2023 October 23

BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NURSING

Endocrine
System
GROUP 1:
Bautista | Brigino | Bunag | Coronel | Concepcion | Cruz
Overview

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM is composed of endocrine glands located

throughout the body.

Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream,

which also regulates the homeostasis of hormones and prevents
excess hormone secretion.

Hormones are chemical messengers that coordinate different

functions in the body.

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 ENDOCRINE VS. EXOCRINE

Endocrine glands do not have sacs, as they mainly

secrete hormones inside or into the bloodstream, thus the
term ‘endo’.

Exocrine glands have ducts, or a passageway, that carry

secretions to the outside of the body, thus the term exo,
which means “outside” or “external” in Greek.

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 EXOCRINE VS ENDOCRINE

ENDOCRINE: derived from the Greek word, “endo”, which means “within”,
and “krino”, which means “to secrete”.

ENDOCRINOLOGY is the study of the endocrine system that deals with the
human body’s hormones..
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 A. PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL COMMUNICATION

1. Characteristics of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system includes glands and specialized endocrine cells that
secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

2. Classes of Chemical Messengers

The body is able to maintain homeostasis and at the same time coordinate
the activities of nearly 40 trillion cells by means of chemical messengers.
These chemical messengers allow cells to communicate with each other to
regulate body activities.

Chemical Messenger is produced by a specific collection of cells or by a

gland, which specializes in secretion. .
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 CLASSES OF CHEMICAL MESSENGERS

Autocrine Chemical Messengers - “auto-“; self

It stimulates the cell that originally secreted it.

Example:
White Blood Cell secretions during an infection.
Eicosanoids

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 CLASSES OF CHEMICAL MESSENGERS

Paracrine Chemical Messengers - “para-“; next to

They act locally on neighboring cells, and are produced by a wide

variety of tissues and secreted into the extracellular fluid.
Histamine
Somatostatin
Eicosanoids

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 CLASSES OF CHEMICAL MESSENGERS
Neurotransmitters

secreted by neurons that activate adjacent (next or near) cells

(neuron, muscle, or glandular cell). They are secreted into the
synaptic cleft by presynaptic nerve terminals, travel short distances,
and influence postsynaptic cells.
Acetylcholine
Epinephrine

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 CLASSES OF CHEMICAL MESSENGERS

Endocrine Chemical Messengers - “endo-'' ; within.

They are secreted into the bloodstream by certain glands or cells, travel
through blood to target cells, and result in coordinated regulation of cell
function. Example:

Thyroid hormones
Growth hormone
Insulin
Estrogen
Progesterone
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 FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is very important in the body next to

the nervous system. There are main regulatory functions of
the endocrine system, which are the following:

Regulation of metabolism
Control of food intake and digestion
Modulation of tissue development
Regulation of ion levels
Control of water balance
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 FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is very important in the body next to the

nervous system. There are main regulatory functions of the
endocrine system, which are the following:
Regulation of cardiovascular functions
Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
Control of reproductive functions
Stimulation of uterine contractions and milk
release.
Modulation of immune system function 5
 C. HORMONES

Hormone is derived from the Greek word “hormon” which

means to “set into motion”. Hormones are very powerful
molecules.

1. Chemical Nature of Hormones:

There are two chemical categories of hormones: (1) lipid-

soluble hormones, and (2) water-soluble hormones.
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 C. HORMONES

1.1 Lipid-soluble hormones

These are nonpolar, which include steroid hormones,

thyroid hormones, and fatty acid derivative hormones. Lipid-
soluble hormones easily diffuse through the cell membrane.

Steroid hormones are the most common circulating lipid-

soluble hormones. Steroid hormones include testosterone,
estrogens, progesterone, aldosterone, and cortisol.

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 C. HORMONES

1.2 Transport of Lipid-soluble hormones

Lipid-soluble hormones, due to their small size and low

solubility in water, could be easily removed from the
bloodstream if left unprotected.

Potential removal mechanisms include enzymatic

breakdown in the liver or lungs, excretion into urine by the
kidneys, and breakdown in the bloodstream.

