INTRODUCTION

Earthquake seems to be a part of our life now as we come across earthquake from one part or
another part of the world. It is one of the main natural disasters that happen.

Earthquake is a natural disaster that can be broadly defined as a series of vibrations that are
induced from the earth’s crust. A sudden movement of the earth’s crust, sudden release of
extreme energy, shaking or trembling of the crust of the earth due to shifting of rocks under the
earth’s surface or underground volcanic forces can be called as earthquakes. This is often
accompanied by terrible noise. These waves can sometimes traverse half a hemisphere
destroying the cities completely. The location where earthquake starts is called hypocenter or
focus. The location just above the hypocenter is called epicenter. The main earthquake is
called mainshock. There are many aftershocks that occur after the mainshock. The amount of
energy released during earthquake is called magnitude.

In short, an earthquake is the ground shaking caused by a sudden slip on a fault. Stresses in
the earth's outer layer push the sides of the fault together. Stress builds up and the rocks slip
suddenly, releasing energy in waves that travel through the earth's crust and cause the shaking
that we feel during an earthquake.
Faults are caused by the tectonic plates grinding and scraping against each other as they
continuously and slowly move.

Earthquakes occur in the crust or upper mantle, from the earth’s surface to about 400 miles
below the surface. But the very deepest earthquakes only occur at subduction zones where
cold crustal rock is being pushed deep into the earth.
The greatest risk in an earthquake is the severity of the shaking it causes to manmade and
natural structures and the contents within these that may fail or fall and injure or kill people.
There have been large earthquakes with very little damage because they caused little shaking
and/or buildings were built to withstand that shaking. In other cases, smaller earthquakes have
caused great shaking and/or buildings collapsed that were never designed or built to survive
shaking.
Much depends on two variables: geology and engineering. From place to place, there are great
differences in the geology at and below the ground surface. Different kinds of geology will do
different things in earthquakes. For example, shaking at a site with soft sediments can last 3
times as long as shaking at a stable bedrock site such as one composed of granite.
Local soil conditions also play a role, as certain soils greatly amplify the shaking in an
earthquake. Seismic waves travel at different speeds in different types of rocks. Passing from
rock to soil, the waves slow down but get bigger. A soft, loose soil will shake more intensely
than hard rock at the same distance from the same earthquake. The looser and thicker the soil
is, the greater the energy movement will be. Fires are another major risk during earthquakes as
gas lines may be damaged and particularly hazardous.

CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

Most of the scientists believe that earthquakes are formed due to the movement of the earth’s
plates. It is a very natural phenomenon and a theory commonly known as plate tectonics. As,
we all know earth is divided into 3 layers namely – Crust, Mantle and Core. The outermost
layer of earth is known as the crust which is made up of granite and basalt. About 70% of the
crust is ocean. The crust has several continental plates which drift every year. The second
layer is called mantle. 80% of the earth is mantle. The mantle consists of lithosphere which is
the upper mantle and asthenosphere which is the lower mantle. The core is the innermost layer
of the earth. One third of the mass of the earth is core. The core has a liquid outer core made
up of iron and it is very dense. It also has a solid inner core made of nickel and iron. The
magnetic field of the earth is created when the liquid outer layer spins. So, as discussed above,
the earth’s crust is made up of several large and hard plates. These plates move slowly and
continuously above the mantle. So collision and stress is caused among the plates. The stress
among the plates can also occur when one plate goes over the other or when the sides if the
plates collide. As the stress increases, the crust breaks and the energy is released. This
released energy moves to and fro in the form of waves called seismic waves. Thus these
naturally created waves shake the earth forming earthquakes.

MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKES

The first widely used gadget for measuring earthquakes were the Richter scale which was
developed by a Charles Richter in the year 1934. According to this scale, the largest wave was
recorded in a seismometer and then the distance between the earthquake and the
seismometer was measured. But unfortunately, the measurements in this Richter scale were
not accurate. Main 2 devices are used by seismologist to measure earthquakes. They are:
seismograph and seismoscope. Seismograph is an instrument to measure seismic waves of
the earthquakes. Seismoscope is an instrument to measure the time or occurrence of
earthquakes. Nowadays earthquakes are calculated by its magnitude and intensity. Logarithmic
scale is the base for calculating magnitudes. This means that the higher the whole number on
the magnitude, the motion recorded by the seismograph goes up ten times. This scale has no
upper limit. Thus, magnitude is the amount of seismic energy at the hypocenter of the
earthquakes. Intensity on the other hand is observed by the ground shaking of the people and
buildings. This varies from place to place. According to the U.S geological center, the
earthquakes are assigned to a class as per their magnitude. The classes are as under-

Earthquake Magnitude Scale

Estimated Number Each
Magnitude Earthquake Effects Year
2.5 or less Usually not felt, but can be recorded by seismograph. Millions
2.5 to 5.4 Often felt, but only causes minor damage. 500,000
5.5 to 6.0 Slight damage to buildings and other structures. 350
6.1 to 6.9 May cause a lot of damage in very populated areas. 100
7.0 to 7.9 Major earthquake. Serious damage. 10-15

8.0 or Great earthquake. Can totally destroy communities near

One every year or two
greater the epicenter.

Types of Earthquakes

1. Tectonic Earthquakes

The earth’s crust is composed of loose, cracked fragments of land referred to as tectonic
plates. These plates are capable of moving slowly and gradually. The movement of these
plates occurs in different forms; towards each other, away from each other, sliding past each
other or colliding with each other. A huge tremor occurs when 2 moving tectonic plates slide
over one another. This type of earthquake is known as a tectonic earthquake.
Tectonic earthquakes are the most prevalent kinds of earthquakes in the world. Its magnitude
may be small or large. Tectonic earthquakes have caused most of the planet’s mass
destruction. Tremors triggered by tectonic earthquakes are always severe, and if their
magnitude is high, they are capable of bringing down an entire city in seconds.

2. Volcanic Earthquakes
Compared to tectonic earthquakes, volcanic earthquakes are less prevalent. They typically take
place before or after an eruption. Volcanic earthquakes come in two forms: long-period volcanic
earthquakes and volcano-tectonic earthquakes. Volcano-tectonic earthquakes usually happen
after a volcanic eruption. During an earthquake, magma erupts from inside the earth’s crust
leaving a space behind. The space left after magma eruption must be filled. To fill it, rocks
move towards the space resulting in severe earthquakes.
On numerous occasions, magma blocks the vents during volcanic activity. This means that
high pressure fails to be released. The buildup of pressure becomes unbearable and releases
itself with a massive explosion. The massive explosion results in a ruthless earthquake.
On the other hand, a long period of volcanic earthquake takes place after a volcanic eruption.
Some days prior to the massive explosion, the magma inside the earth’s crust experiences
rapid changes in heat. The change in heat triggers seismic waves, resulting in an earthquake.

3. Explosion Earthquakes
These are caused by nuclear explosions. They are, essentially, man triggered kind of
earthquakes and represent the biggest impact of modern-day nuclear war. During the 1930s
nuclear tests conducted by the United States, numerous small towns and villages were
devastated as a result of this grave act.
4. Collapse Earthquakes
These kinds of earthquakes are generally smaller and most commonly occur near underground
mines. They are sometimes referred to as mine bursts. Collapse earthquakes are instigated by
the pressure generated within the rocks. This kind of earthquake leads to the collapse of the
roof of the mine instigating more tremors. Collapse earthquakes are prevalent in small towns
where underground mines are located.

What to Do Before an Earthquake

 Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery-powered radio, a flashlight,
and extra batteries at home.
 Learn first aid.
 Learn how to turn off the gas, water, and electricity.
 Make up a plan of where to meet your family after an earthquake.
 Don't leave heavy objects on shelves (they'll fall during a quake).
 Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards, and appliances to the walls or floor.
 Learn the earthquake plan at your school or workplace.

