C LANGUAGE Basic concepts of Programming languages : Programming languages are a set of rules, symbols, and codes used to instruct a computer to perform a specific task or solve a problem. The basic concepts of programming languages include syntax, semantics, variables, data types, control structures, functions, and arrays. Programming Domains : Programming domains are areas of application for programming languages. Some common programming domains include scientific computing, business applications, web development, game development, and mobile app development. Language Evaluation criteria and language categories : Programming languages are evaluated based on criteria such as readability, maintainability, performance, and ease of use. There are different categories of programming languages such as procedural languages, object-oriented languages, functional languages, and scripting languages. Evolution of major programming languages : The evolution of major programming languages can be traced back to the mid-20th century. Some of the earliest programming languages include Fortran, COBOL, and Lisp. These languages have evolved over time, and new languages have been developed, such as C, C++, Java, Python, and JavaScript. Describing syntax and semantics : The syntax and semantics of each language are unique, but they all share common programming concepts. Formal methods of describing syntax : Formal methods of describing syntax include Backus-Naur Form (BNF), Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF), and Syntax Diagrams. These methods are used to formally specify the syntax of a programming language. Pseudo code : Pseudo code is a high-level language used to describe an algorithm in a way that is easy to understand, It is not a specific programming language, but rather a way of expressing an algorithm using natural language and programming constructs. Design of Algorithm & Flowchart : The design of an algorithm involves breaking down a problem into smaller, more manageable parts and then devising a step-by-step plan to solve each part. A flowchart is a diagram that represents the steps of an algorithm using symbols and arrows to show the flow of control. A flowchart is a useful tool for visualizing the steps of an algorithm and identifying potential errors or inefficiencies. Fundamentals History and importance of C : C was developed in the early 1970s by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs. It quickly became a popular programming language due to its ability to create efficient code, its low-level capabilities, and its ease of portability. C is used for a wide variety of applications, including operating systems, embedded systems, scientific computing, and game development.Basic structure and execution of C programs : A C program is composed of functions, which are made up of statements. A statement is a complete instruction that the computer can execute. A C program is executed from the main() function, which is the entry point of the program. Constants : Constants are values that cannot be changed during the execution of a program. In C, there are several types of constants, including integer constants, character constants, and floating-point constants. Variables : Variables are named locations in memory that store data. In C, variables must be declared with a data type before they can be used. Data types : Data types in C specify the type of data that a variable can hold. Some common data types in C include integer, character, and floating-point. Various type of declarations : There are two types of declarations in C: variable declarations and function declarations. Variable declarations specify the data type and name of a variable, while function declarations specify the return type, name, and parameter list of a function. Operators types and expressions : Operators in C are used to perform operations on data. There are several types of operators in C, including arithmetic operators, relational operators, logical operators, and bitwise operators. Expressions are combinations of values, variables, and operators that can be evaluated to produce a result. Evaluation of expressions : Expressions in C are evaluated based on operator precedence and associativity, which determine the order in which operators are applied. Operator precedence and associativity : Operator precedence in C determines the order in which operators are applied in an expression. Associativity determines the order in which operators of the same precedence are applied. Managing input and output operations : Input and output operations in C are managed using the printf() and scanf() functions. The printf) function is used to output data to the console, while the scanf{) function is used to read data from the console. Decision making and branching : Decision making in C is accomplished using if-else statements and switch statements. Branching is accomplished using control statements such as break, continue, and goto. These statements can be used to alter the normal flow of a program based on specific conditions. Iteration while : The while loop in C is used to execute a block of code repeatedly while a particular condition is true. The condition is checked at the beginning of each iteration of the loop. do...while : The do...while loop in C is similar to the while loop, except that the condition is checked at the end of each iteration, This means that the code inside the loop will always be executed at least once. for loop : The for loop in C is a compact way of writing a loop that is designed to execute a fixed number of times. It has three parts: an initialization statement, a condition, and an increment statement,+ nested loops : Nested loops in C are loops that are placed inside the body of another loop. They are useful for iterating over multi-dimensional arrays and performing operations on each element. + break & continue : The break and continue statements in C are used to alter the normal flow of a loop. The break statement is used to exit a loop prematurely, while the continue statement is used to skip to the next iteration