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 C. HORMONES

1.2 Transport of Lipid-soluble hormones

Fortunately, lipid-soluble hormones are not unprotected;

they bind to binding proteins in the bloodstream, which
reduces their degradation and removal rate.

Despite binding to these proteins, lipid-soluble hormones

are eventually removed from the bloodstream through
excretion in urine by the kidneys or in bile produced by the
liver.
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 C. HORMONES

1.3 Water-soluble hormones

Polar molecules that include protein hormones, peptide

hormones, and most amino acid derivative hormones. Water-
soluble hormones are amines and proteins that do not
passively diffuse through the cell membrane. Instead, water-
soluble hormones bind to their respective receptors expressed
on the extracellular surface of the target cell membrane. When
a water-soluble hormone binds to its extracellular membrane
receptor an intracellular signaling pathway is activated.

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 C. HORMONES
1.4 Transport of Water-Soluble Hormones.

Water-soluble hormones dissolve in blood and often circulate as free

hormones, reaching their target tissues directly without binding to
proteins.
Some larger water-soluble hormones diffuse more slowly into tissues
due to their size, while others attach to binding proteins to prevent
filtering out of the blood.
All hormones are eventually destroyed either in the blood or at their
target cells, limiting their activity duration.
Water-soluble hormones have short half-lives, as they are rapidly
broken down by blood enzymes and removed by the kidneys.
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 C. HORMONES

1.4 Transport of Water-Soluble Hormones.

Target cells can also degrade water-soluble hormones

once inside, often recycling amino acids for protein
synthesis.
Modifications like carbohydrate attachment, terminal end
protection, and binding proteins help protect some water-
soluble hormones from rapid degradation.
Bound hormones circulate in the blood longer than free
ones, impacting their regulatory effects.
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 D. CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION

The release of hormones is controlled by three types of stimuli, humoral,

neural, and hormonal. All of these are regulated by the body's negative
and positive feedback to keep the hormonal levels in a homeostatic range:

1. Secretion of Hormone Release:

Humoral Stimuli: Bodily fluids, like blood, contain certain chemicals
made of molecules and ions. These substances are detected by
specific receptors found in hormone-secreting cells. One of such
examples is that the increase of blood sugar levels stimulate the
release of insulin from the pancreas.

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 D. CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION
Neural Stimuli: Neurons release neurotransmitters into the synapse
of cells that secrete hormones. It may also stimulate cells to secrete
more hormone. Furthermore, neurons may secrete a specific type of
neurotransmitter called neuropeptides, which stimulate other
endocrine cells to release hormones, (this is more of a HORMONAL
STIMULI).
Hormonal Stimuli - this stimuli symbolizes a domino. Why? Because it
occurs when a secreted HORMONE stimulates the release of other
HORMONES. The hypothalamus secretes hormones called Releasing
Hormones into the blood, which travels to other endocrine cells, such
as the ones in the anterior pituitary gland, and attach to their
receptors. This stimulates the endocrine cells to release hormones.
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 D. CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION

2. Inhibition of Hormone Release

Inhibition - limiting to maintain homeostasis
Humoral Stimuli- whenever hormones are released, a companion
hormone is released alongside it. This companion hormone inhibits
the over release of the original stimulant hormone and counteract
its actions.
Neural Stimuli - the neurons may release inhibitory
neurotransmitters that inhibit the secretion of hormones from
endocrine cells.
Hormone Stimuli - hormones from other endocrine cells may
regulate the release of other hormones, which are called inhibiting
hormones. 7
 D. CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION

3. Regulation of Hormone Levels in Blood

Negative Feedback - whenever the number of hormones in

the blood has reached adequate levels hormone inhibition
may commence.

Positive Feedback - in this situation, an endocrine cell

secretes a stimulating hormone which travels to its target
cells, wherein the target cell may have a positive-feedback
on the endocrine cell for it to secrete more of the original
stimulating hormone. 7
E. HORMONE RECEPTORS AND MECHANISMS OF ACTIONS

Hormones exert their actions by binding to target cell

proteins called receptors.
The portion of each receptor molecule where a
hormone binds is called a receptor site, and the shape
and chemical characteristics of each receptor site
allow only a specific type of hormone to bind to it.
The tendency for each type of hormone to bind to one
type of receptor, and not to others, is called
specificity.

