Chapter 3

The Things in IoT: Sensors and Actuators

3.1 Introduction

The Internet of Things (IoT) was defined in Chap. 1 as the intersection of the
Internet, things, and data. Processes and standards were also added for a more
comprehensive IoT definition. Things were defined as anything and everything
stretching from appliances, to buildings, to cars, to people to animals, to trees, to
plants, etc.
Chapter 1 further categorized IoT solutions into four main levels: IoT devices,
IoT network, IoT services platform, and IoT applications, as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Each level has its own medium and protocols.
This chapter first defines the “Things” in IoT (Fig. 3.2) and then describes the
key requirements for things to be able to communicate over the Internet. The two
main requirements for “Things” in IoT are sensing and addressing. Sensing is
essential to identify and collect key parameters for analysis, and addressing is
necessary to uniquely identify things over the Internet. While sensors are very
crucial in collecting key information to monitor and diagnose the “Things,” they
typically lack the ability to control or repair such “Things” when overhaul is
needed. This raises the question: Why spend money to sense “Things” if they
cannot be controlled? Actuators have been introduced to address this important
question in IoT. With this in mind, “Things” in IoT are required to be uniquely
identifiable with the ability to sense and actuate (perform an action).
As we'll illustrate in this chapter, however, “Things” (e.g., end devices) are not
required to actuate themselves but typically are required to provide an interface to
allow applications to do so. It should be noted that sensing and actuating capa-
bilities may be supported on the same device.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 57

A. Rayes and S. Salam, Internet of Things—From Hype to Reality
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-44860-2_3
58 3 The Things in IoT: Sensors and Actuators

IoT Applications

API Manager

Platform Manager Discovery & Communication Registration Manager

IoT Services Platform DataFirmware

Manager
Topology
Manager Manager

Group Manager Billing & Subscription &

Accounting Notification

Element Manager: Configuration, Fault, Performance and Security

IoT Network

IoTGateway

IoT Devices

Chapter 3 Area of Focus

Fig. 3.1 “Things” in IoT—IoT level view

4. Notification & Control

3. Ability to Communicate IoT Network

2. Sensing & actuating

1. Unique Address Things

Chapter 3 Area of Focus

Fig. 3.2 “Thing” in IoT—definition view

3.2 IoT Sensors

3.2.1 Definition

A sensor is a device (typically electronic) that detects events or changes in its physical
environment (e.g., temperature, sound, heat, pressure, flow, magnetism, motion,
and chemical and biochemical parameters) and provides a corresponding output.
 3.2 IoT 5
Most sensors take analog inputs and deliver digital, often electrical, outputs. Because
the sensing element, on its own, typically produces analog output, an analog-to-
digital convertor is often required.
Sensors are comparable to the human five senses. They form the front end of
the IoT devices, i.e., “Things.” Sensors are very crucial in every IoT vertical (e.g.,
smart cities, smart grid, health care, agriculture, security and environment moni-
toring, and smart parking) as they bridge the world’s physical objects with the
Internet.
Sensors may be very simple with a core function to collect and transmit data or
smart by providing additional functionality to filter duplicate data and only notify
the IoT gateway when very specific conditions are met. This requires some pro-
graming logic to be present on the sensor itself. In this case, an IoT sensing device
requires at least three elements—sensor(s), microcontrollers, and connectivity to
send data to IoT gateway or other systems. Figure 3.3 shows the components for a
smart sensor.
Sensors may collect large amounts of data at any time and from any location
and transmit it over an IoT network in real time. The data is then analyzed and
possibly correlated with other business intelligence databases to provide business
insight or enhanced awareness of the environment, bringing onward opportunities
and/or gains in efficiency and productivity.

Fig. 3.3 Components of

smart sensors
IoT
Gateway
Electrical Signal

Transceiver
(Data

Microcontroller
(Data Processing)

Sensing Element
(Data

Physical Signal
Environment
60 3 The Things in IoT: Sensors and Actuators

3.2.2 Why Sensors?

As we mentioned above, a sensor’s main purpose is collecting data from its sur-
rounding environment and providing output to its adjoining devices (e.g.,
gateways and actuators) or applications. Sensors typically collect data using
physical inter- faces (inputs) that sense the environment and then convert input
signals into electrical signals (outputs) that are understood by the communication
and com- puting devices. Output signals are then processed by the getaways
and/or north- bound applications. In some instances, the sensors’ outputs are
processed directly by a lightweight application.