of a loop. + goto statements : The goto statement in C is used to transfer control to another part of the program. It can be used to create loops or to jump to a particular section of code. However, its use is generally discouraged as it can make code difficult to read and maintain. Array and String + One-dimensional array and their declaration and initialization : An array in Cis a collection of variables of the same data type that are stored in contiguous memory locations. To declare an array in C, you must specify the data type and the number of elements in the array. , you would use the following syntax: For example : int numbers[10]; //To declare an array of 10 integers To initialize an array in C, you can use an initialization list, which is a comma-separated list of values enclosed in curly braces. For example : int numbers[3] = (1, 2, 3); Two-dimensional arrays are declared and initialized in a similar manner, with the addition of a second dimension. For example : int matrix[3][3] = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9}; + Character arrays (One and Two dimensional) : A character array in C is a special type of array that stores characters rather than integers. One-dimensional character arrays are declared and ir ized in the same way as other one-dimensional arrays. For example : char name[10] = "John"; Two-dimensional character arrays are used to store strings, which are collections of characters terminated by a null character. For example : char message(3][10] = {"Hello", "World", "!"}; + Reading and writing strings : Strings can be read and written using the scanf() and printf() functions, respectively. For example : char name[10]; scanf("%s", name); printf("Hello, %s!\n", name); Note that the "%¢s" format specifier is used to read and write strings. + String-handling functions : C provides a number of built-in functions for working with strings. Some common string-handling functions include: 1.strlen() : returns the length of a string. 2.strepy(): copies one string to another. 3.streat(): concatenates two strings. 4.strcmp)): compares two string: For example : char sourcel] = "Hell char destination[10]; strepy(destination, source); printf("%s\n", destination); // Output: HelloNeed and elements for user-defined functions : Functions in C are used to break a program into smaller, more manageable pieces. This makes the code easier to read, write, and maintain. The elements of a user-defined function in C include a function header, a function body, and a return statement (if the function returns a value). Definition of functions : In C, a function is defined using the following syntax : return_type function_name(parameter list) { // Function body } The return type specifies the data type of the value that the function returns (if any) The function name is a unique identifier for the function. The parameter list specifies the type and number of arguments that the function accepts. Return values and their types : Functions in C can return a value using the return statement. The return type of the function specifies the data type of the value that is returned. For example, a function that returns an integer would have a return type of “int. Function calls and declaration : A function in C is called using the following syntax: function_name(argument list); The argument list contains the values that are passed to the function. The function must be declared before itis called. The declaration specifies the function name, return type, and parameter list. Recursion : Recursion is a programming technique where a function calls itself. This is useful for solving problems that can be broken down into smaller sub-problems. In C, a recursive function must have a base case, which is a condition that terminates the recursion. Parameter passing : In C, parameters can be passed to a function by value or by reference. When a parameter is passed by value, a copy of the value is passed to the function. When a parameter is passed by reference, a pointer to the value is passed to the function, allowing the function to modify the original value. Passing arrays and strings to functions : In C, arrays and strings can be passed to functions as parameters. When an array is passed to a function, a pointer to the first element of the array is passed. When a string is passed to a function, a pointer to the first character of the string is passed. The scope : The scope of a variable in C is the part of the program where the variable can be accessed. Variables can have either local or global scope. Local variables are declared inside a function and can only be accessed within that function. Global variables are declared outside of any function and can be accessed from any part of the program. Visibility and lifetime of variables : The visibility of a variable in C is the part of the program where the variable can be accessed. The lifetime of a variable is the period of time during which the variable exists in memory. Local variables have automatic storage duration, which means they are created when the function is called and destroyed when the function returns. Global variables have static storage duration, which means they exist for the entire lifetime of the program. Understanding PointersAccessing the address of a variable : In C, the address of a variable can be obtained using the "address-of" operator (&). For example, to get the address of a variable "x", you would use the expression "6x", Declaration and initialization of pointer variables : In C, a pointer variable is declared using the following syntax: data_type *pointer_name; The "*" indicates that pointer_name is a pointer variable. The data_type specifies the data type of the variable that the pointer points to. To initialize a pointer, you can assign it the address of a variable using the "&" operator. For example : int x = 10; int “p= 8x; This creates a pointer variable "p" that points to the address of "x’: Accessing a variable through its pointer : In C, a variable can be accessed through its pointer using the "dereference" operator (*). For example, to get the value of