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E. HORMONE RECEPTORS AND MECHANISMS OF ACTIONS

2 Classes of Receptors
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 E. HORMONE RECEPTORS AND MECHANISMS OF ACTIONS

Lipid-soluble hormones enter their

target cell then bind to their
receptors.
The hormone-receptor complex
binds to DNA.
Transcription of specific messenger
RNA (mRNA) molecules.
Newly formed mRNA molecules
move to the cytoplasm of the cell and
bind to ribosomes to be translated
into specific proteins.

NUCLEAR RECEPTOR 8
E. HORMONE RECEPTORS AND MECHANISMS OF ACTIONS

NUCLEAR
RECEPTOR

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 E. HORMONE RECEPTORS AND MECHANISMS OF ACTIONS

Water-soluble hormones bind to their

membrane bound receptors.
Receptors binds to a G protein.
GTP binds to the α subunit, thereby
activating it.
G protein separate from receptor.
Activated α subunit separates from β
and γ.
α subunit activates adenylate cyclase.
ATP is converted to cAMP.
Phosphodiesterase breaks down cAMP
to AMP.

MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTOR 8

E. HORMONE RECEPTORS AND MECHANISMS OF ACTIONS

MEMBRANE BOUND
RECEPTOR 8
 SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION

Each receptor produces

thousands of second
messengers, leading to a
cascade effect and
ultimately amplification of
the hormonal signal.
With amplification, a single
hormone activates many
second messengers, each
of which activates enzymes
that produce an enormous
amount of final product.
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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

The endocrine system consists of ductless

glands that secrete hormones into the
interstitial fluid. The hormones then enter the
blood Not surprisingly, the organs in the body
with the richest blood supply are endocrine
glands, such as the adrenal gland and the
thyroid gland.
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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Pituitary and Hypothalamus:

The hypothalamus
serves as an autonomic nervous system and endocrine
system controller of the brain which lies below the
thalamus.
It is connected to the pituitary gland via a stalk called
infundibulum.

The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland in two ways:

(1) hormonal control
(2) direct innervation. 9
 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Pituitary and Hypothalamus:

The pituitary gland
is also called the hypophysis or the master gland
It rests in the depression of the sphenoid bone inferior
to the hypothalamus of the brain.

(1) Anterior Pituitary

(2) Posterior Pituitary

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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Pituitary and Hypothalamus:

1. Hypothalamic Control of the Anterior Pituitary

(Hormonal Control)
Secretion is under the control of hypothalamus.
2. Hypothalamic Control of the Posterior Pituitary
(Direct Innervation)
A storage location for two hormones synthesized by
special neurons in the hypothalamus
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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Thyroid Gland:

The thyroid gland is made up of two lobes connected

by a narrow band called the isthmus
It consists of numerous thyroid follicles, which are
small spheres with walls composed of simple cuboidal
epithelium.
parafollicular cells, or C cells which secrete the
hormone calcitonin.
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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

Thyroid Hormone Secretion

[Link] hypothalamus secretes TSH-releasing hormone, also
known as TRH. Stress and hypothermia cause TRH to be
released from neurons within the hypothalamus. It passes
through the hypothalamohy-pophysial portal system to the
anterior pituitary.

[Link] travels to the anterior pituitary to stimulate the secretion

of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

Thyroid Hormone Secretion

3. TSH causes increased synthesis and release of T, and T, into the
general circulation. Small fluctuations in blood TSH levels occur on a
daily basis, with a small increase at night. Increasing blood levels of
TSH increase the synthesis and release of thyroid hormones from
thyroglobulin. Decreasing blood levels of TSH decrease the synthesis
and release of thyroid hormones.

4.T3 and T4 act on target tissues to produce a response.

