ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

10.1 PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL COMMUNICATION

CHEMICAL MESSENGERS allow cells to communicate with each other to
regulate body activities.
SECRETION controlled release of chemicals from a cell.
CLASSES OF CHEMICAL MESSENGERS

 AUTOCRINE chemical messengers- stimulates the cell that originally secreted

it, and sometimes nearby cells of the same type.

secreted by cells in a local area, influences the activity of the same cell or cell
type from which it was secreted.

example: those secreted by white blood cells during an infection. Several

types of white blood cells can stimulate their own replication so that the total
number of WBC increases rapidly.

-example: Eicosanoids

[Link] chemical messengers- act locally on nearby cells. Secreted by one

cell type into the extracellular fluid and affect surrounding cells of a different
type.

produce by a wide variety of tissues and secreted into extracellular fluid; has
a localized effect on other tissues.

example: Histamine- it stimulates vasodilation of nearby blood vessels

3. NEUROTRANSMITTERS chemicals messengers secreted by neurons that

activate an adjacent cell, whether it is another neuron, a muscle cell, or a
glandular cell.

produced by neurons; secreted into synaptic left rather than bloodstream by

presynaptic nerve terminals; it travels short distances and influences
postynaptic cells.

strictest sense neurotransmitters are paracrine messengers.

Example:Epinephrine

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 1
 [Link] CHEMICAL MESSENGERS secreted into the bloodstream by
certain glands and cells, which together constitute the endocrine system.

it affects cells that are distant from their source.

travel some distance to target tissues;results in coordinated regulation of cell

function.

Example: Thyroid hormones, growth hormone, etc.

10.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

10 Main Regulatory Functions of the endocrine system

 METABOLISM regulates the rate of metabolism, the sum of the chemical

changes that occur in tissues.

 CONTROL OF FOOD INTAKE AND DIGESTION regulates the level of

satiety(fullness) and the breakdown of food into individual nutrients.

 TISSUE DEVELOPMENT influences the development of tissues, such as those

of the nervous system.

 ION REGULATION regulates the solute concentration of the blood.

 WATER BALANCE regulates water balance by controlling solutes in the

blood.

 HEART RATE AND BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION regulate the heart rate
and blood pressure and helps prepare the body for physical activity.

 CONTROL OF BLOOD GLUCOSE AND OTHER NUTRIENTS-regulates the levels

of blood glucose and other nutrients in the blood.

 CONTROL OF REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS controls the development nd

functions of the reporoductive systems in males and females

 UTERINE CONTRACTIONS AND MILK RELEASE regulates urine contractions

during delivery and stimulates milk release from the breasts in lactating
females.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 2
  IMMUNE SYSTEM REGULATION helps control the production and functions
of immune cells.

10.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

ENDOCRINE derived from the greek word

-endo meaning within and

-krino which means to secrete.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM composed of ENDOCRINE GLANDS and specialized

endocrine cells located throughout the body.
HORMONES secreted in minute amounts by endocrine glands and cells in
bloodstream rather than into a duct.

TARGET TISSUESEFFECTORS it is where hormones travel and produce a

coordinated response of the target tissues.
EXOCRINE GLANDS have ducts that carry their secretions to the outside of the
body or into a hollow organ, such as the stomachs and intestines

saliva, sweat, breast milk, and digestive enzymes.

ENDOCRINOLOGY study of endocrine system.

10.4 HORMONES
HORMONES derived from the greek word -hormon which means to set into.

-regulates almost every physiological process in our body.

2 CHEMICAL CATEGORIES HORMONE

 Lipid soluble hormones

 Water soluble hormones

SUBDIVISIONS HORMONES

 Steroid Hormones- derived from cholesterol

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 3
  Thyroid Hormones- derived from the amino acid tyrosine.

 Amino Acid derivatives

 peptides

 proteins

STIMULATING HORMONE SECRETION

LIPID SOLUBLE HORMONES

-non-polar, and include steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and fatty acid
derivative hormones such as eicosanoids.

-small size and low solubility in aqueous fluids.

TRANSPORT OF LIPID SOLUBLE HORMONES

-because of their small size, lipid-soluble hormones travel in the bloodstream
attached to binding proteins, proteins that transport the hormones.

-without the binding proteins the lipid soluble hormones would quickly diffuse out
of capillaries and be degraded by enzymes of the liver and lungs or be removed
from the body by the kidneys.

WATER SOLUBLE HORMONES

polar molecules, they include protein hormones, peptide hormones, and most
amino acid derivative hormones.
TRANSPORT OF WATER SOLUBLE HORMONES

-water solubles can dissolve in blood, many circulate as free hormones, meaning
most of them dissolve directly into the blood and are delivered to their target
tissue with out attaching to a binding protein.

-quite large, they do not readily diffuse from the walls of all capillaries. Therefore,
they need to diffuse from the blood into tissue spaces more slowly.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 4
 -other water soluble hormones are quite small and require attachment to a larger
protein to avoid being filtered out of the blood.

have short half lives because they are rapidly degraded by enzymes called
PROTEASES within the bloodstream.