What to Do During an Earthquake

 Stay calm! If you're indoors, stay inside. If you're outside, stay outside.
 If you're indoors, stand against a wall near the center of the building, stand in a doorway,
or crawl under heavy furniture (a desk or table). Stay away from windows and outside
doors.
 If you're outdoors, stay in the open away from power lines or anything that might fall. Stay
away from buildings (stuff might fall off the building or the building could fall on you).
 Don't use matches, candles, or any flame. Broken gas lines and fire don't mix.
 If you're in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car until the earthquake stops.
 Don't use elevators (they may shut down).

What to Do After an Earthquake

 Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid for anyone who needs it.
 Check water, gas, and electric lines for damage. If any are damaged, shut off the valves.
Check for the smell of gas. If you smell it, open all the windows and doors, leave
immediately, and report it to the authorities (use someone else's phone).
 Turn on the radio. Don't use the phone unless it's an emergency.
 Stay out of damaged buildings.
 Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy shoes to keep from
cutting your feet.
 Be careful of chimneys (they may fall on you).
 Stay away from beaches. Tsunamis and seiches sometimes hit after the ground has
stopped shaking.
 Stay away from damaged areas.
 If you're at school or work, follow the emergency plan or the instructions of the person in
charge.
Expect aftershocks.
 Where Do Earthquakes Happen?
Earthquakes happen every day all over the world, along both tectonic plate edges and interiors.
Earthquakes occur along faults, which are fractures between blocks of rock that allow the
blocks to move relative to one another. Faults are caused by the bumping and sliding that
plates do and are more common near the edges of the plates.
Plates, Motion, Faults, Energy Release
The Earth's crust (the outer layer of the planet) is made up of several pieces called tectonic
plates and most earthquakes occur along their edges. The plates under the oceans are
called oceanic plates. Plates that are not under the ocean are continental plates. The plates
are moved around by the motion of a deeper part of the earth (the mantle) that lies underneath
the crust, and by the weight of oceanic plates that pulls them down below oceanic plates.
These plates are always moving apart, bumping, or sliding past each other at about the same
speed that your fingernails grow. Earthquakes usually occur where two plates are running into
each other or sliding past each other.

Earthquakes Can Happen Along Intraplate Faults

Earthquakes can occur along faults far from the edges of plates. Although these earthquakes
are much less common, they are due to the same forces that cause earthquakes along plate
boundaries.
Types of Faults
Faults are defined by the kind of motion that happens where they are. Normal faults show
cracks where one block of rock is sliding down and away from another block of rock. These
faults usually occur in areas where the crust is very slowly stretching or where two plates are
pulling away from each other. A normal fault is defined by the hanging wall (a term that comes
from mining) moving down relative to the footwall (where the miner would stand), which is
moving up.

Normal Fault
The "footwall" is on the "upthrown" side of the fault, moving upwards. The "hanging wall" is on
the "downthrown" side of the fault, moving downwards.

Reverse Faults
Reverse faults are formed where the Earth’s crust is under compression. They also occur
where the crust is folding up because it's being compressed by another plate pushing against
it. At these faults, one block of rock is sliding underneath another block or one block is being
pushed up over the other. A reverse fault is defined by the hanging wall moving up relative to
the footwall, which is moving down.
This time, the "footwall" is on the "downthrown" side of the fault, moving downwards, and the
"hanging wall" is on the "upthrown" side of the fault, moving upwards. When the hanging wall is
on the upthrown side, it "hangs" over the footwall.

Strike-slip Faults
Strike-slip faults lie between two sides of the crust that slide past each other and are common
in places like California where the Pacific Plate is moving northwest relative to the North
American Plate. In a pure strike-slip fault, there is no motion up or down along the fault. The
well-known San Andreas fault is predominantly strike-slip.
The motion shows a left-lateral strike-slip fault. No matter which side of the fault you are on, the
other side is moving to the left. For a right lateral strike-slip fault (not shown), no matter which
side of the fault you are on, the other side is moving to the right.