3.2.3 Sensor Types

There are many types of proprietary and non-proprietary sensors. The current IoT
trend is to move away from proprietary and closed systems and embrace IP-based
sensor networks. This allows native connectivity between wireless sensor networks
and the Internet, enabling smart objects to participate in IoT. IP-based sensor net-
works require each device to be uniquely identifiable with a unique IP address so that
it can be easily identified over a large network. Building an all-IP infrastructure from
scratch, however, would be difficult because many different sensor and actuator
technologies (both wired and wireless) have already been deployed over the years.
There are many different types of sensors across various technologies. The
most common of which include the following:
a. Temperature Sensors: Temperature is perhaps the most commonly measured
conservational quantity. This is anticipated since most physical, electronic,
chemical, mechanical, and biological systems are affected by temperature.
There are at least four types of temperature sensors:
• Thermocouple Sensors: A thermocouple is a device consisting of two dif-
ferent and dissimilar conductors in contact. It produces a voltage as a result
of the thermoelectric effect. Thermocouple sensor is made by joining two
dissimilar metals at one end.
• Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) Sensors: RTDs are temperature
sensing devices whose resistance changes with temperature. They have
been used for many years to measure temperature in laboratory and
industrial processes and have developed a reputation for accuracy,
repeatability, and stability.
• Thermistors: Similar to the RTD, the thermistor is a temperature sensing
device whose resistance changes with temperature. Thermistors, however,
are made from semiconductor materials. Resistance is determined in the
same manner as the RTD, but thermistors exhibit a highly nonlinear resis-
tance versus temperature curve.
 3.2 IoT 6
Fig. 3.4 Examples of
temperature sensors and
applications (Source Nest)

• Semiconductor Sensors: They are classified into different types such as

voltage output, current output, digital output, resistance output silicon, and
diode temperature sensors. Modern semiconductor temperature sensors
offer high accuracy and high linearity over an operating range of about −55
°C to
+150 °C (−58 to 302 °F). They can also include signal processing circuitry
within the same package as the sensor, thereby avoiding the need to add
compensation circuits. Figure 3.4 shows examples of temperature sensors.
b. Pressure Sensors: Pressure sensors are used to measure the pressure of gases
or liquids including water level, flow, speed, and altitude. Practical examples
include sensors for pumps and compressors, hydraulic systems, and refrigera-
tors. A pressure sensor typically acts as a transducer where it generates a signal
as a function of the pressure imposed. Hence, pressure sensors are also called
pressure transducers, pressure transmitters, and pressure senders, among other
names.
Touch screen smartphones, tablets, and computers come with various pressure
sensors. Whenever slight pressure is applied on the touch screen through a
finger, tiny pressure sensors (typically multiple sensors located at the corners of
the screen, see Fig. 3.5) determine where exactly pressure is applied and con-
sequently generate an output signal that informs the processor. Pressure
sensors have also been widely used in automotive applications to measure fluid
level, airbag, and antilock braking system, in biomedical applications to sense
blood pressure, in aviation to maintain a balance between the atmospheric
pressure and the control systems of the airplanes, and in submarines to estimate
depth and ensure proper operation of electronic systems and other components.
Figure 3.5 shows examples of pressure sensors.

Fig. 3.5 Examples of

pressure sensors (Source
Force Sensing and Fitbit)
62 3 The Things in IoT: Sensors and Actuators

Fig. 3.6 Examples of flow

sensor

c. Flow Sensors: Flow sensors (Fig. 3.6) are used to detect and record the rate of
fluid flow in a pipe or a system. They are also used to measure the
flow/transfer of heat caused by the moving medium. Sensing and measuring
the flow is critical for many applications ranging from brewing machines to
more serious applications such as flow monitoring for high purity acids.
A good example about the importance of flow sensing and monitoring is the
water crisis in Flint, Michigan, United States, which started in April 2014 and
resulted in criminal charges filed against three people in regard to the crisis by
Michigan attorney general in April 2016.
Flint basically changed its water source from treated Detroit Water that was
sourced from the great lakes and the Detroit River, to the Flint River. Officials
essentially had failed to detect a very high lead contamination creating a
serious public health danger. The acidic Flint River water caused lead from
aging pipes to leak into the water supply, causing extremely elevated levels of
the heavy metal. Thousands of children were exposed to drinking water with
very high levels of lead, and many experienced health problems.
d. Level Sensors: Level sensors (Fig. 3.7) are used to measure the level of fluids
continuously or at point values. The element to be measured can be inside a
container or can be in its natural form such as a well in an oil rig.
There are many uses for level sensors. Ultrasonic level sensors, for instance,
are used for non-contact level sensing of highly viscous liquids and even bulk
solids. They are also widely used in water treatment applications for pump
control and open channel flow measurement. Another example is the
capacitance-level sensors to measure the presence of a variety of solids and
liquids using radio frequency signals in the capacitance circuit.

