EXAMINATION SYLLABUS b.

Sources of Inoculum
CROP PROTECTION c. Dissemination
d. Survival of Inoculum
PRINCIPLES OF PLANT PATHOLOGY e. Inoculation
I. INTRODUCTION f. Inoculum Potential
a. The Science and Art of Plant Pathology g. Pre-penetration
b. The Economic Importance of Plant Diseases h. Portals of Entry
c. Historical Development of Plant Diseases VIII. COLONIZATION OF THE SUSCEPT
II. CONCEPTS OF PLANT DISEASES; TERMINOLOGIES; DIAGNOSIS; a. Colonization By Viruses, Viroids, and Mycoplasma
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT DISEASES b. Colonization by Bacteria
a. Concepts of Plant Diseases c. Colonization by Fungi
b. Definition of Plant Diseases d. Colonization by Nematodes
c. Symptoms of Plant Diseases e. Latent Infection
d. Signs of Plant Diseases IX. MECHANISM OF PATHOGENECITY AND HOST RESPONSE
e. Plant Disease Diagnosis a. Interference with Uptake of Water and Inorganic Elements from the Soil
f. Classification of Plant Diseases b. Interference with Translocation with Organic Compounds
III. NON-PARASITIC AGENTS OF PLANT DISEASES c. Reduction of Plant Photosynthetic Capacity
a. Temperature d. Increased Transpiration
b. Lack of Oxygen e. Changes in the Growth of the Suscept
c. Light f. Changes in Host Reproduction
d. Adverse Environmental Conditions g. Death of Cells and Tissues
e. Air Pollution X. MECHANISMS OF DISEASE RESISTANCE
f. Mineral Deficiencies a. Defense Mechanisms
g. Excess nutrient element b. Biochemical/Physiological Basis
h. Soil pH c. Morphological/Anatomical Basis
i. Improper Agricultural Practices d. Varietal Differences
j. Soil Moisture XI. EPIDEMIOLOGY OF PLANT DISEASES
k. Naturally Occurring Toxic Chemicals a. Factors Affecting the Development of Epidemics
IV. PARASITIC AGENTS OF PLANT DISEASES b. Analysis of Epidemics
a. Viroids, and Viruses as Plant Pathogens c. Relation to Control
b. Bacteria XII. ASSESSMENT OF DISEASE INCIDENCE AND CROP LOSS
c. Mycoplasma a. Methods of Measuring Plant Diseases
d. Rickettsia b. Methods of Measuring Crop Losses
e. Fungi c. Plant Disease Surveys
f. Nematodes XIII. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PLANT DISEASE CONTROL
g. Parasitic Flowering Plants a. Principles of Plant Disease Control
h. Insect as Plant Pathogen Vector b. Methods of Plant Disease Control
V. VARIABILITY OF PLANT PATHOGENS
a. Concepts PRINCIPLES OF ENTOMOLOGY
b. Mechanisms of Variation I. INTRODUCTION
c. Genetics and Host-Parasite Interactions a. History of Entomology
VI. DISEASE CYCLES b. The Importance of Insects to Man and Agriculture
a. Parts of Disease Cycles c. Distinguishing Characteristics of Insects
b. Types of Disease Cycles d. General Structure of an Insects
VII. INOCULATION, INOCULUM SURVIVAL, AND INOCULATION AND e. Types of Insect Antennae, Mouthparts, Legs, and Wings
PATHOGENS ENTRY INTO PLANTS f. Types of Insect Metamorphosis
a. Types of Inoculum II. CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS

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 a. Classification, Nomenclature and Identification of Insects UNIT 1 – INTRODUCTION
b. Morphological Characteristics Used to Distinguish Insect Orders
c. The Different Orders of Insects The Science and Art of Plant Pathology
III. INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR CROPS AND STORED PRODUCTS Plant Pathology (Phytopathology) deals with the nature causes a
a. The Concept of Pests
b. Kinds of Pests
control of plant diseases. It tries to look into the characteristics of diseases, their
c. What is an Insect causes, plant-pathogen interaction, factors affecting disease development in
d. Economic Injury and Economic Threshold Levels individual plants and in populations and various means of control.
