GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY.

CELL ORGANELLES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS.

 DEFINITION
 STRUCTURE OF THE DIFFERENT ORGANELLES.
 FUNCTION OF THE DIFFERENT ORGANELLES.

DEFINITION OF A CELL.

Cell can be defined as the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of living organism
capable of existing independently. All the living things are composed of cells.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CELL
Each cell in the body:
1. Needs nutrition and oxygen
2. Produces its own energy necessary for its growth, repair and other activities
3. Eliminates carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes
4. Maintains the medium, i.e. the environment for its survival
5. Shows immediate response to the entry of invaders like bacteria or toxic substances into the
body
6. Reproduces by division. There are some exceptions like neuron, which do not reproduce.

STRUCTURE OF THE CELL

Each cell is formed by a cell body and a membrane covering the cell body called the cell
membrane. Cell body has two parts, namely nucleus and cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus.
Thus, the structure of the cell is studied under three headings:
1. Cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus.
CELL ORGANELLES.

Components of cell organelles includes:

 Cell membrane.
 Nucleus.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum.
 Golgi Apparatus.
 Mitochondrion.
 Lysosome/Peroxisome.
 Microtubules.
 Microfilaments.
 Intercellular Connections.

CELL MEMBRANE:

The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a double layer of lipids and proteins
that surrounds a cell and separates the cytoplasm (the contents of the cell) (ICF) from its
surrounding environment (ECF). It is selectively permeable, which means that it only lets certain
molecules enter and exit. It can also control the amount of some substances that go into or out of
the cell. All cells have a cell membrane. It is a protective sheath. Thickness of the cell membrane
varies from 75 to111Å.

COMPOSITION OF CELL MEMBRANE

Cell membrane is composed of three types of substances:
1. Lipids (40%)
2. Proteins (55%)
3. Carbohydrates (5%).

STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE.

 LIPID LAYERS

The central lipid layer is a bilayered structure. This is formed by a thin film of lipids. The
characteristic feature of lipid layer is that, it is fluid in nature and not a solid structure.

Major lipids are:

1. Phospholipids
2. Cholesterol.

Functions of Lipid Layer in Cell Membrane

Lipid layer of the cell membrane is a semi-permeable membrane and allows only the fat-soluble
substances to pass through it. Thus, the fat-soluble substances like oxygen, carbonIVoxide and
alcohol can pass through this lipid layer. The water-soluble substances such as glucose, urea and
electrolytes cannot pass through this layer.

Protein Layers of the Cell Membrane

Protein layers of the cell membrane are electron-dense layers. These layers cover the two
surfaces of the central lipid layer. Protein layers give protection to the central lipid layer. The
protein substances present in these layers are mostly glyco-proteins.

Protein molecules are classified into two categories:

1. Integral proteins or trans-membrane proteins.
2. Peripheral proteins or peri-peripheral membrane
proteins.

Functions of Proteins in Cell Membrane

1. Integral proteins provide the structural integrity of the cell membrane
2. Channel proteins help in the diffusion of water soluble substances like glucose and electrolytes
3. Carrier or transport proteins help in the transport of substances across the cell membrane by
means of active or passive transport
4. Pump: Some carrier proteins act as pumps, by which ions are transported actively across the
cell membrane.
5. Receptor proteins serve as the receptor sites for hormones and neurotransmitters
6. Enzymes: Some of the protein molecules form the enzymes and control chemical (metabolic)
reactions within the cell membrane.
7. Antigens: Some proteins act as antigens and induce the process of antibody formation
8. Cell adhesion molecules or the integral proteins are responsible for attachment of cells to their
neighbors or to basal lamina.

Carbohydrates of the Cell Membrane

Some of the carbohydrate molecules present in cell membrane are attached to proteins and form
Glyco-proteins (proteoglycans). Some carbohydrate molecules are attached to lipids and form
glycolipids. Carbohydrate molecules form a thin and loose covering over the entire surface of the
cell membrane called glycocalyx.
Functions of Carbohydrates in Cell Membrance
1. Carbohydrate molecules are negatively charged and do not permit the negatively charged
substances to move in and out of the cell.
2. Glycocalyx from the neighboring cells helps in the tight fixation of cells with one another
3. Some carbohydrate molecules function as the receptors for some hormones.

FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE

1. Protective function: Cell membrane protects the cytoplasm and the organelles present in the
cytoplasm.
2. Selective permeability: Cell membrane acts as a semipermeable membrane, which allows only
some substances to pass through it and acts as a barrier for other substances
3. Absorptive function: Nutrients are absorbed into the
cell through the cell membrane
4. Excretory function: Metabolites and other waste products from the cell are excreted out
through the cell membrane.
5. Exchange of gases: Oxygen enters the cell from the blood and carbon IV oxide leaves the cell
and enters the blood through the cell membrane.
6. Maintenance of shape and size of the cell: Cell membrane is responsible for the maintenance
of shape and size of the cell.

CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm of the cell is the jellylike material formed by 80% of water. It contains a clear liquid
portion called cytosol and various particles of different shape and size. These particles are
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids or electrolytes in nature. Cytoplasm also contains many organelles
with distinct structure and function.
Cytoplasm is made up of two zones:
1. Ectoplasm: Peripheral part of cytoplasm, situated just beneath the cell membrane
2. Endoplasm: Inner part of cytoplasm, interposed between the ectoplasm and the nucleus.

„ ORGANELLES IN CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasmic organelles are the cellular structures embedded in the cytoplasm. Organelles are
considered as small organs of the cell. Some organelles are bound by limiting membrane and
others do not have limiting membrane. Each organelle is having a definite structure and specific
functions„

ORGANELLES WITH LIMITING MEMBRANE

„
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubular and microsomal vesicular structures which are
interconnected with one another. It is covered by a limiting membrane which is formed by
proteins and bilayered lipids. The lumen between nucleus and cell membrane by connecting the
cell membrane with the nuclear membrane.
STRUCTURE OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM.

Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum is of two types, namely rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum. Both the types are interconnected and continuous with one another.
Depending upon the activities of the cells, the rough endoplasmic reticulum changes to smooth
endoplasmic reticulum and vice versa.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

It is the endoplasmic reticulum with rough, bumpy or bead-like appearance. Rough appearance is
due to the attachment of granular ribosomes to its outer surface. Hence, it is also called the
granular endoplasmic reticulum. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is vesicular or tubular in
structure.

Functions of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

1. Synthesis of proteins: Rough endoplasmic reticulum is concerned with the synthesis of
proteins in the cell. It is involved with the synthesis of mainly those proteins which are secreted
from the cells such as insulin from βcells of islets of Langerhans in pancreas and antibodies from
B lymphocytes. Ribosomes arrange the amino acids into small units of proteins and transport
them into the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Here, the carbohydrates are added to the protein
units forming the glycosylated proteins or glycoproteins, which are arranged in the form of
reticular vesicles. These vesicles are transported mainly to Golgi apparatus for further
modification and processing. Few vesicles are transported to other cytoplasmic organelles.

2. Degradation of worn-out organelles:

Rough endoplasmic reticulum also plays an important role in the degradation of worn-out
cytoplasmic organelles like mitochondria. It wraps itself around the worn out organelles and
forms a vacuole which is often called the autophagosome. Autophagosome is digested by
lysosomal enzymes.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

It is the endoplasmic reticulum with smooth appearance. It is also called agranular reticulum. It
is formed by many interconnected tubules. So, it is also called tubular endoplasmic reticulum.

Functions of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

1. Synthesis of non-protein substance:
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for synthesis of non-protein substances such as
cholesterol and steroid. This type of endoplasmic reticulum is abundant in cells that are involved
in the synthesis of lipids, phospholipids, lipoprotein substances, steroid hormones, sebum, etc. In
most of the other cells, smooth endoplasmic reticulum is less extensive than the rough
endoplasmic reticulum.

2. Role in cellular metabolism:

Outer surface of smooth endoplasmic reticulum contains many enzymes which are involved in
various metabolic processes of the cell.

3. Storage and metabolism of calcium:

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the major site of storage and metabolism of calcium. In
skeletal muscle fibers, it releases calcium which is necessary to trigger the muscle contraction.