Fig. 3.7 Examples of level

sensors with Wi-Fi propane
remote monitoring (Source
Tank Utility)
 3.2 IoT 6
Fig. 3.8 Examples of
imaging sensors (Source e2v
& DGDL)

e. Imaging sensors: Imaging sensors (Fig. 3.8) are sophisticated sensors used in
digital cameras, medical imaging machines, and night vision equipment. They
are utilized to measure image information by capturing and then converting
variable attenuation of waves into signals.
f. Noise Sensors: High noise can have damaging effects on humans (e.g., car-
diovascular) as well as on animals (e.g., hearing loss). Such noise is often
caused by machines, airplanes, trains, construction, and loud music especially
in closed spaces.
Many government agencies have started installing noise sensors to measure
noise pollutions or the so-called noise disturbance (excessive noise that may
harm humans or animals).
Ambient noise sensors continuously monitor noise levels in surrounding envi-
ronments. When the noise level changes, they send electronical signal to an
overall ambient noise system to take action. Such action may be an automatic
action (e.g., adjust music level) or a simple notification to authorities.
g. Air Pollution Sensors: Many governments have established agencies to mon-
itor and control the air quality in major cities. For instance, the USA has
established the EPA (Environment Protection Agency), in 1970, with a mission
to protect Americans from significant health risks by providing accurate envi-
ronmental information to its citizens.
Air pollution sensors detect and monitor the presence of air pollution in the
surrounding environment. They focus on five main components: ozone, par-
ticulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrous oxide.
h. Proximity and displacement Sensors: Proximity sensors detect the presence
or absence of objects using electromagnetic fields, light, or sound. There are
many types, each suited to specific applications and environments.
• Inductive Sensors: Used for close-range detection of ferrous material;
• Capacitive Sensors: Used for close-range detection of nonferrous material;
• Photoelectric Sensors: Used for long-range target detection; and
• Ultrasonic Sensors: Used for long-range detection of targets with difficult
surface (Table 3.1).
64 3 The Things in IoT: Sensors and Actuators

Table 3.1 Examples of proximity sensors types

Sensor Sensing range Main use
technology (mm)
Inductive 4–40 Ferrous metals (e.g., iron, aluminum, copper)
close-range detection
Capacitive 3–60 Nonferrous martial (e.g., wood, plastic liquid)
close-range detection
Photoelectric 1–60 Martial long-range target detection
Ultrasonic 3–30 Martial long-range target detection with challenges
(e.g., rough service, multiple colors)

i. Infrared Sensors: Infrared sensors are used to track an object’s movement.

They produce and receive infrared waves in the form of heat.
j. Moisture and Humidity Sensors: Moisture and humidity sensors (sometimes
referred to as hygrometer sensors) are used to measure and report the relative
humidity in the air. They use capacitive measurement by relying on electrical
capacitance.
k. Speed Sensors: Speed sensors are commonly used to detect the speed of
transport vehicles. Examples include wheel speed sensors, speedometers,
Doppler radar, and laser surface velocimeter.
There are so many other types of sensors. Examples include acceleration
sensors, biosensors, gas and chemical sensors, acceleration sensors, mass sensor,
tilt sensors, and force sensors.