e. Classification of Insects Based on Feeding Habits The art of Plant Pathology deals with the application of knowledge gained
f. Terms Describing Insect Feeding from studying of the science. These include:
g. Ways How Insect Damage or Destroy Crops and Other Plants  Diagnosis or recognizing particular diseases by their symptoms and
h. Some Insect Pests of Major Crops and the Characteristic Damage signs
Inflicted  Disease assessment and forecasting
IV. METHODS OF INSECT PEST CONTROL  Recommendation of appropriate control measures
a. Cultural Control
b. Mechanical and Physical Control
 Field application of suitable control measures
c. Host Plant Resistance The raison d‟etre and ultimate objective of Plant Pathology is to prevent or
d. Genetic Insect Control Method minimize plant diseases not only to increase food production but also to
e. Biological Control maintain the quantity and quality of the harvested fresh commodity until it
f. Chemical Control reaches the consumer. We also need to protect plants used for “fibers, drugs and
g. Quarantine/Legal Control aesthetics”
h. Integrated Pest Management Economic Importance of Plant Diseases
Human beings including all other animals are considered “guests” of the
PRINCIPLES OF WEED SCIENCE plant kingdom because from plants, we do not only derived our food but also
I. Weed Science as a Discipline materials for our clothing, shelter needs and for numerous luxuries.
II. What Is Weed?
 Medicinal plants are sources of drugs; ornamentals make up a multi-
III. Classification and Identification
IV. Weed Establishment million dollar industry
V. Weed Reproduction and Dispersal  When diseases kill plants, all other forms of life on earth are adversely
VI. Weed Interference affected.
VII. Methods of Weed Control History has recorded that there were numerous cases of human sufferings,
death and upheavals due to plant disease epidemics
OTHER PESTS The potato late blight disease caused famine and death of ore than a million
I. Vertebrates people in Ireland in 1845-46.
II. Mollusks Coffee rust devastated vast coffee plantations and areas were
converted to tea, probable reason why Englishmen are average tea drinker
PESTICIDE CALCULATION today.
At present, famines and malnutrition occur in many parts of the world
especially in Africa, Latin America and Asia where plant disease control
measures are inadequate or unknown. The increasing world population
compounds the problem since there will be more mouths to feed and less
agricultural land to till.
Even in the US where modern production methods are practiced, the
use of pesticides is widespread; still loses due to diseases ran over 4.6 million
dollars annually

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 In the Philippines, enormous losses due to plant diseases have been  Fossilized fungi have been found and are about 2 billion years old. It is
recorded; believed that plant diseases have been present on earth before man
Cadang-cadang disease of coconut has cost the country a loss over 200 appeared on this planet.
million dollars since it was first observed in 1918.  The Bible as well as the great philosophers such as Aristotle, Homer
Downy mildew of corn destroyed as much as 95% of the corn crop and Theophrastus recorded a number of diseases including blights,
before a seed treatment chemical was discovered in 1978. The loss amounted to mildews, rusts and blasts.
over 170 million pesos annually.  Then as man learned to cultivate plants, diseases took a tremendous
Tungro disease of rice affected 70.000 ha of rice in 1971 alone causing toll off his crop.
a loss of 1.22 million cavans valued at about Php 30, 357, 00. Superstitious beliefs regarding diseases were rampant in those days.
Coffee and citrus plantations considered to be profitable sources of  The Greeks and Hebrews (500 BC – 280 BC) believed that diseases
income in Batangas province were ravaged by coffee rusts and the latter by were brought down on them as punishments for their sins from a
citrus decline. wrathful god.
Crop losses due to plant diseases are expressed in various ways:  For instance, the Romans held an annual festival called Robigalia in
1. Reduction in yield of diseased plants honor of their rust gods Robigus and Robigo who they believed
2. Deterioration of harvested produce during storage, marketing or transport responsible for the ravages due to rust diseases on their crops.