10.5 CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION

3 TYPES OF STIMULI REGULATE HORMONE RELEASE

 Humoral

 Neural

 Hormonal

HUMORAL STIMULI they circulate in the blood, and the word humoral refers to
body fluids, including blood.

sensitive to blood levels of a particular substance, such as glucose, calcium

or sodium.

blood borne chemicals can directly stimulate the release of some hormones.

NEURAL STIMULI neurons release a neurotransmitter into the synapse with the
cells that produce the hormone.

in some cases neurotransmitter stimulates the cells to increase hormone

secretion.

when neurons secrete directly into the blood when they are stimulated they
create NEUROPEPTIDES.

RELEASING HORMONES specialized neuro peptides stimulate hormone

secretion from other endocrine cells.

usually reserved for hormones from the hypothalamus.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 5
 HORMONAL STIMULI-occurs when a hormone is secreted in turn stimulates the
secretion of other hormones.

TROPIC HORMONES most common hormones from anterior pituitary gland.

-part of complex process in which a releasing hormone from the pituitary gland.

INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE

INHIBITION OF HUMORAL When a hormone's re;ease is sensitive to the presence

of a humoral stimulus, there exists a companion hormone whose release is
inhibited by the same humoral stimulus.

-usually, the companion hormone's effect opposes those of secreted hormone

and counteracts the secreted hormone's action.

INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE BY NEURAL STIMULI

Neurons inhibit targets just as often as they stimulate targets, if the

neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the target endocrine gland does not secrete its
hormone.

INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE BY HORMONAL STIMULI

Inhibiting Hormones- hormones from the hypothalamus that prevent the secretion
of tropic hormones from the pituitary gland

Thyroid hormones can control their own blood levels by inhibiting their
pituitary tropic hormone.

2 MAJOR MECHANISMS THAT MAINTAIN HORMONE LEVELS IN THE BLOOD

WITHIN A HOMEOSTATIC RANGE

Negative Feedback

Positive Feedback

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK hormone's secretion is inhibited by the hormone itself

once blood levels have reached a certain point and there is adequate hormone to

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 6
 activate the target cell.

it is a self limiting system.

POSITIVE FEEDBACK some hormones when stimulated by a tropic hormone,

provide the synthesis and secretion of the tropic hormone in addition to
stimulating their target cell.

It is a self propagating system.

10.6 HORMONE RECEPTORS AND MECHANISMS OF ACTION

RECEPTORS binding proteins of hormones where they exert their actions.

a hormone can stimulate only the cells that have the receptor for that
hormone.

RECEPTOR SITE portion of each receptor molecule where a hormone binds.

SPECIFICITY tendency for each type of hormone to bind to one type of receptor
and not to others.

CLASSES OF RECEPTORS

 LIPID SOLUBLE HORMONES BIND TO NUCLEAR RECEPTORS

lipid soluble hormones tend to be relatively small.

they diffuse through the plasma membrane and bind to nuclear receptors.

NUCLEAR RECEPTORS most often found in the cell nucleus.

Lipid soluble hormones have rapid effects less than a minute on targeted
cells. These effects are most likely mediated through membrane-bound
receptors.

[Link] SOLUBLE HORMONES BIND TO MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS

they are polar molecules and cannot pass through the plasma membrane.
Instead they interact with MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS.

MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS are proteins that extend across the plasma
membrane, with their hormone binding sites exposed on the plasma
membrane's outer surface.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 7
 HORMONE RESPONSE ELEMENTS specific nucleotide sequences in the DNA. In
which the receptors that bind to DNA have finger like projections that recognize
and bind to it.
TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR combination of the hormone and its receptor.

MESSENGER RIBONUCLEIC ACIDMrna)- when jhormone receptor complex binds

to the hormone response element it regulates the transcription of specific mrna
molecules.

MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS ACTIVATE RESPONSES IN 2 WAYS

 Some receptors alter the activity of G proteins at the inner surface of the
plasma membrane.

 other receptors directly alter the activity of intracellular enzymes.

SECOND MESSENGERS production of this messenger in intracellular pathways

elicit specific responses in cells.

a chemical produced inside a cell once a hormone or another chemical

messenger binds to certain membrane bound receptors

activates specific cellular processes inside the cell in response to the

hormone.

SECOND MESSENGER SYSTEM coordinated set of events.

MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS THAT ACTIVATE G PROTEINS

3 SUB UNITS OF G PROTEINS

 alpha

 beta

 gamma

Guanine diphosphate (inactive state) molecule is bound to the alpha subunit of

each G protein.
Guanine triphosphate ( active state) is bound to the alpha subunit.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 8
 ADENYLATE CYCLASE an enzyme that converts ATP TO cAMP.
cAMP functions as a second messenger.
PROTEIN KINASES enzymes that, in turn, regulate the activity of other enzymes.

PHOSPHODIESTERASE-enzyme in the cytoplasm.

SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION

AMPLIFICATION a single hormone activates many second messengers, each of

which activates enzymes that produce an enormous amount of final product.

the efficiency of this second messenger amplification is virtually unparalleled

in the body and can be thought of as an" ARMY OF MOLECULES" launching
and offensive.

with amplification, one hormone has an army of molecules working

simultaneously to produce the final products.

