ME 312: Manufacturing Technology-II

Non-Traditional Machining

U. K. Komal
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
IIT Guwahati

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

 Key Takeaways Post Lecture

• Why Non-traditional Machining (NTM)?

• Classification of NTM
• Ultrasonic Machining (USM) …. History and Fundamental
• USM Material Removal Mechanism
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• USM Applications

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 Why Non-traditional Machining ??

Typical aero-parts

Machining of inaccessible Drilling of deep hole in a Part of a helicopter

areas turbine blade with aspect ratio turbine holes drilled
(ratio of hole depth to hole by EBM
diameter) > 100
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 Why Non-traditional Machining ??

Ceramics (bullentech.com)

High Tolerance Fitting

Holes in Glass (swiftglass.com)

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 Current Demand Trends in Industries
(Aerospace, Defence, Missiles, Automobiles, Nuclear Reactors, Cutting Tools, Biomedical etc.)

• Ultra High Strength, Hardness

• Very High Temperature Resistance
• Difficult To Machine By Conventional Machining
• Complex Shape (Internal/external profiles)
ADVANCED MATERIALS WITH • Work Piece Material Hardness >> Tool Material
Hardness
SUPERIOR PROPERTIES • Excellent Surface Finish
• Low tolerances (less than 10 microns)
(Ti-Based Alloys, Super alloys,
• Damage generated during machining of
Ceramics, Composites)
composites are major obstacles

HOW TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM ???

NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 5

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 Why Nontraditional Machining?

• Situations where traditional machining processes are unsatisfactory or

uneconomical:
– Workpiece material is too hard, strong, or tough.
– Workpiece is too fragile to resist cutting forces or too difficult to clamp.
– Part shape is very complex with internal or external profiles or small holes.
– Requirements for surface finish and tolerances are very high.
– Temperature rise or residual stresses are undesirable or unacceptable.

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Characteristics of Advanced Machining Processes

• Performance does not depend on the workpiece strength/hardness

• Performance depends on thermal, electrical or/and chemical properties
of workpiece/tool material
• The hardness of tool materials can be significantly lower than that of
workpiece materials
• The material can be processed directly using energy such as electric
energy, electrochemical energy, sound energy or light energy.

Low MRR but Better Quality

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Classification of Advanced Machining Processes
Advanced Machining Processes (AMP)

Mechanical Abrasive
Electrochemical Processes Thermal Processes Chemical Processes
Processes

Ultrasonic Electro chemical Electrical Discharge

Chemical Machining
Machining machining Machining

Wire Electrical Photochemical

Water Jet Machining Electrochemical Grinding
Discharge Machining Machining

Abrasive Jet
Electrochemical Drilling Laser Beam Machining
Machining

Abrasive Water Jet Electrochemical

Plasma Arc Machining
Machining Polishing

Abrasive Flow Electron Beam

Machining Machining 8

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 Selection of AMC

PROCESS CAPABILITY

PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
Selection
Depends on SHAPE TO BE MACHINED

PROPERTIES OF WORK PIECE

ECONOMICS OF PROCESS

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Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

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 Ultrasonic: History
• The roots of ultrasonic technology can be traced back
to research on the piezoelectric effect conducted by
brothers Pierre Curie and Jacques Curie around
1880.
• They discovered that applying pressure to crystals
such as quartz, tourmaline and rochelle salt generates
electrical charges on the surface of these materials.
• Conversion of mechanical energy into electrical
energy is called the direct piezoelectric effect.
“Piezo” is derived from the Greek for “to press”.
• Conversely, mechanical vibrations are obtained by
applying electrical oscillations to the same crystals.

https://onscale.com/piezoelectricity/history-of-piezoelectricity/ 11

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 Ultrasonic: History

• One of the first applications for

Ultrasonic was SONAR (an
acronym for sound navigation
ranging).

• It was employed on a large

scale by the U.S. Navy during
World War II to detect enemy
submarines.