4. Catabolism and detoxification:

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is also concerned with catabolism and detoxification of toxic
substances like some drugs and carcinogens (cancer-producing substances) in the liver.
„
GOLGI APPARATUS
Golgi apparatus or Golgi body or Golgi complex is a membrane-bound organelle, involved in the
processing of proteins. It is present in all the cells except red blood cells. It is named after the
discoverer Camillo Golgi. Usually, each cell has one Golgi apparatus. Some of the cells may
have more than one Golgi apparatus. Each Golgi apparatus consists of 5 to 8 flattened
membranous sacs called the cisternae. Golgi apparatus is situated near the nucleus. It has
two ends or faces, namely cis face and trans face. The cis face is positioned near the
endoplasmic reticulum. Reticular vesicles from endoplasmic reticulum enter
the Golgi apparatus through cis face. The trans face is situated near the cell membrane. The
processed substances make their exit from Golgi apparatus through trans face.
 STRUCTURE OF GOLGI APPARATUS.

Functions of Golgi Apparatus

Major functions of Golgi apparatus are processing, packing, labeling and delivery of proteins and
other molecules like lipids to different parts of the cell.

1. Processing of materials:
Vesicles containing glycoproteins and lipids are transported into Golgi apparatus. Here, the
glycoproteins and lipids are modified and processed.

2. Packaging of materials:
All the processed materials are packed in the form of secretory granules, secretory vesicles and
lysosomes, which are transported either out of the cell or to another part of the cell. Because of
this, Golgi apparatus is called the ‘post office of the cell’.

3. Labeling and delivery of materials:

Finally, the Golgi apparatus sorts out the processed and packed materials and labels them (such
as phosphate group), depending upon the chemical content for delivery (distribution) to their
proper destinations. Hence, the Golgi apparatus is called ‘shipping department of the cell’.
„

LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are the membrane-bound vesicular organelles found throughout the cytoplasm. The
lysosomes are formed by Golgi apparatus. The enzymes synthesized in rough endoplasmic
reticulum are processed and packed in the form of small vesicles in the Golgi apparatus. Then,
these vesicles are pinched off from Golgi apparatus and become the lysosomes.
Among the organelles of the cytoplasm, the lysosomes have the thickest covering membrane.
The membrane is formed by a bilayered lipid material. It has many small granules which contain
hydrolytic enzymes.
Types of Lysosomes
Lysosomes are of two types:

1. Primary lysosome: This is pinched off from Golgi apparatus. It is inactive in spite of having
hydrolytic enzymes
2. Secondary lysosome: This is the active lysosome. It is formed by the fusion of a primary
lysosome with phagosome or endosome.

Lysosomes are often called ‘garbage system’ of the cell because of their degradation activity.
About 50 different hydrolytic enzymes, known as acid hydroxylases are present in the
lysosomes, through which lysosomes execute their functions.

Lysosomal enzymes which are vital:

1. Proteases: Hydrolyze the proteins into amino acids
2. Lipases: Hydrolyze the lipids into fatty acids and glycerides
3. Amylases: Hydrolyze the polysaccharides into glucose
4. Nucleases: Hydrolyze the nucleic acids into mononucleotides.

Mechanism of lysosomal function

Lysosomal functions involve two mechanisms:
1. Heterophagy: Digestion of extracellular materials engulfed by the cell via endocytosis
2. Autophagy: Digestion of intracellular materials such as worn-out cytoplasmic organelles.

Functions of lysosomes.

1. Degradation of macromolecules:
Macromolecules are engulfed by the cell by means of endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis or
receptor-mediated endocytosis). The macromolecules such as bacteria, engulfed by the cell via
phagocytosis are called phagosomes or vacuoles. The other macromolecules taken inside via
pinocytosis or receptor-mediated endocytosis are called endosomes.
The primary lysosome fuses with the phagosome or endosome to form the secondary
lysosome. The pH in the secondary lysosome becomes acidic and the lysosomal enzymes are
activated. The bacteria and the other macromolecules are digested and degraded by these
enzymes. The secondary lysosome containing these degraded waste products moves through
cytoplasm and fuses with cell membrane. Now the waste products are eliminated by exocytosis.

2. Degradation of worn-out organelles:

The rough endoplasmic reticulum wraps itself around the worn-out organelles like mitochondria
and form the vacuoles called autophagosomes. One primary lysosome fuses with one
autophagosome to form the secondary lysosome. The enzymes in the secondary lysosome are
activated. Now, these enzymes digest the contents of autophagosome.