What are the Effects of Earthquake on Structures?

1. Inertia Forces in Structures

The generation of inertia forces in a structure is one of the seismic influences that detrimentally
affect the structure. When an earthquake causes ground shaking, the base of the building
would move but the roof would be at rest. However, since the walls and columns are attached
to it, the roof is dragged with the base of the building.
The tendency of the roof structure to remain at its original position is called inertia. The inertia
forces can cause shearing of the structure which can concentrate stresses on the weak walls or
joints in the structure resulting in failure or perhaps total collapse. Finally, more mass means
higher inertia force that is why lighter buildings sustain the earthquake shaking better.

Fig. 1: Direction of Inertia Forces

Fig. 2: Development of Great Inertia Forces in the Six Storey of Imperial County Services
Building
2. Effect of Deformations in Structures
When a building experiences earthquake and ground shaking occurs, the base of the building
moves with the ground shaking. However, the roof movement would be different from that of
the base of the structure. This difference in the movement creates internal forces in columns
which tend to return the column to its original position.
These internal forces are termed stiffness forces. The stiffness forces would be higher as the
size of columns gets higher. The stiffness force in a column is the column stiffness times the
relative displacement between its ends.

Fig. 3: Lateral Force Resisting System in a House

3. Horizontal and Vertical Shaking

Earthquake causes shaking of the ground in all the three directions X, Y and Z, and the ground
shakes randomly back and forth along each of these axis directions. Commonly, structures are
designed to withstand vertical loads, so the vertical shaking due to earthquakes (either adds or
subtracts vertical loads) is tackled through safety factors used in the design to support vertical
loads.
However, horizontal shaking along X and Y directions is critical for the performance of the
structure since it generates inertia forces and lateral displacement and hence adequate load
transfer path shall be provided to prevent its detrimental influences on the structure.
Proper inertia force transfer path can be created through adequate design of floor slab, walls or
columns, and connections between these structural elements. It is worth mentioning that the
walls and columns are critical structural members in transferring the inertial forces. It is
demonstrated that, masonry walls and thin reinforce concrete columns would create weak
points in the inertia force transfer path.
Fig. 4: Principal Directions of a Building

Fig. 5: Load Path for Lateral Inertia Forces

4. Other Effects
Apart from the direct influences of earthquakes on a structure which are discussed above,
there are other effects such as liquefaction, tsunami, and landslides. These are the indirect
effects of strong earthquakes that can cause sizable destruction.

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
 Causes widespread damage and loss of human life.
 Causes ground displacement along the fault.
 The shaking of the ground causes landslides and avalanches.
 Causes rupturing of dams and can cause floods and tsunami.
 The broken electric lines and gas lines due to the earthquakes can cause fire.
 Kills and injures hundreds.
 The entire city can be devastated.
 Liquefaction of the soil takes place

To conclude, earthquakes are the most powerful and destructive natural force which is
hazardous to mankind. Earthquakes are unpredictable disasters that arise with no warning and
have plagued humans throughout history. The energy released earthquakes fracture the
surface of the earth. Forecasting earthquakes are a bit difficult but earthquake warning systems
have been developed. Earthquake engineering and earthquake insurance have to be
developed in a larger angle so as to prepare for the aftereffects. But not all earthquakes are
bad. Sometimes when earthquakes are created, it has even created notable landmarks in the
world. So the place of occurrence is very important before stamping it as good or bad.