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 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
• Ultrasonic machining is mechanical type of
non-traditional machining process.
• It is employed to machine hard and/or brittle
materials (both electrically conductive and
non-conductive) having hardness usually greater
than 40 RC.
• It uses a shaped tool, high frequency
mechanical motion and abrasive slurry.

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 USM SYSTEM
• Power Supply
- High frequency sine wave generator
- Converts low frequency (60 Hz) to high frequency (20 kHz)
• Transducer
– Piezoelectric and magnetostrictive
- Convert electrical energy into mechanical motion
• Tool Holder- Attach and hold tool to transducer
• Tool- Transmit amplified mechanical motion from tool holder to a
abrasive particles (silver brazing, soft soldering screws)
• Abrasive – Harder the better, size
• Media – Coolant, energy transfer and flushing.

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 USM: Working Principles
• USM utilizes a power supply that converts
conventional electrical supply (50-60 Hz) to 20 kHz-
40 kHz (using high frequency generator) high
frequency electrical energy.
• A transducer is used to convert high frequency
electrical energy into mechanical motion.
• The ultrasonic motion from the converter is
amplified (using horn) and transmitted to the tool.
• This causes the attached tool to vibrate thousands of
time per second.
• A recirculating pump forces abrasive, suspended in a
liquid medium (water or oil) between the vibrating tool
and the work piece.
• The abrasive particles strike the work piece resulting
in tiny fractures on the work surface and leading to the
material removal.
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 Process Description
• Abrasive slurry is continuously fed between a soft tool and the workpiece
• Abrasive particles are hammered into the workpiece surface and cause
chipping of fine particles from it
• The slurry also carries away the debris from the cutting area
• The tool is gradually moved down maintaining a constant gap of
approximately 0.1 mm between the tool and workpiece surface
• Slight pressure on the tool to ensure the fracturing of workpiece
• Abrasive particles with a higher fracture strength than the workpiece, and
the tool with higher fracture strength than abrasive particles

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Concentrator/Horn: Working

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 Concentrator/Horn

Concentrator can be of different types:

• Exponential (most efficient, difficult to manufacture)
• Tapered or conical (Preferred)
• Stepped (Easy to manufacture)

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 Working Principles

Courtesy: ADTW learn,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5w6szZtOg5w&t=1s&ab_channel=ADTWlearn
DMG Mori, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fEvo5jarIW4&ab_channel=DMGMORI
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 USM: Material Removal Mechanisms
Material removal mechanism of USM involves following distinct actions:

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 USM: Material Removal Mechanisms
Material removal mechanism of USM involves
following distinct actions:

✓ Mechanical abrasion by direct hammering

of the abrasive grains stuck between the
vibrating tool and adjacent work surface.
✓ Impact of the free moving particles on the
work piece with a certain velocity on the
work piece resulting in micro chipping.
✓ The work surface erosion by
cavitation in the slurry stream.
✓ The chemical action associated
with the fluid used.
Schematic diagram of material removal mechanisms in USM: (a) hammering
action, (b) impact action, and (c) cavitation erosion.
Wang, J., 2018, Ultrasonic Machining: A Total Mechanical Machining
Technology Using Loose Abrasive Particles,
https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75170 22
.
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 Cavitation

Courtesy: IET Institute for Energy Technology, https://youtu.be/U-uUYCFDTrc 23

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 Feed Mechanism

• To apply working force during the machining operations.

Basic types of feed mechanisms are:

1. Counterweight
2. Spring type
3. Pneumatic and hydraulic type
4. Motor type

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 USM Process Parameters

• Amplitude of vibration
• Frequency of vibration
• Feed force (F) related to tool dimension
• Contact area of the tool (A)
• Feed Pressure (F/A)
• Slurry concentration
• Abrasive grain size
• Abrasive material
• Properties of work and tool materials
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 USM Process Parameters
• Influences of various process parameters on the material removal rate,
machining precision, surface quality, and tool wear have been widely
experimentally investigated.

To achieve specific machining

requirements, the optimum
machining condition is desired.

A cause and effect diagram for machining parameters in USM.