3.2.4 Sensor Characteristics

Most IoT applications require smaller and smarter sensors with advanced func-
tionality to collect more data, low-power processors, longer battery life, faster
response time, and shorter time-to-market. Sensors are expected to be dynamic in
their natural surroundings with embedded ability to collect real-time data.
In general, sensors can be either self-directed (autonomous) where they work
on their own once they are installed, or user-controlled where collection
conditions are pre-programed by the user depending on their needs. Finally,
sensors should also have the capability to send the collected data (or a subset of it)
to the appropriate system via the IoT gateway as shown in Fig. 3.1.
IoT sensors are expected to have the following characteristics:
1. Data Filtering: A sensor’s core function is the ability to collect and send data
to IoT gateway or other appropriate systems. Sensors are not expected to
perform deep analytical functions. However, simple filtering techniques may
be required. Onboard data (or signal) processing microcontroller (as shown
in Fig. 3.3)
3.2 IoT 6
makes a smart sensor smarter. The microcontroller filters the data/signals
before transmission to the IoT gateway or control network. It basically
removes duplicate or unwanted data or noise before transferring the data.
As we mentioned in Sect. 3.2.3, non-autonomous sensors are custom-
programmed to produce alerts automatically when certain condition is met
(e.g., temperature is above 70 °F in a data center). They often integrate VLSI
technology and MEMS devices to reduce cost and optimize integration.
2. Minimum power consumption: Several factors are driving the requirements
for low power consumptions in IoT. Sensors for multiple IoT verticals (e.g.,
smart grid, railways, and roadsides) will be installed in locations that are dif-
ficult to reach to replace batteries.
3. Compact: Space will also be limited for most IoT verticals. As such, sensors
need to fit in small spaces.
4. Smart Detection: An important sensing category for the IoT is remote
sensing, which consists of acquiring information about an object without
making physical contact with it; the object can be nearby or several hundred
meters away. Multiple technology options are available for remote sensing,
and they can be divided into three broad functions:
• Presence or proximity detection—when just determining the absence or
presence of an object is sufficient (e.g., security applications). This is the
simplest form of remote sensing.
• Speed measurement—when the exact position of an object is not required,
but the object’s speed is (e.g., traffic monitoring applications).
• Detection and ranging—when the position of an object relative to the
sensor must be determined precisely and accurately (e.g., vehicle collision
avoidance).
5. High Sensitivity: Sensitivity is generally the ratio of a small change in elec-
trical output signal to a small change in physical signal. It may be expressed as
the derivative of the transfer function (the functional relationship between
input signal and output signal) with respect to physical signal. Sensitivity
indicates how much the output of the device changes with unit change in input
(quantity to be measured). For example, if the voltage of a temperature sensor
changes by 1 mV for every 1 °C change in temperature, then the sensitivity of
the sensor is said to be 1 mV/ °C.
6. Linearity: Linearity is the measure of the extent to which the output is linearly
proportional to the input. Nonlinearity is the maximum deviation from a linear
transfer function over the specified dynamic range.
7. Dynamic Range: The range of input signals which may be converted to
electrical signals by the sensor. Outside of this range, signals cause unsatis-
factory accuracy.
66 3 The Things in IoT: Sensors and Actuators

8. Accuracy: The maximum expected error between measured (actual) and ideal
output signals. Manufacturers often provide the accuracy in the datasheet; e.g.,
high-quality thermometers may list accuracy to within 0.01 % of full-scale
output.
9. Hysteresis: A sensor does not return the same output value when the input
stimulus is driven up or down. The width of the expected error in terms of the
measured quantity is defined as the hysteresis.
10. Limited Noise: All sensors produce some level of noise with their output
signals. Sensor noise is only an issue if it impacts the performance of the IoT
system. Smart sensors must filter out unwanted noise and be programmed to
produce alerts on their own when critical limits are reached. Noise is generally
distributed across the frequency spectrum. Many common noise sources pro-
duce a white noise distribution, which is to say that the spectral noise density
is the same at all frequencies.
11. Wide Bandwidth: Sensors have finite response times to instantaneous changes
in physical signal. Also, many sensors have decay times, which represent the
time after a step change in input signal for the sensor output to decay to its
original value. The bandwidth of a sensor is the frequency range between
these two frequencies. When a sensor is utilized to collect measurements, it is
rec- ommended to use sensors with the widest possible bandwidth. This
ensures that the basic measurement system is capable of responding linearly
over the full range of interest. The disadvantage, however, is that wider
bandwidth may result in sensor response to unwanted frequency.
12. High Resolution: The resolution of a sensor is defined as the smallest
detectable signal fluctuation. It is the smallest change in the input that the
device can detect. The definition of resolution must include some information
about the nature of the measurement being carried out.
13. Minimum Interruption: sensors must operate normally at all time with zero
or near-zero interruption and be programmed to produce instant alerts on their
own when their normal operation is interrupted.
14. Higher reliability: Higher reliability sensor provides the assurance to rely on
the accuracy of the output measurements.
15. Ease of use: Ease of use is considered the top requirement for any electronic
system nowadays. Clear examples we have all experienced are Apple’s iPhone
versus competitor devices with the same functionality. Users are willing to
pay more for easy to use devices, and sensors are no exception. The best user
interface is “no user interface” where sensors are expected to work by them-
selves once they are connected.
Other characteristics include some data storage and self-warning of anomalous
symptoms.
 3.3 6
3.3 RFID