CASE STUDY
TOKYO SKY TREE TOWER
More than 2,000 earthquakes or rather 60% of the earthquakes worldwide and 30% of
Tsunamis happen in Japan. As it has been proved by the March 2011 earthquake (strength:
9,0) once more, Japan has developed highly advanced earthquake resistance technologies.
Although the earthquake caused a devastating Tsunami, there was no damage by the
earthquake at the sky tree site. Especially buildings in the Tokyo area have to endure several
hundred smaller and larger shakings per annum without letting them cause damage to
structure, sub-components and technical infills. With a height of 634 meters, the Tokyo Sky
Tree is the world’s second largest man-made structure on earth. However, the tower is one of
the safest buildings ever built. Obayashi constructed the Tokyo Sky Tree by using techniques
and components of its Automated Building Construction System (ABCS) which they have been
developing since the 1980s. Ever since struck by frequent earthquake disasters, tsunamis,
typhoons, fires and war destruction, Japan not only overcame those disasters but obviously
used them as a reason to develop new technologies and advanced construction systems.
Given that facts, it can be assumed that Japan again takes the March 2011 Disaster
(earthquake, tsunami, nuclear incident) as a reason to advance state of the art disaster
prevention technologies: In 2-5 years (after intensive R&D which usually follows disasters in
Japan) it is highly possible that Japan will develop new cutting edge disaster prevention
technologies.

Earthquakes can not only do damage to human beings but also to the equipment in office
buildings or production facilities. The demand for mandatory and obligatory earthquake
resistance methods especially make the construction of non- residential building expensive.

Companies as Obayashi, Kajima, Shimizum, Takenaka and also smaller firms that have to do
with engineering or construction of buildings spend enormous sums on research and
development of new, and efficient earthquake resistance technologies. In a recent survey the
authors have analyzed strategies and technologies that have been developed in Japan to
guarantee safety in case of an earthquake.

Japan has a long history in developing earth quake resistant

artificial structures. The traditional Japanese House already
was built by a highly flexible kit system allowing the building to
move and shake in a controlled way thus absorbing the
vibrations. Therefore, the beams and columns of such a house
were only plugged together (interlocking technology) and not
joined in a fixed way or nailed. These joints allowed the joined
elements to move within a certain scope (Figure 02). The
Japanese House originally also was not fixed with the columns
on foundations. Yet, a middle column frame or a central pillar
formed a kind of backbone on which the other columns were
allowed to move in case of vibrations (Figure 03)
Figure 01

Figure 02

Figure 03

Similar to the procedure of the companies Sekisui House, Daiwa House und Sekisui Heim, in
the case of the Tokyo Sky Tree, traditional architectural know-how has been used, adjusted
and finally improved, as well. The proven technology of “Shimbashira-Seishin” (Center Column
Vibration Control) which had been used in five story pagodas has been applied to the Tokyo
Sky Tree and improved by a combination with other passive and active control systems
resulting in a new hybrid earthquake resistance technology making the Sky Tree as safe as no
other building with a similar heigh

The Tokyo Sky Tree is not an imitation of the pagoda’s “shimbashira” principle, but a complex
new interpretation that has been combined with a multitude of state of the art techniques.
Generally, it is a multi segment system that allows the individual segments to respond to the
vibrations differently. At different parts of the building, a dissimilar reaction to the shakings is
necessary. So, the inner concrete core (reinforced concrete) is decoupled from the outer steel
structure and the antenna mast on the top is decoupled from the inner concrete core below.
Thus basically three independent parts can be identified. Type and strength of the linking
between the inner concrete core and outer steel structure change over the tower’s height.From
0 to 125 meters both structures are firmly connected and form a stable base, which is fixed to
the ground by an innovative system of foundation. Dispersed, wall-like plates are driven into the
ground like the roots of a tree. The wall is spiked all over thus ensuring a safe grip of the
foundation, also in case of extreme wind forces that might affect the 634 meter high tower
structure. From 125 m to 375m meters, the inner concrete core and the outer steel structure
are linked by oil dampers. If all parts of the tower would be fixed to each other, the shakings
would be amplified over the building’s height. The part above 375 meters can respond flexibly
to the wind forces and counteract vibrations from the ground. Due to the applied decoupling
strategy, the amount of seismic energy acting on the building in case of an earthquake can be
reduced by 40%
.