF MICROFILAMENTS: - Form the bases of cilia and flagella
- Fine filaments composed of the
protein actin
SURFACE EXTENSIONS FOUND IN SOME
● FUNCTIONS OF MICROFILAMENTS: CELLS
- Involved in muscle contraction and
other types of intracellular
movement; ● Cilia move materials across the cell surface
- Help form the cell cytoskeleton and ○ Located in the respiratory system
microvilli, if present to move mucus

● Flagella propel the cell

● STRUCTURE OF INTERMEDIATE ○ The only flagellated cell in the
FILAMENTS: human body is sperm
- Protein fibers;
- Composition varies ● Microvilli are tiny, fingerlike extensions of
the plasma membrane
● FUNCTIONS OF INTERMEDIATE ○ Increase surface area for
FILAMENTS: absorption
- Stable cytoskeletal elements;
- Resist mechanical forces acting on
the cell
 ● The human body houses over 200 different
CELL THAT MOVE ORGANS AND BODY PARTS
cell types
● Cells vary in size, shape, and function
○ Cells vary in length from 1/12,000 ● Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle cells
of an inch to over 1 yard (nerve ○ Contractile filaments allow cells to
cells) shorten forcefully
○ Cell shape reflects its specialized
function

CELL THAT CONNECT BODY PARTS

● Fibroblast
○ Secretes cable-like fibers
● Erythrocyte (red blood cell)
○ Carries oxygen in the bloodstream

CELL THAT STORES NUTRIENTS

● Fat cells
○ Lipid droplets stored in cytoplasm

CELL THAT COVER AND LINE BODY ORGANS

● Epithelial cell
○ Packs together in sheets
○ Intermediate fibers resist tearing CELL THAT FIGHTS DISEASE
during rubbing or pulling

● White blood cells, such as the macrophage

(a phagocytic cell)
○ Digests infectious microorganisms
 ● Solution - homogeneous mixture of two or
CELL THAT GATHERS INFORMATION AND
CONTROLS BODY FUNCTIONS more components
○ Solvent - dissolving medium
present in the larger quantity; the
● Nerve cell (neuron) body’s main solvent is water
- Receives and transmits messages ○ Solutes - components in smaller
to other body structures quantities within a solution

INTRACELLULAR FLUID

● Nucleoplasm and cytosol

● Solution containing gasses, nutrients, and
salts, dissolved in water

EXTRACELLULAR FLUID (INTERSTITIAL FLUID)

CELLS OF REPRODUCTION ● Fluid on the exterior of the cell

● Contains thousands of ingredients, such as
nutrients, hormones, neurotransmitters,
● Oocyte (female) salts, waste products
○ Largest cell in the body
○ Divides to become an embryo upon
fertilization
● Sperm (male) THE PLASMA MEMBRANE IS A SELECTIVELY
○ Built for swimming to the egg for PERMEABLE BARRIER
fertilization
○ Flagellum acts as a motile whip ● Some material can pass through, while
others are excluded
● For example:
○ Nutrients can enter the cell
○ Undesirable substance are kept out

CELLS HAVE THE ABILITY TO

● Metabolize
● Digest food
● Dispose food
● Dispose of wastes
● Reproduce
● Grow
● Move
● Respond to a stimulus
TWO BASIC METHODS OF TRANSPORT MOLECULES WILL MOVE BY DIFFUSION IF

● Passive processes: substances are ● Molecules are small enough to pass through
transported across the membrane without the membrane’s pores (channels formed by
any input from the cell membrane proteins)
● The molecules are lipid-soluble
● Active processes: the cell provides the ● The molecules are assisted by a membrane
metabolic energy (ATP) to drive the transport carrier
process

TYPES OF DIFFUSION

● Simple diffusion
○ An unassisted process
○ Solutes are lipid-soluble or small
enough to pass through membrane
pores

PASSIVE PROCESSES: DIFFUSION AND

FILTRATIONS

● Diffusion
- Molecules movement is from high
concentration to low
concentration, down a
concentration gradient.