5. T3 and T4 also have an inhibitory effect on the secretion of TRH from

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the hypothalamus and TSH from the anterior pituitary.
 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a highly vascular gland that

secretes three kinds of hormones:
triiodothyronine; T3
thyroxine; T4 (tetraiodothyromine)
calcitonin

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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Thyroid Gland
Goiter - a condition where the thyroid gland enlarges.
Hypothyroidism - a condition in which the thyroid hormone
is lacking.
Creatinism - hypothyroidism in infants.
Hyperthyroidism - a condition where the rate of thyroid
hormone secretion is elevated.
Graves disease - it is an autoimmune disease that causes
hyperthyroidism
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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Parathyroid Gland:

This gland is located near the Thyroid gland in the neck

region

These glands secretes a hormone called parathyroid

hormone (PTH), which is essential for the regulation of
blood calcium levels.

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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Parathyroid Gland:
Hyperparathyroidism - it is a condition wherein the
parathyroid gland secretes abnormally high rates of
PTH. One cause of this is a tumor in the parathyroid
gland.

Hypoparathyroidism - it is an abnormally low rate of

PTH secretion. It can result from injury to or the surgical
removal of the thyroid and parathyroid glands. 9
 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Adrenal Gland:
It lies on top of each kidney and is crucial to the
endocrine system.
They play a central role in managing our body’s response
to stress and regulating various physiological processes.
Each adrenal gland has an inner part called the adrenal
medulla, and an outer part called the adrenal cortex.
To understand their functions, we must explore two key
hormones, the Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
and the Adenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH).
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F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Adrenal Gland 9
[Link]
 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Adrenal Glands
Adrenal Medulla

The adrenal medulla secretes two major hormones:

(1) epinephrine, which accounts for 80% of the adrenal

medulla secretions and
(2) norepinephrine, which accounts for 20%.

These two hormones are called fight-or-flight hormones

since they prepare the body for intense physical activity.
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F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Adrenal Medulla 9
 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Adrenal Glands
Adrenal Cortex

The adrenal cortex secretes three classes of steroid

hormones:

Adrenal Androgens - it stimulates the development of

male sexual characteristics. There are only small
amounts of androgens secreted from the adrenal
cortex. In males, androgens are released from the
testes. In females, androgens influence their sex drive. 9
 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Adrenal Glands
Adrenal Cortex

The adrenal cortex secretes three classes of steroid hormones:

Mineralocorticoids - it is secreted by the outer layer of

adrenal cortex which regulates the ion balance in the blood.
Aldosterone is the major hormone of mineralocorticoids.
Glucocorticoids - helps to provide energy for cells by
stimulating the increased use of lipids and proteins. Cortisol
is the major hormone for glucocorticoids. 9
 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Adrenal Glands
Adrenal Cortex

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ATCH) binds to the cells

of the adrenal cortex, which increases the secretion of
cortisol, which helps the body cope with stress and
regulate metabolism.

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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Adrenal Glands
Adrenal Cortex

Regulation of cortisol
secretion
[Link]
cortisol-mediated-negative-feedback-of- 9
the_fig1_330155843
 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

Gonadotrophins:
it binds to membrane-bound receptors
on the cells of the gonads (testes and
ovaries). There are two major
gonadotropins: the (1) luteinizing
hormones (LH) and the (2) follicle-
stimulating hormones (FSH).
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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Testes:
Testosterone - regulates the
production of sperm cells by the testes
and the development and maintenance
of male reproductive organs and sexual
characteristics as well as sexual
behaviour.
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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Ovaries
Hormones released by the Ovaries contribute in:
Development of Secondary Sexual
characteristics and Reproductive Organs
Control the Reproductive Cycle
Pregnancy Maintainance
Mammary Gland Preparation for Lactation
Sexual Behaviour
These hormones are estrogen and progesterone.
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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Ovaries, Uterus, Inflamed Tissues

Prostaglandins:
Mediation of Inflammatory
Responses
Uterine Contractions and
Ovulation
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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Growth Hormone:
Responsible for stimulating bones, muscles, and other organs’
growth through increase of gene expression.