10.7 ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM consists of ductless flans that secrete hormones into the
interstitial fluid.
PITUITARY GLAND (pituita, phlegm or thick mucous secretion) also called the
hypophysis(hypo, under=physis, growth)

a small gland about the size of a pea.

it rest in a depression of the sphenoid bone inferior to the hypothalamus of

the brain.

lies posterior to the optic chiasm and is connected to the hypothalamus by a

stalk called INFUNDIBULUM.

known as the body's MASTER GLAND because it controls the function of so

many other glands.

2 PARTS OF PITUITARY GLAND

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 9
  ANTERIOR PITUITARY - made up of epithelial cells derived from the
embryonic oral cavity

 POSTERIOR PITUITARY an extension of the braiin and is composed of nerve

cells.

HYPOTHALAMUS (hypo, under=thalamos) an important autonomic nervous

system and endocrine control center of the brain located inferior to the thalamus.

HYPOTHALAMIC PITUITARY PORTAL SYSTEM the capillary beds and veins that
transport the releasing and inhibiting hormones.

HORMONES OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY

Growth Hormone- stimulates the growth of bones, muscles and other organs by
increasing gene expression.

it also resists protein breakdowns during periods of food deprivation and

favors lipid breakdown.

PITUITARY GLAND when a young person suffering from a deficiency of growth

hormone remains small, although normally proportioned.
GIANTISM when a person becomes abnormally tall.

ACROMEGALY facial features and hands become abnormally large.

RELEASING HORMONE stimulates growth hormone secretion
INHIBITING HORMONE inhibits its secretion.

INSULIN LIKE GROWTH FACTORSIGFS or somatomedins part of the effect of

growth hormone is influenced by a group of protein hormones.
THYROID STIMULATING HORMONETSH binds to membrane bound receptors on
cells of the thyroid gland and causes the cells to secrete thyroid hormone.

when too much TSH is secreted, the thyroid gland enlarges and and secretes
too much thyroid hormone.

when too little TSH is secretd, the thyroid gland decreases in size and
secretes too little thyroid hormone.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 10
 ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONEACTH binds to membrane bound receptors
on cells in the cortex of the adrenal glans.

increases the secretion of a hormone from LH causes the ovulation of

oocytes and the secretion of the sex hormones estrogen and progesterone
from the ovaries.

INTERSTITIAL CELL STIMULATING HORMONE ICSHIn males, the LH stimulates

interstitial cells of the testes to secrete the sex hormone testosterone.
FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE FSH stimulates the development of follicles
in the ovaries and sperm cells in the testes.

PROLACTIN (pro, precursos= lactin, milk) binds to membrane bound receptors in

cells of the breast, where it helps promote development of the breast during
pregnancy and stimulates the production of milk following pregnancy.

MELANOCYTE STIMULATING HORMONE binds to membrane bound receptors

on melanocytes and causes them to synthesize melanin.

HORMONES OF THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY

ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (anti, against + uresis, urine volume) binds to
membrane bound receptors and increases in water reabsorption by kidney
tubules.
VASOPRESSIN adh can cause blood vessels to constrict when released in large
amounts.
OXYTOCIN(swiftbirth) binds to membrane bound receptors, and causes
contraction of the smooth muscle cells of the uterus and causes contraction of
the smooth muscle cells of the uterus as well as milk letdown from the breast in
lactating women.
PITOCIN are given under certain conditions to assist in childbirth and to
constrict uterine blood vessels following childbirth.

THYROID GLAND(thyroid, shield shaped) made up of two lobes connected by a

narrow band called isthmus.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 11
 largest endocrine glands.

main function is to secrete thyroid hormones.

ISTHMUS(a constriction) narrow band.

THYROID HORMONES bind to nuclear receptors in cells and regulate the rate of
the metabolism in the body.

THYROID FOLLICLES it is where thyroid hormones are synthesized and stored

within the gland.

small spheres with walls composed of simple cuboidal epithelium.

filled with the protein thyroglobulin to which thyroid hormones are attached.

GOITER a condition in which the thyroid gland is enlarge.

HYPOTHYROIDISM a lack of thyroid hormones.
CRETINISM characterized by mental retardation, short stature, and abnormally
formed skeletal structures in infants.
MYXEDEMA accumulation of fluid and other molecules in the subcutaneous
tissue.

HYPERTHYROIDISM causes an increased metabolic rate, extreme nervousness,

and chronic fatigue.
GRAVES DISEASE a type of hyperthyroidism that results when the immune
system produces abnormal proteins that are similar in structure and function to
TSH.
EXOPHTHALMIA bulging of the eyes, accompany disease of grave disease.

THYROXINE-one thyroid hormone or tetraiodothyronine , contains four iodine

atoms and is abbreviated T4 TRIIODOTHYRONINE contains 3 iodine atoms and is
abbreviated T3.

CALCITONIN secreted hormone of parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland.

PARATHYROID GLANDS four tiny parathyroid glands are embedded in the
posterior wall of the thyroid gland.

PARATHYROID HORMONE essential for the regulation of blood calcium levels.