3. Removal of excess secretory products in the cells:

Lysosomes in the cells of the secretory glands remove the excess secretory products by
degrading the secretory granules.
4. Secretory function – secretory lysosomes:
Recently, lysosomes having secretory function called secretory lysosomes are found in some of
the cells, particularly in the cells of immune system. The conventional lysosomes are modified
into secretory lysosomes by combining with secretory granules (which contain the particular
secretory product of the cell).

Examples of secretory lysosomes:

I. Lysosomes in the cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells secrete perforin and
granzymes, which destroy both viral-infected cells and tumor cells. Perforin is a pore-forming
protein that initiates cell death. Granzymes belong to the family of serine proteases (enzymes
that dislodge the peptide bonds of the proteins) and cause the cell death by apoptosis.

II. Secretory lysosomes of melanocytes secrete melanin

III. Secretory lysosomes of mast cells secrete serotonin, which is a vasoconstrictor substance
and inflammatory mediator.
„
PEROXISOMES
Peroxisomes or microbodies are the membrane limited vesicles like the lysosomes. Unlike
lysosomes, peroxisomes are pinched off from endoplasmic reticulum and not from the Golgi
apparatus. Peroxisomes contain some oxidative enzymes such as catalase, urate oxidase
and Damino acid oxidase.

Functions of Peroxisomes includes:

I. Breakdown the fatty acids by means of a process called betaoxidation: This is the major
function of peroxisomes.

II.Degrade the toxic substances such as hydrogen peroxide and other metabolic products
by means of detoxification: A large number of peroxisomes are present in the cells of liver,
which is the major organ for detoxification. Hydrogen peroxide is formed from poisons or
alcohol, which enter the cell. Whenever hydrogen peroxide is produced in the cell, the
peroxisomes are ruptured and the oxidative enzymes are released. These oxidases destroy
hydrogen peroxide and the enzymes which are necessary for the production of hydrogen
peroxide.

III. Form the major site of oxygen utilization in the cells

IV. Accelerate gluconeogenesis from fats

V. Degrade purine to uric acid

VI. Participate in the formation of myelin

VII. Play a role in the formation of bile acids.

„

CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES.

Centrosome is the membrane-bound cellular organelle situated almost in the center of cell, close
to nucleus. It consists of two cylindrical structures called centrioles which are made up of
proteins. Centrioles are responsible for the movement of chromosomes during cell division.
„
SECRETORY VESICLES.
Secretory vesicles are the organelles with limiting membrane and contain the secretory
substances. These vesicles are formed in the endoplasmic reticulum and
are processed and packed in Golgi apparatus. Secretory vesicles are present throughout the
cytoplasm. When necessary, these vesicles are ruptured and secretory substances are released
into the cytoplasm.

MITOCHONDRION
Mitochondrion (plural = mitochondria) is a membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelle concerned
with production of energy. It is a rod-shaped or oval-shaped structure with a diameter of 0.5 to 1
μ. It is covered by a bilayered membrane. The outer membrane is smooth and encloses the
contents of mitochondrion. This membrane contains various enzymes such as acetyl-CoA
synthetase and glycerolphosphate acetyltransferase. The inner membrane is folded in the form of
shelf-like inward projections called cristae and it covers the inner matrix space. Cristae contain
many enzymes and other protein molecules which are involved in respiration and synthesis of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Because of these functions, the enzymes and other protein
molecules in cristae are collectively known as respiratory chain or electron transport system.

STRUCTURE OF MITOCHONDRION.

Enzymes and other proteins of respiratory chain includes:

i. Succinic dehydrogenase
ii. Dihydronicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)
dehydrogenase
iii. Cytochrome oxidase
iv. Cytochrome C
v. ATP synthase.
Inner cavity of mitochondrion is filled with matrix which contains many enzymes.
Mitochondrion moves freely in the cytoplasm of the cell. It is capable of reproducing itself.
Mitochondrion contains its own deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is responsible for many
enzymatic actions. In fact, mitochondrion is the only organelle other than nucleus, which has its
own DNA.

Functions of Mitochondrion.

1. Production of energy:
Mitochondrion is called the ‘power house’ or ‘power plant’ of the cell because it produces the
energy required for cellular functions. The energy is produced during the oxidation of digested
food particles like proteins, carbohydrates and lipids by the oxidative enzymes in cristae.
During the oxidative process, water and carbon dioxide are produced with release of energy. The
released energy is stored in mitochondria and used later for synthesis of ATP.