Pituitary Dwarf (dwawrf) - Deficiency of growth hormones in a

young person.
Giantism - excess growth hormone that results to exaggerated
growth in bone length - person becomes abnormally tall.
Acromegaly - enlargement of facial features and hands abnormally.

Insulin-like growth factos (IGFs) - group of proteins that influences

the growth hormone. 9
 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Pancreas:
consists of the pancreatic islets, also called as
the islets of Langerhans.

Three Types of Islets:

(1) alpha cells which secrete glucagon;
(2) beta cells which secrete insulin; and
(3) delta cells which secrete somatostatin.

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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Glucagon is released from the alpha cells when

blood glucose levels are low.

Insulin is released by beta cells if the blood glucose

levels are elevated.

Somatostatin is released by the delta cells in

response to food intake. It inhibits the secretion of
insulin and glucagon and inhibits gastric tract
activity.
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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Diabetes Mellitus
It refers to the body’s inability to regulate blood glucose levels
within the normal range.

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus - occurs when too little insulin is secreted

from the pancreas. In this type of diabetes, tissues cannot take up
glucose effectively, causing blood glucose levels to become high, a
condition called hyperglycemia.

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus - occurs when insufficient number of

insulin receptors on target cells, or by defective receptors that do
not respond to insulin.
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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Thymus
Lies in the upper part of the thoracic cavity.

Part of the immune System.

Promotes immune system development and function.

Thymosin: A hormone that aids the development of T

cells.
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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Pineal Gland
Pinecone-shaped
Located superior and posterior to the thalamus of the
brain.
Melatonin - inhibits the: reproductive hypothalamic-
releasing hormone, gonadotropin-releasing hormone.
- acts as a sleeping aid.
Inhibition of the Hypothalamic-releasing hormone-
prevents secretion of the reproductive tropic
hormones from the anterior pituitary. 9
 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
Prolactin:
A hormone that stimulates milk production (lactation), breast
development, and prolongs progesterone secretion following
ovulation and during pregnancy in women.

Target Area (Tissue): Ovary and Mammary gland in females,

testis in males.

Too much production of prolactin will result to the reduced

production of estrogen and testosterone hormones.
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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

Antidiuretic Hormone:
Also called as vasopressin
It binds to membrane-bound receptors that increase
water reabsorption to kidney tubules which results in
less water loss as urine.
It is triggered by the changes in blood osmolality and
blood volume.
A lack of ADH secretion causes a condition called
diabetes insipidus.
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 F. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
Oxytocin:
Often referred to as love hormone or bonding
hormone, because of its role in social and emotional
bonding.
It causes contraction of the smooth muscle cells of the
uterus as well as milk letdown from the breasts of
lactating women.
Commercial preparations of oxytocin, known as pitocin,
are given under certain conditions to assist in childbirth
and to constrict uterine blood vessels following
childbirth. 9
 G. OTHER HORMONES
Hormones secreted by the stomach and small
intestine
1. Secreted by the cells in the lining of these two organs.
2. Stimulate the production of digestive juices from the
stomach, pancreas, and liver.
3. Occurs only when there is food in the digestive system.
Hormones secreted by the small intestine
1. Helps regulate the rate at which food passes from the
stomach into the small intestine.
Prostaglandins 10
 G. OTHER HORMONES

Prostaglandins produced by platelets: is necessary for

blood clotting.
1. Hormones secreted by the right atrium of the heart.

Erythropoietin
1. Hormones secreted by the kidneys.

Estrogen, progesterone, and chorionic gonadotropin

1. Women hormones produced by the placenta.
2. It maintains the pregnancy and stimulates milk production. 10
 REFERENCE
Book:
Van Putte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2022). Seeley's Essentials of
Anatomy and Physiology (11th ed., pp. 296-325). McGraw Hill LLC.

Online:
Eldridge, L. (2023, July 11). What is the Thymus Gland? Verywell Health.
Retrieved September 23, 2023, from
[Link]

Endocrine Glands and their Hormones -Types and their Functions.

(2022). BYJUS. [Link]
hormones/
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 For all purpose
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2023 October 23