Another way of capturing information from “Things” is through the use of RFID
(radio frequency identification). RFID is not a sensor but a mechanism to capture
information pre-embedded into the so-called tag of a thing or an object using radio
waves.
RFID consists of two parts: a tag and a reader. Further, the tag has two parts: a
microchip that stores and processes information, and an antenna to receive and
transmit a signal. The tag contains the specific serial number for one specific
object.
The reader reads the information encoded on a tag, using a two-way radio trans-
mitter–receiver, by emitting a signal to the tag using an antenna. The tag responds
with the information written in its memory. The reader will then transmit the read
results to an RFID computer program.
An RFID-based solution has some advantages over older reader-tag-based
solutions, such as barcode, including:
• RFID tag does not need to be within direct line of sight of the reader and can
be read from a distance up to 12 m for passive ultra-high frequency (UHF)
system. Battery-powered tags typically have a reading range of 100 m.
• RFID data on the tag can be modified based on business needs. The barcode
data is very difficult to change once deployed.
• RFID tags are durable. Barcodes, in comparison, are printed on a product for
everyone to see. They can be damaged or changed. RFID tags are hidden and
may be reused across multiple products. Also RFID tags are capable of storing
much more data.
• RFID data may be encrypted on the tag, thereby preventing unauthorized users
from changing the data or counterfeiting.
• RFID systems can read hundreds of tags simultaneously. This is significant in a
retail store as it saves the staff valuable time that they can spend on higher
value tasks.
Figure 3.9 shows the RFID main components: a programmable RFID tag for
storing data, a reader with an antenna to read the tags, and an application software
hosted on a computer to analyze the data.
Like any other technology, RFID has a number of disadvantages, but they are
relatively minor. A top disadvantage is the susceptibility of the tags to jamming by
blocking the RFID radio waves, for instance by wrapping the tags with metallic
material such as aluminum foil. Metallic ink on book covers can also affect the
transmission of the radio waves.
Another potential disadvantage is interference between multiple readers and
tags if the overall system is not set up appropriately. Each RFID reader basically
scans all the tags it picks up in its range. This may create a mix-up between tag
infor- mation (e.g., charging a customer for items in someone else’s shopping
carts within the same range).
 6 3 The Things in IoT: Sensors and