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Wang, J., 2018, Ultrasonic Machining: A Total Mechanical Machining Technology Using Loose Abrasive Particles, https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75170

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 USM: Quality Characteristics

Material Removal Rate (MRR) Surface Roughness

(The reduction in weight of the work piece is divided
by the time of machining and respective densities of (Measured by contact /non-contact
work piece) profilers 2D/3D Roughness)

MRR=
Volume of material removed Wi−Wf
=
Wear Ratio
Time tmρ
(Wear ratio defines the relative efficiency of work material
with respective tool with corresponding set of process
parameters.
To calculate wear ratio, reduction in volume of work piece
is divided by reduction of volume of tool in same time and
over same depth of cut)
Tool Wear Rate (TWR)
(Tool wear rate is calculated by reduction in
weight of tool divided by time of machining and Hole Oversize
density of respective tool)
(Clearance between the tool and the work piece
Volume of material removed Ti−Tf Used for assessment of accuracy)
TWR= = Oversize of the hole = Diameter of the hole at entry
Time tmρ
– Tool diameter. 27

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Effect of Process Parameters on MRR

Joshi S.S. (2016) Ultrasonic Machining. In: Bhushan B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Nanotechnology. Springer, Dordrecht.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9780-1_366 28

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 Mechanics of Cutting

• The position A indicates the instant the tool

face touches the abrasive grain.
• The period of movement from A to B
represents the impact.
• The indentations, caused by the grain on the
tool and the work surface at the extreme
bottom position of the tool from the position
A to position B is h (the total indentation).

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 Assumptions
• Abrasive particles as spherical in shape
• Abrasive particles are rigid and hard
• All abrasive particles are similar
• All impacts are identical
• Material removal due to cavitation and chemical erosion are ignored
• Material removed in hemispherical shape per impact
• MRR is proportional to frequency and number of abrasive particles
making impact and volume removed by particles per cycle

𝑀𝑅𝑅 ∝ 𝑁 𝑉𝑝 𝐹
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 Volume of Material Removed/Particle
Abrasive Particle
d
Workpiece

Volume removed /particle 𝑽𝒑

Total volume removed per cycle 𝑽

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 Volume of Material Removed/Particle
Abrasive Particle
d
Workpiece
d/2 (d/2)-h
h
D/2 h

D
2 2 2
𝑑 𝑑 𝐷
= −ℎ + 𝐷 ≈ 2 𝑑ℎ
2 2 2
3 2𝜋
1 4𝜋 𝐷 3/2
Volume removed /particle 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑑ℎ
2 3 2 3

Total volume removed per cycle 𝑉 = 𝑁 𝑉𝑝 𝑁=number of active abrasive particles

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 Estimation of Number of Active Abrasive Particles

• Concentration of abrasive particles = c (volume by volume fraction )

• Cross section of the tool = A
• Total volume under the tool = Vs
• Total abrasive volume = c × Vs
• Assume there is monolayer of abrasive particles then
Volume of single layer of abrasives = c × A × d
4𝜋 𝑑 3
• Volume of single abrasive = 𝑐𝐴𝑑 6𝑐𝐴
3 2 𝑁= =
3 𝜋𝑑 2
• Number of Active Abrasive Particles per cycle 4𝜋 𝑑
3 2
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 Material Removal Rate (MRR)
• Material removal rate , 𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝜂 𝑁 𝑉𝑝 𝐹
where Vp = volume removed by a single abrasive particle
F = frequency of operation
N = number of particles impacting per cycle
η = constant (depend on diff parameters)
2𝜋 3/2 6𝑐𝐴
𝑉𝑝 = 𝑑ℎ and 𝑁 =
3 𝜋𝑑 2

2𝜋 3/2
6𝑐𝐴 ℎ3
𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝜂 𝐹 𝑑ℎ =4𝜂𝐹𝑐𝐴
3 𝜋𝑑2 𝑑
(h is unknown)
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 Estimation of Depth of Penetration
• Models proposed by Shaw (1965)
• There are two possibilities when the tool hits Tool
an abrasive particle. f
Tool ht
• Particle Throwing Model: When the size of d f
the particle is small and the gap between the
hw
bottom of the tool and work surface is large
enough Workpiece
D
• Particle Hammering Model: When size of Particle Hammering Model
particle is large and gap between the bottom of
the tool and work surface is small Particle Throwing Model
• In the both cases, a particle after hitting the
work surface generates a crater of depth ‘h’ and
radius ‘D/2’.