- Particles tend to distribute

themselves evenly within a solution
● Osmosis - simple diffusion of water across a
- Kinetic energy (energy of motion) selectively permeable membrane
causes the molecules to move ○ Highly polar water molecules
about randomly easily cross the plasma membrane
through aquaporins
- Size of the molecule and
temperature affect the speed of ○ Water moves down its
diffusion concentration gradient
 TYPES OF OSMOSIS PASSIVE PROCESSES: DIFFUSION AND
FILTRATION

1. Isotonic Solutions have the same solute ● Filtration

and water concentrations as cells and cause - Water and solutes are forced
no visible changes in the cell through a membrane by, fluid, or
hydrostatic pressure
2. Hypertonic Solutions contain more solutes
than the cells do; cells will begin to shrink - A pressure gradient must exist that
pushes solute-containing fluid
3. Hypotonic Solutions contain fewer solutes (filtrate) from a high-pressure area
(more water) than the cells do; cells will to a lower-pressure area
plump
- Filtration is critical for the kidneys
to work properly

ACTIVE PROCESSES

● ATP is used to move substance across a

membrane
● Active processes are used when:
○ Substances are too large to travel
through membrane channels

● Facilitated Diffusion ○ The membrane may lack special

○ Transports lipid-insoluble and protein carriers for the transport of
large substance certain substance

○ Glucose is transported via ○ Substances may not be

facilitated diffusion lipid-soluble

○ Protein membrane channels or ○ Substances may have to move

protein molecules that act as against a concentration gradient
carriers are used

ACTIVE TRANSPORT AND VESICULAR

TRANSPORT

● Active transport
○ Amino acids, some sugars, and
ions are transported by protein
carriers known as solute pumps

○ ATP energizes solute pumps

○ IN most cases, substances are

moved against concentration (or
electrical) gradients
 EXOCYTOSIS
● Active transport example: sodium-potassium
pump ● Mechanisms cells use to actively secrete
○ Necessary for nerve impulses hormones, mucus, and other products

○ Sodium is transported out of the ● Material is carried in a membranous sac

cell called vesicle that migrates to and combines
with the plasma membrane
○ Potassium is transported into the
cell ● Content of vesicle are emptied to the outside

● Exocytosis docking process

○ Docking proteins on the vesicles
recognize plasma membrane
● Vesicular transport proteins and bind with them
○ Substances are moved across the
membrane “in bulk” without actually ○ Membranes corkscrew and fuse
crossing the plasma membrane together

● Types of vesicular transport

○ Exocytosis
○ Endocytosis
■ Phagocytosis
■ Pinocytosis
 ENDOCYTOSIS

● Extracellular substances are encloses

(engulfed) in a membranous vesicle

● Vesicle detaches from the plasma

membrane and move into the cell

● Once in the cell, the vesicle typically fuses

with a lysosome

● Contents are digested by lysosomal

enzymes
2. Pinocytosis - “cell drinking”
● In some cases, the vesicle is released by - Cell “gulps” droplets of extracellular
exocytosis on the opposite side of the cell fluid containing dissolved proteins
or fats

- Plasma membrane forms a pit, and

edges fuse around droplet of fluid

- Routine activity for most cells, such

as those involved in absorption
(small intestine)

TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS

1. Phagocytosis - “cell eating”

- Cells engulfs large particles such as
bacteria or dead body cells

- Pseudopods are cytoplasmic

extensions that separate
substances (such as bacteria or
dead body cells) from external
environment

- Phagocytosis is a protective
mechanism, not a means of getting
nutrients
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
- Method for taking up specific target
PROCESS OF DNA REPLICATION
molecules

- Receptor proteins on the ● DNA uncoils into two nucleotide chains, and
membrane surface bind only certain each side serves as a template
substance ● Nucleotides are complementary
○ Adenine (A) - Thymine (T)
- HIghly selective process of taking in ○ Guanine (G) - Cytosine ©
substances such as enzyme, some
hormones, cholesterol, and iron ● For example, TACTGC -> ATGACG

CELL LIFE CYCLE

- Is a series of changes the cell experiences

from the time it is formed until it divides

- Cell life cycle has two major periods:

1. Interphase (metabolic phase)

a. Cell grows and carries on metabolic
processes
b. Longer phase of the cell cycle