RFID
Application

RFID Reader
with Antenna

RFID Tag

Thing

Fig. 3.9 RFID main components

3.3.1 RFID Main Usage and Applications

RFID is already used by a large number of application. Top examples include the
following:
• Access Control and Management: Many companies and government agencies
are using RFID tags in identification badges, replacing earlier magnetic stripe
cards. With RFID, employees as well as authorized guest may be greeted by
their name on a screen or by a voice message upon entering a building.
Companies are currently using data collected from the information associated
with each employee’s badge to plan for workplace optimization.
RFID tags are also widely used for electronic toll collections (e.g., California’s
E-ZPass) eliminating major delay on toll roads. Electronic toll collection
system determines whether the passing vehicle is enrolled in the program,
automatically issues traffic citations for those that are not, and automatically
withdraws the toll charges from the accounts of registered car owners.
• Passport: Many departments of state around the world (e.g., USA, Canada,
Norway, Malaysia, Japan, and many EU countries) are using RFID passports
that can be read from a reader located up to ten meters away. In this case,
passports are designed with an electronic tag that contains main information
with a digital picture of the passport holder. Most solutions are also adding a
thin metal lining to make it more difficult for unauthorized readers to scan
information when the passport is closed. Standards for RFID passports have
 3.3 6
been established by the International Civil Aviation Organization and are con-
tained in ICAO Document 9303 (6th Edition, 2006).
• Healthcare: With 2014 veteran complaints including allegations that forty
veterans may have died waiting for care at a Phoenix VA hospital, many hos-
pitals or agencies, including the US Department of Veterans Affairs, have
already started or announced plans to deploy RFID in hospitals across the USA
to improve health care. RFID-based solutions in health care have started in
private and public hospitals across the world, at least several years before the
veteran’s complaints, to track and manage expensive mobile medical
equipment, thereby allowing hospital staff to track in real-time data relevant to
healthcare equipment or personnel, monitor environment conditions, and more
importantly protect healthcare workers from infections and other hazards.
• Logistics and Supply Chain Tracking: Major retailers in the world, (e.g.,
Walmart), as well as the US Department of Defense, have published require-
ments that their vendors place RFID tags on all shipments to improve supply
chain management. Such requirements allow retailers to manage their mer-
chandize without manual data entry. RFID can also help with automatic elec-
tronic surveillance and self-checkout process for consumers. Finally, many
factories are tracking their products throughout the manufacturing process
using RFIDs to better estimate delivery dates for customers.
• Athletic and Sport Event Timing: Tracking the exact timing of runners in
marathons or races is crucial, and often, a portion of a second makes a differ-
ence. Athletic timing is one of the most widespread use cases of RFID. Many
runners are not even aware that they are being timed with RFID technology.
Experts use such fact as an evidence of RFID’s seamless ability to enhance
consumer experience.
• Animal Tracking: Since the outbreak of mad cow disease, RFID has become
critical in animal identification management, although RFID animal tagging
started at least a decade before the disease. Some governments (e.g., Australia)
are now requiring all cattle, sheep, and goats sold to be RFID tagged.
• Other applications: RFID is also used for airport baggage tracking logistics,
interactive marketing, laundry management for employers with huge number
of uniforms (e.g., casinos), item-level inventory tracking, conference attendee
tracking, material management, IT asset management, library system, and real-
time location system.

3.4 Video Tracking

Video tracking is the process of capturing and analyzing the video feeds, frame by
frame, of a particular object or person over a short-time interval. It is used to
measure and analyze movements, visual attention, as well as behavior. Video
tracking is used for customer identification, surveillance, augmented reality, traffic
control, and medical imaging.
 7 3 The Things in IoT: Sensors and

It is yet another mechanism to identify and monitor “Things” when sensors or

RFID tags are not available. Video tracking may also be used in conjunction with
sensors and/or RFID to provide a more comprehensive solution.
Unlike preinstalled sensors and RFID tags in “Things,” video tracking can be
turned on instantly. However, video tracking does have a major weakness, with
today’s technology. Video tracking is often time-consuming. It requires analyzing
large amounts of video traffic and, in many cases, correlation with historical data,
to arrive at accurate conclusions. Another challenge to video tracking is the
complex object/image recognition techniques. This is a huge area of research in
machine learning today.

3.4.1 Video Tracking Applications

• Retailers: Many retailers have started using video tracking solutions, often in
conjunction with Wi-Fi access point data (how?—see problem 22), to increase
sales and provide a better customer experience. Video traffic is analyzed using
complex algorithms that track eye movements and identify fixation (e.g.,
desirability, obsession, and attraction to a product) and glissades (e.g.,
wobbling movements). The collected data is then filtered against well-
established business rules to determine an internal action (e.g., change location
of merchandize and add more checkout lines) or external action (e.g., offer the
customer a certain discount).
Determining the business rules is a very challenging problem. Many
companies use advanced systems and techniques (e.g., machine learning,
analysis of social media data, artificial intelligence) or hire a marketing firm to
survey a large number of customers to arrive at such rules. Examples of new
rules are the fact that the faster a shopper finds the first item s/he needs, the
more s/he purchases in such category. This dispels the pervious myth that the
more time a shopper spends in a particular area, the more s/he buys.
Video tracking is also used to improve the overall shopping experience in the
store as a service differentiation especially if the store is a bit more expensive
than similar stores in the area. The analysis of multiple grocery stores traf fic
indicated that customers did not mind paying a bit more for faster checkout
lines with friendly cashiers, bright lights, and clean belts. Analyzed data also
indi- cated that the vast majority of customers do not pay attention to internal
signs inside the store.
• Banking: Similar to retailers, banks have also started using video tracking
solutions, often combined with Wi-Fi data. Access to Wi-Fi data in banks is
easier given that most of the customers download the bank’s mobile app on
their smartphones. With the right setting, mobile apps often allow the bank to
track the whereabouts of the customer.
3.4 Video Tracking 71

Banks use the data to quickly identify high-priority customers (e.g. with large
sum of money deposited at the bank), often before they lineup in the queue.
Special greeting and may be zero-wait private service is offered by the bank
manager.
• Other Uses: The applications of video tracking with advanced backend ana-
lytics are unlimited, ranging from physical monitoring and security to traffic
management and control, to augmented reality, where an actual view is aug-
mented by a computer-generated sensual input such as video.