the variable that "p" points to, you would use the expression "*p" Pointers and arrays : In C, arrays can be accessed using pointers. The name of an array is a pointer to the first element of the array. For example : int a[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; int “p= a; // equivalent to int *p = &al0} This creates a pointer "p" that points to the first element of the array "a". The elements of the array can be accessed through the pointer using the dereference operator (*). Pointers and function arguments: In C, pointers can be used to pass variables by reference to a function. This allows the function to modify the original variable. For example : void swap(int ‘a, int *b) { int temp = *a; ta="b; temp; } int main() { int x = 10, y = 20; swap(&x, &y); // x is now 20, y is now 10 return 0; } This creates a function "swap" that takes two integer pointers as arguments. The function swaps the values of the variables pointed to by the pointers. Functions returning pointers : In C, functions can return pointers. This allows the function to return a pointer to a dynamically allocated memory block. For example : int “create_array(int size) { int ‘arr = malloc(size * sizeoflint)); return arr; } int main() { int "a = create_array(5); // use the array free(a); return 0; }This creates a function "create_array" that dynamically allocates an array of integers using the "malloc" function. The function returns a pointer to the array. The pointer can be used to access the elements of the array. The memory allocated by the "malloc" function should be freed using the "free" function when it is no longer needed. Structures and Unions Defining structure : A structure is a user-defined data type in C that groups together related variables under a single name. The variables can have different data types. In C, a structure is defined using the keyword "struct". For example : struct student {char name[50); int rolino; float marks; h This defines a structure called "student" with three members: "name" of type char array, "rollno” of type int, and "marks" of type float. Declaring structure variable and accessing structure members : Once a structure is defined, you can declare a variable of that type and access its members using the dot () operator. For example : struct student s1; sLrollno = 1; strepy(si.name, "John"); sLmarks = 90.5; This declares a variable "s1" of type "student" and assigns values to its members. Initialization of structure : You can also initialize a structure variable at the time of declaration. For example : struct student 1 = {"John' 1, 90.5}; This initializes the members of the "s1" structure vé the braces. ible with the values provided in Operation on individual members and array of structures : You can perform operations on individual members of a structure variable, such as reading and writing their values, or performing mathematical operations with them. You can also declare an array of structure variables, just like you would declare an array of any other data type. For example : struct student s[5]; s[O]-rolino = 1; strepy(s[0].name, "John"); s[0].marks = 90.5; This declares an array "s" of five structure variables of type "student", and assigns values to the members of the first variable. Union : A union is another user-defined data type in C that allows you to store different types of data in the same memory location. A union is defined using the “union” keyword. For example : union myunion {int i; char c; float f; ‘ This defines a union called "myunion" with three members: char, and "f" of type float. Alll three members share the same memory location, and you can only access one member at a time.* Size of structure : You can determine the size of a structure using the "sizeof" operator. The size of a structure is the sum of the sizes of its members, plus any padding bytes that the compiler may add for memory alignment. Here's an example: For example : struct student {char name[50]; int rollno; float marks; i‘ printf("Size of student structure: %lu bytes\n", sizeof(struct student); This prints the size of the "student" structure in bytes. The "lu" format specifier is used to print the result as an unsigned long integer. Vo + Formatted and Un-Formatted I/O : In C, formatted I/O functions are used for reading or writing data to a stream ina specific format. The most commonly used formatted I/O functions are printf() for output and scanf() for input. Unformatted I/O functions are used for reading or writing data to a stream as a sequence of bytes. The most commonly used unformatted I/O functions are fread() and fwrite(). + File handling (Random, Binary and Sequential) : File handling in C is done using file pointers. A file pointer is a pointer that holds the address of the file stream that is used for file I/O operations. The standard library provides several functions for file handling, including fopen() for opening a file, fclose() for closing a file, fread() for reading from a file, fwritel) for writing to a file, and fprintf() and fscanf() for formatted I/O operations. In C, files can be handled in three modes: sequential access, random access, and binary access. 1. Sequential Access : In this mode, the file is read or written in a sequential manner, from the beginning to the end. This is the default mode for text files, where data is stored in a series of lines. In sequential access mode, you can only read or write the file the order it was created, and you cannot skip any part of the file. 2.Random Access : In this mode, you can read or write the file in any order, and you can move the file pointer to any position in the file using fseek(). Random access is useful when you want to read or write specific parts of a file without having to go through the entire file. Random access is typically used with binary files, where data is not stored in lines. 3.Binary Access : In this mode, files are read or written as a sequence of bytes, without any regard for their contents. Binary access is typically used with binary files, where the data is stored in a particular format and can be read or written as a whole.