HYPERPARATHYROIDISM abnormally high rate of PTH secretion.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 12
 HYPOPARATHYROIDISM abnormally low rate of PTH secretion.

ADRENAL(adrenal, near or on the kidneys) GLANDS are 2 small glands located

superior to each kidney

ADRENAL MEDULLA inner part of adrenal gland

ADRENAL CORTEX outer part of adrenal gland.
EPINEPHRINE epi, upon+ nephros, kidney) principal hormone released from the
adrenal medulla.

also called adrenaline (from the adrenal gland)

NORIPINEPHRINE small amount of this are released by adrenal medulla,

epinephrine is also released.

FIGHT OR FLIGHT role in preparing the body for vigorous physical activity.
ADRENAL CORTEX secretes 3 classes of steroid hormones; mineralcorcoticoids,
glucorticoids, and androgens.

MINERALCORTICOIDS helps regulate blood volume and blood vessels of K

and Na+

ALDOSTERONE major hormone of this class

-primarily binds to receptor molecules in the kidney, but it also affects the
intestine,sweat glands, and salivary glands.

RENIN low blood pressure causes the release of a protein molecule from the
kidney.

acts as an enzyme, causes a blood protein called angiotensinogen to be

converted to angiotesin 1.

ANGIOTENSIN CONVERTING ENZYME causes angiotensin 1 to be converted into

angiotensun 2.
ANGIOTENSIN 2 causes smooth muscles in blood vessels to constrict, and
angiotensin 2 acts on the adrenal cortex to increase aldosterone secretion.

GLUCOCORTICOIDS second class pf hormones, secreted by the middle layer of

the adrenal cortex,which also helps regulate blood nutrient levels.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 13
 CORTISOL major glucocorticoid, increases the breakdown of proteins and lipds
and increases their conversion to forms of energy the body can use.

also causes proteins to be broken down to amino acids, which are then
released into the blood.

reduces the inflammatory and immune responses.

CORTISONE often given to reduce inflammation caused by injuries,

can also reduce the immune and inflammatory responses that result from
allergic reactions or abnormal immune responses, such as rheumatoid arthritis
or asthma.

ANDROGENS inner layer of the adrenal cortex, 3rd class of hormones.

stimulate the development of male sexual characteristics.

PANCREAS endocrine part that consists of pancreatic islets, which are dispersed
throughout the exocrine portion of the pancreas.

ISLETS secrete 3 hormones; insulin, glucagons, and somatostasin.

which helps regulate the blood levels of nutrients, especially glucose.

ALPHA CELLS secrete glucagon

BETA CELLS secrete insulin

DELTA CELLS secrete somatostasin.

KETONES as lipids are broken down, and liver converts some of the fatty acids
to acidic ketones, which are releases into the blood.
ACIDOSIS the breakdown of lipids can cause the release of enough fatty acids
and ketones to reduce the pH of the body fluids below normal.

INSULIN released from the beta cells primarily in response to the elevated blood
glucose levels and increased parasympathetic stimulation associated with
digestion of a meal.
SATIETY CENTER-area of the hypothalamus that controls appetite(fulfillment of
hunger).
DIABETES MELLITUS much urine+ honey or sweetened)

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 14
 TYPE 1 DIABETES occurs when too little insulin is secreted from the
pancreas.

TYPE 2 DIABETES caused by insufficient numbers of insulin receptors on

target cells or by defective receptors that do not respond normally to insulin.

HYPERGLYCEMIA in TYPE 1 DIABETES, tissues cannot take up glucose

effectively, causing blood glucose levels to become very high.
GLUCAGON is released from the alpha cells when blood glucose levels are low.

binds to membrane bound receptors primarily in the liver, causing the

glycogen stored in the liver to be converted to glucose.

SOMATOSTATIN is released by the delta cells in response to food intake.

inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon and inhibits gastric tract activity.

INSULIN AND GLUCAGON together regulate blood levels.

TESTOSTERONE main sex hormone in male which is secreted by the testes.

responsible for the growth and development and of the male reproductive
structures.

2 MAIN CLASSES OF SEX HORMONES SECRETED BY OVARIES

ESTROGEN

PROGESTERONE

THYMUS lies in the upper part of the thoracic cavity.

important in the function of the immune system.

THYMOSIN secreted hormone by thymus, aids the development of WBC

called T Cells.

T CELLS help protect the body against infection by foreign organisms.

if a person is born without thymus, the immune system does not develop
normally and the body is less capable of fighting infections.

PINEAL GLAND a small, pinecone shaped structure located superior and

posterior to the thalamus of the brain.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 15
 MELATONIN hormone secreted by pineal gland, which is thought to decrease
the secretion of LH and FSH by decreasing the release of hypothalamuc
releasing hormones.

- inhibits the functions of the reproductive system.

PROSTAGLANDINS widely distributed in tissues where they function as

intercellular signals.

ERYTHROPOIETIN hormone secreted by kidneys in response to reduced oxygen

levels in the kidney.

acts on bone marrow to increase the production of RBC.