2. Synthesis of ATP:
The components of respiratory chain in mitochondrion are responsible for the synthesis of ATP
by utilizing the energy by oxidative phosphorylation. ATP molecules diffuse throughout the cell
from mitochondrion. Whenever energy is needed for cellular activity, the ATP molecules are
broken down.

3. Apoptosis:
Cytochrome C and second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases (SMAC)/diablo secreted
in mitochondria are involved in apoptosis.

4. Other functions:
Other functions of mitochondria include storage of calcium and detoxification of ammonia in
liver.
„
ORGANELLES WITHOUT LIMITING MEMBRANE.

RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are the organelles without limiting membrane. These organelles are granular and
small dot-like structures with a diameter of 15 nm. Ribosomes are made up of 35% of proteins
and 65% of ribonucleic acid (RNA). RNA present in ribosomes is called ribosomal RNA
(rRNA). Ribosomes are concerned with protein synthesis in the cell.

Types of Ribosomes

Ribosomes are of two types:

I. Ribosomes that are attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum

II. Free ribosomes that are distributed in the cytoplasm.
Functions of Ribosomes
Ribosomes are called ‘protein factories’ because of their role in the synthesis of proteins.

Messenger RNA (mRNA): carries the genetic code for protein synthesis from nucleus to the
ribosomes. The ribosomes, in turn arrange the amino acids into small units of proteins.

Ribosomes attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum: are involved in the synthesis of proteins
such as the enzymatic proteins, hormonal proteins, lysosomal proteins and the proteins of the cell
membrane.

Free ribosomes: are responsible for the synthesis of proteins in hemoglobin, peroxisome and
mitochondria.
„
CYTOSKELETON
Cytoskeleton is the cellular organelle present throughout the cytoplasm. It determines the shape
of the cell and gives support to the cell. It is a complex network of structures with varying sizes.
In addition to determining the shape of the cell, it is also essential for the cellular movements and
the response of the cell to external stimuli.

Cytoskeleton consists of three major protein components:

1. Microtubule
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microfilaments.

1. Microtubules
Microtubules are the straight, hollow and tubular structures of the cytoskeleton. These organelles
without the limiting membrane are arranged in different bundles. Each tubule has a diameter of
20 to 30 nm. Length of microtubule varies and it may be 1000 times more than the thickness.
Structurally, the microtubules are formed by bundles of globular protein called tubulin . Tubulin
has two subunits, namely α-subunit and β-subunit.

Functions of microtubules.
Microtubules may function alone or join with other proteins to form more complex structures
like cilia, flagella or centrioles and perform various functions.

Microtubules:
i. Determine the shape of the cell

ii. Give structural strength to the cell

iii. Act like conveyer belts which allow the movement of granules, vesicles, protein molecules
and some organelles like mitochondria to different parts of the cell.

iv. Form the spindle fibers which separate the chromosomes during mitosis
v. Are responsible for the movement of centrioles and the complex cellular structures like cilia.

2. Intermediate Filaments.
Intermediate filaments are the structures that form a network around the nucleus and extend to
the periphery of the cell. Diameter of each filament is about 10 nm. The intermediate filaments
are formed by ropelike polymers, which are made up of fibrous proteins.

Subclasses of intermediate filaments

Intermediate filaments are divided into five subclasses:
i. Keratins (in epithelial cells)
ii. Glial filaments (in astrocytes)
iii. Neurofilaments (in nerve cells)
iv. Vimentin (in many types of cells)
v. Desmin (in muscle fibers).

Functions of intermediate filaments.

Intermediate filaments help to maintain the shape of the cell. These filaments also connect the
adjacent cells through desmosomes.

3. Microfilaments
Microfilaments are long and fine thread-like structures with a diameter of about 3 to 6 nm. These
filaments are made up of non-tubular contractile proteins called actin and myosin. Actin is more
abundant than myosin. Microfilaments are present throughout the cytoplasm. The microfilaments
present in ectoplasm contain only actin molecules and those present in endoplasm contain both
actin and myosin molecules.