2. Cell Division
a. Cell reproduces itself

PREPARATIONS: DNA REPLICATION

● Genetic material is duplicated and readies a

cell for division into two cells

● Occurs toward the end of interphase

 EVENTS OF CELL DIVISION
EVENTS OF MITOSIS: ANAPHASE
● Mitosis - division of the nucleus
○ Results in the formation of two ● Centromere splits
daughter nuclei
● Chromatids move slowly apart and toward
● Cytokinesis - division of the cytoplasm the opposite ends of the cell
○ Begins when mitosis is near
completion ● Anaphase is over when the chromosomes
○ Results in the formation of two stop moving
daughter cells

EVENTS OF MITOSIS: TELOPHASE

● Reverse of prophase
● Chromosomes uncoil to become a chromatin
● Spindles break down and disappear
● Nuclear envelope re-forms around chromatin
● Nucleoli appear in each of the daughter
nuclei

CYTOKINESIS

● Division of the cytoplasm

● Begins during late anaphase and completes
EVENTS OF MITOSIS: PROPHASE during telophase

● Chromatin coils into chromosomes; identical ● A cleavage furrow (contractile ring of

strands called chromatids are held together microfilaments) form to pinch the cells into
by a centromere two parts

● Centrioles direct the assembly of a mitotic ● Two daughter cell exist

spindle

● Nuclear envelope and nucleoli have broken

down

EVENTS OF MITOSIS: METAPHASE

● Chromosomes are aligned in the center of

the cell on the metaphase plate (center of
the spindle midway between the centrioles)

● Straight line of chromosomes is now seen

● In most cases, mitosis and cytokinesis occur
together
THE ROLE OF DNA
● In some cases, the cytoplasm is not divided
○ Binucleate or multinucleate cells ● Most ribosomes, the manufacturing sites of
result proteins, are located in the cytoplasm
○ Common in the liver and skeletal
muscle ● DNA never leaves the nucleus in interphase
cells

● DNA requires a decoder and a messenger to

carry instructions to build proteins to
ribosomes

● BOthe the decoder and messenger functions

are called out by RNA (ribonucleic acid)

DIFFERENCE OF RNA AND DNA

● RNA is single stranded

● RNA contains ribose sugar instead of
deoxyribose
● RNA contains Uracil (U) instead of Thymine
(T)

THREE VARIETIES OF RNA

● DNA serves as a blueprint for making ● Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfers appropriate
proteins amino acids to the ribosome for building the
protein
● Gene: DNA segment that carries a blueprint
for building one protein or polypeptide chain ● Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Helps form the
ribosomes where proteins are built
● Proteins have many functions
○ Fibrous (structural) proteins are the ● Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries the
building materials for cells instructions for building a protein from the
○ Globular (functional) proteins can nucleus to the ribosome
act as enzymes (biological
catalysts)

TWO MAJOR PHASES OF PROTEIN

● DNA information is coded into a sequence of
SYNTHESIS
bases

● A sequence of three bases (triplet) codes for ● Transcription

an amino acid ● Translation

● For example, a DNA sequence of AAA

specifies the amino acid phenylalanine
 TRANSCRIPTION

● Transfers of information from DNA’s base

sequence to the complementary base
sequence of mRNA

● DNA is the template for transcription; mRNA

is the product

● Each DNA triplet corresponds to an mRNA

codon

● If DNA sequence is AAT-CGT-TCG, then the

mRNA corresponding codons are
UUA-GCA-AGC

(Figure 3.16)
● Step 4: as the ribosome moves along the
mRNA, a new amino acid added to the
growing protein chain
TRANSLATION
● Step 5: released tRNA reenters the
● Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated cytoplasmic pool, ready to be recharged with
to an amino acid sequence; amino acids are a new amino acid
the building blocks of proteins

● Occurs in the cytoplasm and involves three

major varieties of RNA

● Steps corresponds to Figure 3.16 (step 1

covers transcription)

● Step 2: mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches

to ribosome, and translation begins

● Step 3: incoming tRNA recognizes a

complementary mRNA codon calling for its
amino acid by temporarily binding its
anticodon to the codon