PLACENTA important source of hormones that maintain pregnancy and stimulate

breast development.
HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN similar in structure and function to LH.
10.1 PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL COMMUNICATION
CHEMICAL MESSENGERS allow cells to communicate with each other to
regulate body activities.

SECRETION controlled release of chemicals from a cell.

CLASSES OF CHEMICAL MESSENGERS

 AUTOCRINE chemical messengers- stimulates the cell that originally secreted

it, and sometimes nearby cells of the same type.

secreted by cells in a local area, influences the activity of the same cell or cell
type from which it was secreted.

example: those secreted by white blood cells during an infection. Several

types of white blood cells can stimulate their own replication so that the total
number of WBC increases rapidly.

-example: Eicosanoids

[Link] chemical messengers- act locally on nearby cells. Secreted by one

cell type into the extracellular fluid and affect surrounding cells of a different
type.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 16
 produce by a wide variety of tissues and secreted into extracellular fluid; has
a localized effect on other tissues.

example: Histamine- it stimulates vasodilation of nearby blood vessels

3. NEUROTRANSMITTERS chemicals messengers secreted by neurons that

activate an adjacent cell, whether it is another neuron, a muscle cell, or a
glandular cell.

produced by neurons; secreted into synaptic left rather than bloodstream by

presynaptic nerve terminals; it travels short distances and influences
postynaptic cells.

strictest sense neurotransmitters are paracrine messengers.

Example:Epinephrine

[Link] CHEMICAL MESSENGERS secreted into the bloodstream by

certain glands and cells, which together constitute the endocrine system.

it affects cells that are distant from their source.

travel some distance to target tissues;results in coordinated regulation of cell

function.

Example: Thyroid hormones, growth hormone, etc.

10.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

10 Main Regulatory Functions of the endocrine system

 METABOLISM regulates the rate of metabolism, the sum of the chemical

changes that occur in tissues.

 CONTROL OF FOOD INTAKE AND DIGESTION regulates the level of

satiety(fullness) and the breakdown of food into individual nutrients.

 TISSUE DEVELOPMENT influences the development of tissues, such as those

of the nervous system.

 ION REGULATION regulates the solute concentration of the blood.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 17
  WATER BALANCE regulates water balance by controlling solutes in the
blood.

 HEART RATE AND BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION regulate the heart rate
and blood pressure and helps prepare the body for physical activity.

 CONTROL OF BLOOD GLUCOSE AND OTHER NUTRIENTS-regulates the levels

of blood glucose and other nutrients in the blood.

 CONTROL OF REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS controls the development nd

functions of the reporoductive systems in males and females

 UTERINE CONTRACTIONS AND MILK RELEASE regulates urine contractions

during delivery and stimulates milk release from the breasts in lactating
females.

 IMMUNE SYSTEM REGULATION helps control the production and functions
of immune cells.

10.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

ENDOCRINE derived from the greek word
-endo meaning within and

-krino which means to secrete.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM composed of ENDOCRINE GLANDS and specialized

endocrine cells located throughout the body.
HORMONES secreted in minute amounts by endocrine glands and cells in
bloodstream rather than into a duct.

TARGET TISSUESEFFECTORS it is where hormones travel and produce a

coordinated response of the target tissues.
EXOCRINE GLANDS have ducts that carry their secretions to the outside of the
body or into a hollow organ, such as the stomachs and intestines

saliva, sweat, breast milk, and digestive enzymes.

ENDOCRINOLOGY study of endocrine system.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 18
 10.4 HORMONES
HORMONES derived from the greek word -hormon which means to set into.
-regulates almost every physiological process in our body.
2 CHEMICAL CATEGORIES HORMONE

 Lipid soluble hormones

 Water soluble hormones

SUBDIVISIONS HORMONES

 Steroid Hormones- derived from cholesterol

 Thyroid Hormones- derived from the amino acid tyrosine.

 Amino Acid derivatives

 peptides

 proteins

STIMULATING HORMONE SECRETION

LIPID SOLUBLE HORMONES

-non-polar, and include steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and fatty acid
derivative hormones such as eicosanoids.
-small size and low solubility in aqueous fluids.

TRANSPORT OF LIPID SOLUBLE HORMONES

-because of their small size, lipid-soluble hormones travel in the bloodstream
attached to binding proteins, proteins that transport the hormones.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 19
 -without the binding proteins the lipid soluble hormones would quickly diffuse out
of capillaries and be degraded by enzymes of the liver and lungs or be removed
from the body by the kidneys.

WATER SOLUBLE HORMONES

polar molecules, they include protein hormones, peptide hormones, and most
amino acid derivative hormones.
TRANSPORT OF WATER SOLUBLE HORMONES
-water solubles can dissolve in blood, many circulate as free hormones, meaning
most of them dissolve directly into the blood and are delivered to their target
tissue with out attaching to a binding protein.
-quite large, they do not readily diffuse from the walls of all capillaries. Therefore,
they need to diffuse from the blood into tissue spaces more slowly.
-other water soluble hormones are quite small and require attachment to a larger
protein to avoid being filtered out of the blood.

have short half lives because they are rapidly degraded by enzymes called
PROTEASES within the bloodstream.