3.4.2 Video Tracking Algorithms

Video tracking is typically used to track the movement of specific target (or
targets). Once the target is detected, captured sequential video frames are used by
video tracking algorithms with background subtraction process. Most common
video tracking algorithms include Kernel-based tracking, Contour tracking, the
well-known Kalman filter and the Particle filter.

3.5 IoT Actuators

3.5.1 Definition

An actuator is a type of motor that is responsible for controlling or taking action in

a system. It takes a source of data or energy (e.g., hydraulic fluid pressure, other
sources of power) and converts the data/energy to motion to control a system.

3.5.2 Why Actuators?

As mentioned in Sect. 3.2, sensors are responsible to sense changes in their sur-
roundings, collect relevant data, and make such data available to monitoring sys-
tems. Collecting and displaying data by a monitoring system is useless unless such
data is translated into intelligence that can be used to control or govern an envi-
ronment before a service is impacted. Actuators use sensor-collected and analyzed
data as well as other types of data intelligence (see problem 11) to control IoT
systems. For example, shutting down gas flow when the measured pressure is
below a certain threshold.
 7 3 The Things in IoT: Sensors and

3.5.3 Actuator Types

• Electrical Actuators: Electric actuators are devices driven by small motors

that convert energy to mechanical torque. The created torque is used to control
certain equipment that requires multiturn valves or to control gates. Electric
actuators are also used in engines to control different valves.
• Mechanical Linear Actuators: Mechanical actuators convert rotary motion to
linear motion. Devices such as screws and chains are utilized in this
conversion. The simplest example of mechanical liner actuators is referred to
as the “screw” where leadscrew, screw jack, ball screw, and roller screw
actuators all operate on the same principle: By rotating the actuator’s nut, the
screw shaft moves in a line.
• Hydraulic Actuators: Hydraulic actuators are simple devices with mechanical
parts that are used on linear or quarter-turn valves. They are designed based on
Pascal’s law: When there is an increase in pressure at any point in a confined
incompressible fluid, then there is an equal increase at every point in the con-
tainer. Hydraulic actuators comprise of a cylinder or fluid motor that utilizes
hydraulic power to enable a mechanical process. The mechanical motion gives
an output in terms of linear, rotary, or oscillatory motion. Hydraulic actuators
can be operated manually, such as a hydraulic car jack, or they can be operated
through a hydraulic pump, which can be seen in construction equipment such
as cranes or excavators.
• Pneumatic Actuators: Pneumatic actuators work on the same concept as
hydraulic actuators except compressed gas is used instead of liquid.
• Manual Actuators: Manual actuator employs levers, gears, or wheels to enable
movement, while an automatic actuator has an external power source to
provide motion to operate a valve automatically. Power actuators are a
necessity on valves in pipelines located in remote areas.

3.5.4 Controlling IoT Devices

There are two main philosophies to monitor and control IoT devices: local control
and global control. The first approach requires an intelligent local controller (e.g.,
home’s thermostat to control furnace and air-conditioning system). The second
approach is to move the control onto the cloud and simply embed inexpensive
sensors everywhere (e.g., in this case, thermostat is eliminated altogether and
instead put temperature sensors around the house). An extension of this would be
to pull the controller boards out of the furnace and air conditioner—connect their
inputs and outputs to the Internet as well, so a cloud application can directly read
their states and control their subsystems.
3.5 IoT Actuators 73

Clearly, this approach requires many more, much finer-grained connected

devices. And it offers the possibility of control strategies that would not be
possible for an isolated thermostat. You could use ambient weather conditions,
forecasts, and the current locations of the residents as inputs, for example, to
determine an optimum strategy for making life comfortable while saving energy.
We believe the right approach is a combination of the two approaches
depending on the specific IoT vertical and environment. This area will be covered
in more details in Chaps. 7 and 9.

3.6 How Things Are Identified in IoT?

As we mentioned in Chap. 2, the most convenient way to identify every IoT

device is to assign unique IP address to each sensor and actuator. However, IPv4
addresses are expensive and limited. IPv6 addresses are not widely deployed yet.
In addition, many sensors and actuators are not IP enabled. IoT getaways,
however, do have unique IP addresses. Hence, non-IP enabled sensors and
actuators may be identified by their associated gateways.
Chapter 5 will provide compressive details of various IoT protocols for sensors
and illustrate how IoT sensors and actuator will be tracked and identified.