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 Material Removal Rate (MRR)

𝑐 1/4 𝐴1/4 𝐹𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 3/4 𝑎𝑜3/4 𝑑 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑐𝑛𝑦

𝑀𝑅𝑅 ∝ µ3/4
𝜎𝑤 3/4 1+𝜆 3/4

𝜆 = 𝜎𝑤 / 𝜎𝑡

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 Theoretical vs Experimental
𝑐 1/4 𝐴1/4 𝐹𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 3/4 𝑎𝑜3/4 𝑑 𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑐𝑛𝑦
𝑀𝑅𝑅 ∝ µ3/4
𝜎𝑤 3/4 1+𝜆 3/4
𝜆 = 𝜎𝑤 / 𝜎𝑡

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 USM: Advantages

• Burr less
• Distortion less
• Machines conductive/nonconductive materials
• Can drill circular or non-circular holes in very hard materials
• Less stress because of its non-thermal characteristics
• USM does not produce electric, thermal, chemical damage

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 USM: Disadvantages

• Low material removal rate

• Rapid tool wears
• Machining area and depth limitation
• Not economical for soft materials

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 Summary of USM
• Mechanics of material removal - brittle fracture caused by impact of abrasive
grains due to vibrating at high frequency
• Medium - slurry
• Abrasives: B4C; SiC; Al2O3; diamond; 100-800 grit size
• Vibration freq. 15-30 KHz, amplitude 25-100 micro m
• Tool material soft steel, ductile
• Critical parameters - frequency, amplitude, tool material, grit size, abrasive
material, feed force, slurry concentration, slurry viscosity
• Material application - metals and alloys (particularly hard and brittle),
semiconductors, nonmetals, e.g., glass and ceramics
• Shape application - round and irregular holes, impressions
• Limitations - very low MRR, tool wear and depth of holes
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USM: Applications (Materials)

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Courtesy: MI 588: Non-Traditional Machining Processes, IIT Roorkee
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 USM Applications

SEM photomicrography of 0.64 mm holes drilled into alumina by

two different methods. (a) USM, and (b) LBM

Whole blood passing through microchannel. The mChip can test whole blood samples
without pre-processing or clogging of microchannel.

Curtis D Chin et al. Nature Medicine, 17, 1015–1019 (2011), https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.2408 42

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 USM Applications
• Excellent process for machining
-carbides, ferrites, germanium, ceramics, glass, tungsten.
• Making press tools, dies wire drawing equipment and other components made
of hard alloys.
• Slicing semiconductor components:
• (e.g. for cutting circular wafers 1 to 30 mm diameter from germanium
and silicon rods)
• The automotive applications of machining
• ceramic engine components.
• Electronics: vary from machining ceramic substrate to drilling holes in
borosilicate glass for the sensors.
• Drilling small holes in helicopter power transmission shafts and gears.
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 Case Study: Tool Wear During USM

Microscopic images of tools at

different time intervals after
machining of (a-c) glass (d–f)
silicon and (g–i) zirconia.

Sandeep Kumar and Akshay Dvivedi (2019) On machining of hard and brittle materials using rotary tool micro-ultrasonic drilling process, Materials and
Manufacturing Processes, 34:7, 736-748, DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2019.1594255 44

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 Case Study: Drilling of Composites using USM

Microscopic image of the drilled hole-exit edge obtained

through (a) CD and (b) RMUD.

Schematic of the experimental set-up

for rotary-mode ultrasonic drilling

Work pieces and cut-out rod

SEM image of the drilled hole cylindrical wall
Debnath et al. Rotary mode ultrasonic drilling of glass fiber-reinforced epoxy obtained through CD and RMUD 45
laminates. Journal of Composite Materials. 2015;49(8):949-963.
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