10.5 CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION

3 TYPES OF STIMULI REGULATE HORMONE RELEASE

 Humoral

 Neural

 Hormonal

HUMORAL STIMULI they circulate in the blood, and the word humoral refers to
body fluids, including blood.

sensitive to blood levels of a particular substance, such as glucose, calcium

or sodium.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 20
 blood borne chemicals can directly stimulate the release of some hormones.

NEURAL STIMULI neurons release a neurotransmitter into the synapse with the
cells that produce the hormone.

in some cases neurotransmitter stimulates the cells to increase hormone

secretion.

when neurons secrete directly into the blood when they are stimulated they
create NEUROPEPTIDES.

RELEASING HORMONES specialized neuro peptides stimulate hormone

secretion from other endocrine cells.

usually reserved for hormones from the hypothalamus.

HORMONAL STIMULI-occurs when a hormone is secreted in turn stimulates the

secretion of other hormones.

TROPIC HORMONES most common hormones from anterior pituitary gland.

-part of complex process in which a releasing hormone from the pituitary gland.

INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE

INHIBITION OF HUMORAL When a hormone's re;ease is sensitive to the presence
of a humoral stimulus, there exists a companion hormone whose release is
inhibited by the same humoral stimulus.
-usually, the companion hormone's effect opposes those of secreted hormone
and counteracts the secreted hormone's action.

INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE BY NEURAL STIMULI

Neurons inhibit targets just as often as they stimulate targets, if the

neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the target endocrine gland does not secrete its
hormone.

INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE BY HORMONAL STIMULI

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 21
 Inhibiting Hormones- hormones from the hypothalamus that prevent the secretion
of tropic hormones from the pituitary gland

Thyroid hormones can control their own blood levels by inhibiting their
pituitary tropic hormone.

2 MAJOR MECHANISMS THAT MAINTAIN HORMONE LEVELS IN THE BLOOD

WITHIN A HOMEOSTATIC RANGE

Negative Feedback

Positive Feedback

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK hormone's secretion is inhibited by the hormone itself

once blood levels have reached a certain point and there is adequate hormone to
activate the target cell.

it is a self limiting system.

POSITIVE FEEDBACK some hormones when stimulated by a tropic hormone,

provide the synthesis and secretion of the tropic hormone in addition to
stimulating their target cell.

It is a self propagating system.

10.6 HORMONE RECEPTORS AND MECHANISMS OF ACTION

RECEPTORS binding proteins of hormones where they exert their actions.

a hormone can stimulate only the cells that have the receptor for that
hormone.

RECEPTOR SITE portion of each receptor molecule where a hormone binds.

SPECIFICITY tendency for each type of hormone to bind to one type of receptor
and not to others.

CLASSES OF RECEPTORS

 LIPID SOLUBLE HORMONES BIND TO NUCLEAR RECEPTORS

lipid soluble hormones tend to be relatively small.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 22
 they diffuse through the plasma membrane and bind to nuclear receptors.

NUCLEAR RECEPTORS most often found in the cell nucleus.

Lipid soluble hormones have rapid effects less than a minute on targeted
cells. These effects are most likely mediated through membrane-bound
receptors.

[Link] SOLUBLE HORMONES BIND TO MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS

they are polar molecules and cannot pass through the plasma membrane.
Instead they interact with MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS.

MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS are proteins that extend across the plasma
membrane, with their hormone binding sites exposed on the plasma
membrane's outer surface.

HORMONE RESPONSE ELEMENTS specific nucleotide sequences in the DNA. In

which the receptors that bind to DNA have finger like projections that recognize
and bind to it.

TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR combination of the hormone and its receptor.

MESSENGER RIBONUCLEIC ACIDMrna)- when jhormone receptor complex binds
to the hormone response element it regulates the transcription of specific mrna
molecules.
MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS ACTIVATE RESPONSES IN 2 WAYS

 Some receptors alter the activity of G proteins at the inner surface of the
plasma membrane.

 other receptors directly alter the activity of intracellular enzymes.

SECOND MESSENGERS production of this messenger in intracellular pathways

elicit specific responses in cells.

a chemical produced inside a cell once a hormone or another chemical

messenger binds to certain membrane bound receptors

activates specific cellular processes inside the cell in response to the

hormone.

SECOND MESSENGER SYSTEM coordinated set of events.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 23
 MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS THAT ACTIVATE G PROTEINS

3 SUB UNITS OF G PROTEINS

 alpha

 beta

 gamma

Guanine diphosphate (inactive state) molecule is bound to the alpha subunit of

each G protein.
Guanine triphosphate ( active state) is bound to the alpha subunit.

ADENYLATE CYCLASE an enzyme that converts ATP TO cAMP.

cAMP functions as a second messenger.
PROTEIN KINASES enzymes that, in turn, regulate the activity of other enzymes.
PHOSPHODIESTERASE-enzyme in the cytoplasm.

SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION
AMPLIFICATION a single hormone activates many second messengers, each of
which activates enzymes that produce an enormous amount of final product.

the efficiency of this second messenger amplification is virtually unparalleled

in the body and can be thought of as an" ARMY OF MOLECULES" launching
and offensive.

with amplification, one hormone has an army of molecules working

simultaneously to produce the final products.