3.7 Summary

This chapter defined the “Things” in IoT. Three main techniques to identify things
were discussed in details: embedded hardware sensors that sense the thing or
surrounding environment and notify a client application, RFIDs with a tag to store
information on a thing and a reader to read such information and pass them to an
application to analyze and finally video tracking. The advantages and
disadvantages of these solutions were discussed. Once the data is analyzed (from
sensors or other sources), IoT actuators are responsible for controlling or taking
action if required. Finally, we have discussed the procedure to identify various
devices in IoT networks.

3.8 Problems and Exercises

1. List the top three requirements for “Things” in IoT? What is the purpose
behind these requirements?
2. Why Actuators are required in IoT networks?
 7 3 The Things in IoT: Sensors and

3. What is the definition of a sensor in IoT? Why is there a need for A/D con-
vertors in most sensors?
4. Why sensors are required to convert Physical Signals into electrical signal?
5. In a table, list and compare the various types of actuators. Which actuator type
is considered to be environmentally friendly and why?
6. What are the key differences between sensors and actuators?
7. Chapter 1 mentioned that connecting objects together is not an objective by
itself. In this chapter it is mentioned that collecting data from sensors is not an
objective by itself either. What is the business objective for connecting things
and collecting data? How to achieve such objective?
8. What are the two main uses of Flow Sensors?
9. In a Table format, list the key functionality of all sensors (A through I) listed
in Sect. 3.2.3. Which sensor type is considered to be the least sophisticated
and which type is considered to be the most sophisticated? Why?
10. What is an autonomous sensor? When does it notify neighboring system(s) or
IoT Gateway? What is the difference between “autonomous” and “user-
controlled” sensors?
11. In a table, list and compare the ten characteristics of good sensors. Which
characteristic you believe is the most important and why?
12. It was mentioned in Sect. 3.2 that Actuators use sensor collected and analyzed
data as well as other types of data intelligence to control IoT systems. What is
data intelligence? Provide two examples of data intelligence.
13. What is the definition of Sensitivity and Dynamic Range? What are the typical
units of Sensitivity and Dynamic Range?
14. What is Hysteresis? What is a typical unit of Hysteresis?
15. How do touch screens operate with the presence of touch sensors?
16. In a table, list five examples of Industries where pressure sensors are used. In
each case, list at least one main application.
17. Some people have raised concerns about potential invasion of privacy in
RFID enabled solutions (e.g. track the whereabouts of a person who checked
out an RFID enabled library book). Is this a major concern? How would you
address it?
18. Athletic Timing: Athletic Timing is one of the most popular use cases of
RFID, but often race participants never realize they’re being timed using
RFID technology. How does it work?
3.8 Problems and Exercises 75

19. Describe how RFID works for Laundry Management. List three benefits.
20. Provide an example of how RFID works for Interactive Marketing.
21. How does RFID track the real time location of assets or employees? What
other technology can be used to track an employee location in real time?
22. How do retailers use Wi-Fi Access Point data in conjunction with video
tracking to improve sales and customer experience?
23. This chapter discussed three different ways to obtain information from IoT
“Things”: Sensors, RFID and Video Tracking. In a Table, compare the three
technologies addressing:
a. Advantages
b. Disadvantages
c. Key Requirements for the things
d. Two Applications
24. What are transducers? How are they related to Sensors and Actuators?
25. Wind speed sensors typically involve a rotating element that is set in motion
by wind. These sensor report the frequency of rotation of that moving element.
An application receiving the frequency readings needs to apply a “transfer
func- tion” to translate the frequency to actual wind speed. In the weather
monitoring station at Vancouver International Airport, two wind speed sensors
are instal- led: an RM Young 05103 Wind Sensor and a Vaisala WM30 Wind
Sensor. The first has the following transfer function:
Wind Speed (m/s) = 0.0980 * Frequency.
The second has this transfer function:
Wind speed (m/s) = 0.699 * Frequency –0.24.
A. If the RM Young sensor is reporting frequency of 20 Hz, and assuming both
sensors are measuring the same wind speed value, then what would be the
frequency reported by the Vasiala sensor?
B. What would be the actual wind speed measured?

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