Functions of microfilaments
Microfilaments:
i. Give structural strength to the cell
ii. Provide resistance to the cell against the pulling forces
iii. Are responsible for cellular movements like contraction, gliding and cytokinesis (partition of
cytoplasm during cell division).
„
NUCLEUS
Nucleus is the most prominent and the largest cellular organelle. It has a diameter of 10 μ to 22 μ
and occupies about 10% of total volume of the cell. Nucleus is present in all the cells in the body
except the red blood cells. The cells with nucleus are called eukaryotes and those without
nucleus are known as prokaryotes. Presence of nucleus is necessary for cell division.
Most of the cells have only one nucleus (uninucleated cells). Few types of cells like skeletal
muscle cells have many nuclei (multinucleated cells). Generally, the nucleus is located in the
center of the cell. It is mostly spherical in shape. However, the shape and situation of nucleus
vary in some cells.
 STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS.

„ STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS
Nucleus is covered by a membrane called nuclear membrane and contains many components.
Major components of nucleus are nucleoplasm, chromatin and nucleolus.

Nuclear Membrane
Nuclear membrane is double layered and porous in nature. This allows the nucleoplasm to
communicate with the cytoplasm. The outer layer of nuclear membrane is continuous with the
membrane of endoplasmic reticulum. The space between the two layers of nuclear membrane
is continuous with the lumen of endoplasmic reticulum. Pores of the nuclear membrane are
guarded (lined) by protein molecules. Diameter of the pores is about 80 to 100 nm. However, it
is decreased to about 7 to 9 nm because of the attachment of protein molecules with the
periphery of the pores. Exchange of materials between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm occurs
through these pores.

Nucleoplasm
Nucleoplasm is a highly viscous fluid that forms the ground substance of the nucleus. It is
similar to cytoplasm present outside the nucleus. Nucleoplasm surrounds chromatin and
nucleolus. It contains dense fibrillar network of proteins called the nuclear matrix and many
substances such as nucleotides and enzymes. The nuclear matrix forms the structural framework
for organizing chromatin. The soluble liquid part of nucleoplasm is known as nuclear
hyaloplasm.

Chromatin
Chromatin is a thread-like material made up of large molecules of DNA. The DNA molecules
are compactly packed with the help of a specialized basic protein called histone. So, chromatin is
referred as DNA-histone complex. It forms the major bulk of nuclear material. DNA is a double
helix which wraps around central core of eight histone molecules to form the fundamental
packing unit of chromatin called nucleosome. Nucleosomes are packed together tightly with the
help of a histone molecule to form a chromatin fiber. Just before cell division, the chromatin
condenses to form chromosome.

Chromosomes
Chromosome is the rod-shaped nuclear structure that carries a complete blueprint of all the
hereditary characteristics of that species. A chromosome is formed from a single DNA molecule
coiled around histone molecules. Each DNA contains many genes. Normally, the chromosomes
are not visible in the nucleus under microscope. Only during cell division, the chromosomes are
visible under microscope. This is because DNA becomes more tightly packed just before
cell division, which makes the chromosome visible during cell division. All the dividing cells of
the body except reproductive cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes. Each pair consists of one
chromosome inherited from mother and one from father. The cells with 23 pairs of chromosomes
are called diploid cells. The reproductive cells called gametes or sex cells contain only 23 single
chromosomes. These cells are called haploid cells.

Nucleolus
Nucleolus is a small, round granular structure of the nucleus. Each nucleus contains one or more
nucleoli. The nucleolus contains RNA and some proteins, which are similar to those found in
ribosomes. The RNA is synthesized by five different pairs of chromosomes and stored in the
nucleolus. Later, it is condensed to form the subunits of ribosomes. All the subunits formed in
the nucleolus are transported to cytoplasm through the pores of nuclear membrane. In the
cytoplasm, these subunits fuse to form ribosomes, which play an essential role in the formation
of proteins.
„
FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS
Major functions of nucleus are the control of cellular activities and storage of hereditary
material. Several processes are involved in the nuclear functions.

Functions of nucleus:

1. Control of all the cell activities that include metabolism, protein synthesis, growth and
reproduction (cell division).

2. Synthesis of RNA.

3. Formation of subunits of ribosomes.

4. Sending genetic instruction to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis through messenger RNA
(mRNA).

5. Control of the cell division through genes.

6. Storage of hereditary information (in genes) and transformation of this information from one
generation of the species to the next.
„