10.7 ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM consists of ductless flans that secrete hormones into the

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 24
 interstitial fluid.
PITUITARY GLAND (pituita, phlegm or thick mucous secretion) also called the
hypophysis(hypo, under=physis, growth)

a small gland about the size of a pea.

it rest in a depression of the sphenoid bone inferior to the hypothalamus of

the brain.

lies posterior to the optic chiasm and is connected to the hypothalamus by a

stalk called INFUNDIBULUM.

known as the body's MASTER GLAND because it controls the function of so

many other glands.

2 PARTS OF PITUITARY GLAND

 ANTERIOR PITUITARY - made up of epithelial cells derived from the

embryonic oral cavity

 POSTERIOR PITUITARY an extension of the braiin and is composed of nerve

cells.

HYPOTHALAMUS (hypo, under=thalamos) an important autonomic nervous

system and endocrine control center of the brain located inferior to the thalamus.
HYPOTHALAMIC PITUITARY PORTAL SYSTEM the capillary beds and veins that
transport the releasing and inhibiting hormones.

HORMONES OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY

Growth Hormone- stimulates the growth of bones, muscles and other organs by
increasing gene expression.

it also resists protein breakdowns during periods of food deprivation and

favors lipid breakdown.

PITUITARY GLAND when a young person suffering from a deficiency of growth

hormone remains small, although normally proportioned.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 25
 GIANTISM when a person becomes abnormally tall.
ACROMEGALY facial features and hands become abnormally large.

RELEASING HORMONE stimulates growth hormone secretion

INHIBITING HORMONE inhibits its secretion.
INSULIN LIKE GROWTH FACTORSIGFS or somatomedins part of the effect of
growth hormone is influenced by a group of protein hormones.
THYROID STIMULATING HORMONETSH binds to membrane bound receptors on
cells of the thyroid gland and causes the cells to secrete thyroid hormone.

when too much TSH is secreted, the thyroid gland enlarges and and secretes
too much thyroid hormone.

when too little TSH is secretd, the thyroid gland decreases in size and
secretes too little thyroid hormone.

ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONEACTH binds to membrane bound receptors

on cells in the cortex of the adrenal glans.

increases the secretion of a hormone from LH causes the ovulation of

oocytes and the secretion of the sex hormones estrogen and progesterone
from the ovaries.

INTERSTITIAL CELL STIMULATING HORMONE ICSHIn males, the LH stimulates

interstitial cells of the testes to secrete the sex hormone testosterone.
FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE FSH stimulates the development of follicles
in the ovaries and sperm cells in the testes.
PROLACTIN (pro, precursos= lactin, milk) binds to membrane bound receptors in
cells of the breast, where it helps promote development of the breast during
pregnancy and stimulates the production of milk following pregnancy.

MELANOCYTE STIMULATING HORMONE binds to membrane bound receptors

on melanocytes and causes them to synthesize melanin.

HORMONES OF THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 26
 ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (anti, against + uresis, urine volume) binds to
membrane bound receptors and increases in water reabsorption by kidney
tubules.
VASOPRESSIN adh can cause blood vessels to constrict when released in large
amounts.

OXYTOCIN(swiftbirth) binds to membrane bound receptors, and causes

contraction of the smooth muscle cells of the uterus and causes contraction of
the smooth muscle cells of the uterus as well as milk letdown from the breast in
lactating women.
PITOCIN are given under certain conditions to assist in childbirth and to
constrict uterine blood vessels following childbirth.

THYROID GLAND(thyroid, shield shaped) made up of two lobes connected by a

narrow band called isthmus.

largest endocrine glands.

main function is to secrete thyroid hormones.

ISTHMUS(a constriction) narrow band.

THYROID HORMONES bind to nuclear receptors in cells and regulate the rate of
the metabolism in the body.
THYROID FOLLICLES it is where thyroid hormones are synthesized and stored
within the gland.

small spheres with walls composed of simple cuboidal epithelium.

filled with the protein thyroglobulin to which thyroid hormones are attached.

GOITER a condition in which the thyroid gland is enlarge.

HYPOTHYROIDISM a lack of thyroid hormones.
CRETINISM characterized by mental retardation, short stature, and abnormally
formed skeletal structures in infants.
MYXEDEMA accumulation of fluid and other molecules in the subcutaneous
tissue.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 27
 HYPERTHYROIDISM causes an increased metabolic rate, extreme nervousness,
and chronic fatigue.
GRAVES DISEASE a type of hyperthyroidism that results when the immune
system produces abnormal proteins that are similar in structure and function to
TSH.
EXOPHTHALMIA bulging of the eyes, accompany disease of grave disease.
THYROXINE-one thyroid hormone or tetraiodothyronine , contains four iodine
atoms and is abbreviated T4 TRIIODOTHYRONINE contains 3 iodine atoms and is
abbreviated T3.
CALCITONIN secreted hormone of parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland.

PARATHYROID GLANDS four tiny parathyroid glands are embedded in the

posterior wall of the thyroid gland.
PARATHYROID HORMONE essential for the regulation of blood calcium levels.
HYPERPARATHYROIDISM abnormally high rate of PTH secretion.
HYPOPARATHYROIDISM abnormally low rate of PTH secretion.

ADRENAL(adrenal, near or on the kidneys) GLANDS are 2 small glands located

superior to each kidney
ADRENAL MEDULLA inner part of adrenal gland
ADRENAL CORTEX outer part of adrenal gland.
EPINEPHRINE epi, upon+ nephros, kidney) principal hormone released from the
adrenal medulla.

also called adrenaline (from the adrenal gland)

NORIPINEPHRINE small amount of this are released by adrenal medulla,

epinephrine is also released.
FIGHT OR FLIGHT role in preparing the body for vigorous physical activity.
ADRENAL CORTEX secretes 3 classes of steroid hormones; mineralcorcoticoids,
glucorticoids, and androgens.

MINERALCORTICOIDS helps regulate blood volume and blood vessels of K

and Na+

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 28
 ALDOSTERONE major hormone of this class

-primarily binds to receptor molecules in the kidney, but it also affects the
intestine,sweat glands, and salivary glands.
RENIN low blood pressure causes the release of a protein molecule from the
kidney.

acts as an enzyme, causes a blood protein called angiotensinogen to be

converted to angiotesin 1.

ANGIOTENSIN CONVERTING ENZYME causes angiotensin 1 to be converted into

angiotensun 2.
ANGIOTENSIN 2 causes smooth muscles in blood vessels to constrict, and
angiotensin 2 acts on the adrenal cortex to increase aldosterone secretion.

GLUCOCORTICOIDS second class pf hormones, secreted by the middle layer of

the adrenal cortex,which also helps regulate blood nutrient levels.
CORTISOL major glucocorticoid, increases the breakdown of proteins and lipds
and increases their conversion to forms of energy the body can use.

also causes proteins to be broken down to amino acids, which are then
released into the blood.

reduces the inflammatory and immune responses.

CORTISONE often given to reduce inflammation caused by injuries,

can also reduce the immune and inflammatory responses that result from
allergic reactions or abnormal immune responses, such as rheumatoid arthritis
or asthma.

ANDROGENS inner layer of the adrenal cortex, 3rd class of hormones.

stimulate the development of male sexual characteristics.

PANCREAS endocrine part that consists of pancreatic islets, which are dispersed
throughout the exocrine portion of the pancreas.

ISLETS secrete 3 hormones; insulin, glucagons, and somatostasin.

which helps regulate the blood levels of nutrients, especially glucose.

ALPHA CELLS secrete glucagon

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 29
 BETA CELLS secrete insulin
DELTA CELLS secrete somatostasin.

KETONES as lipids are broken down, and liver converts some of the fatty acids
to acidic ketones, which are releases into the blood.
ACIDOSIS the breakdown of lipids can cause the release of enough fatty acids
and ketones to reduce the pH of the body fluids below normal.
INSULIN released from the beta cells primarily in response to the elevated blood
glucose levels and increased parasympathetic stimulation associated with
digestion of a meal.
SATIETY CENTER-area of the hypothalamus that controls appetite(fulfillment of
hunger).
DIABETES MELLITUS much urine+ honey or sweetened)

TYPE 1 DIABETES occurs when too little insulin is secreted from the
pancreas.

TYPE 2 DIABETES caused by insufficient numbers of insulin receptors on

target cells or by defective receptors that do not respond normally to insulin.

HYPERGLYCEMIA in TYPE 1 DIABETES, tissues cannot take up glucose

effectively, causing blood glucose levels to become very high.
GLUCAGON is released from the alpha cells when blood glucose levels are low.

binds to membrane bound receptors primarily in the liver, causing the

glycogen stored in the liver to be converted to glucose.

SOMATOSTATIN is released by the delta cells in response to food intake.

inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon and inhibits gastric tract activity.

INSULIN AND GLUCAGON together regulate blood levels.

TESTOSTERONE main sex hormone in male which is secreted by the testes.

responsible for the growth and development and of the male reproductive
structures.

2 MAIN CLASSES OF SEX HORMONES SECRETED BY OVARIES

ESTROGEN

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 30
 PROGESTERONE

THYMUS lies in the upper part of the thoracic cavity.

important in the function of the immune system.

THYMOSIN secreted hormone by thymus, aids the development of WBC

called T Cells.

T CELLS help protect the body against infection by foreign organisms.

if a person is born without thymus, the immune system does not develop
normally and the body is less capable of fighting infections.

PINEAL GLAND a small, pinecone shaped structure located superior and

posterior to the thalamus of the brain.

MELATONIN hormone secreted by pineal gland, which is thought to decrease

the secretion of LH and FSH by decreasing the release of hypothalamuc
releasing hormones.

- inhibits the functions of the reproductive system.

PROSTAGLANDINS widely distributed in tissues where they function as

intercellular signals.
ERYTHROPOIETIN hormone secreted by kidneys in response to reduced oxygen
levels in the kidney.

acts on bone marrow to increase the production of RBC.

PLACENTA important source of hormones that maintain pregnancy and stimulate

breast development.
HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN similar in structure and function to LH.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 31
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 32