3. Reduction in the quality of the produce  Theophrastus (370 BC- 286 BC) recorded several diseases of grains,
4. Many disease-causing organism produce poisonous substances or toxins that trees and vegetables in his book “Historia Plantarum”. He was known
endanger the health of the consumer as the Father of Botany
Aspergillus flavus – contain aflatoxin which is carcinogenic  Pliny the elder wrote about blights and rusts in his “Historia
Aspergillus ochraceus – produce ochratoxin which causes cancer of Naturalis”. He even recommended that early sowing of grains allowed
the liver. wheat and barley to escape rust infection.
Fusarium graminearum – produces an estrogenic factor in corn which  Around 875 AD and many years thereafter, ergot epidemics in humans
causes the testes of young male swine to atrophy and the uteri of females to swept throughout Europe. It is a disease of rye caused by Claviceps
enlarge and finally to abort. purpurea which produced sclerotium that replace the cereal grain. The
Fusarium spp produce fumonisins in corn grains which can cause sclerotium contains alkaloids which impede blood circulation thus
esophageal cancer in man and is toxic to other animals like horses causing gangrene and loss of arms, legs, toes, fingers and finally death
5. A pathogen may cause the plant to become weak and susceptible to the to people who have eaten infected grains. This disease was known as
attack by other pathogens Holy Fire or St. Anthony‟s fire believed to be a divine punishment for
Ex: root injuries due to nematodes will serve as avenues for the man‟s sins.
entrance of other organisms like Bacteria  During these periods, no scientific experiments were conducted.
Leaf pathogens usually weaken the plant and make it more People explained natural phenomena with speculations, and more
susceptible to root-rotting pathogens. often, reached wrong conclusions.
6. Increase the cost of production and handling  They were also strongly influenced by superstitions which were passed
Ex: One major input in production is the cost of controlling diseases. from generation to generation.
The high cost of pesticides for instance is passed to the consumers, thus we pay Beginnings and Advances in Scientific Studies
a staggering price for the produce. From the 17th century to the mid-19th, early attempts at classifying
plant diseases were made by Tournefort, Zallinger, Fabricius and Unger.
UNIT 2: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Franz Unger was credited with his “Autogenetic Theory of Disease”
which states that when plants are in the decline phase, the cellular constituents
Pre- scientific Period call forth new forms of life by a vital force. This theory considers the pathogen
an outgrowth of the infected host plant without an independent body or life of
 Diseases of plants have caused devastations since time immemorial. its own or the pathogen is the result of the disease not the cause.

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The concept of spontaneous generation prevailed for such a long time until  Stahel (1931) found protozoa causing abnormal phloem formation and
the microscope was invented. wilting of coffee.
 Hans and Zaccharias Jansen invented the compound microscope in  Mycoplasma-like organisms (MLO) as plant pathogens were first
1590 reported by Doi and co-workers in 1965. Diseases in which MLO are
 The “Germ Theory of Disease” which was the foundation of the implicated are lethal yellowing of coconut, potato witches broom,
science of Plant Pathology was enhanced by the works of various bunchy top of papaya, rice yellow dwarf, aster yellows. The MLO‟s
people: are now called as Phytoplasmas
 In 1665, Hooke was the first to see plant cells in cork pith and  Davis and co-workers (1972) observed what they called spiroplasma.
illustrated in detail a plant pathogenic fungus in his “Micrographia”. These motile helical organisms caused the stunt disease of corn. The
 Leeuwenhoek (1683) found bacteria, protozoa and other Phytoplasmas and Spiroplasmas are placed taxonomically in Class
microorganisms in water and other substances. Mollicutes, Order Mycoplasmatales. They are also termed as
 Pier Antonio Micheli (1729) described several genera o fungi with Mollicutes.
complete illustrations of their fruiting bodies and spores in his “Nova  Diener (1971) observed viroids causing spindle disease of potato. It is
Plantarum Genera” an infectious RNA which is the smallest agent of plant disease and is
 Tillet (1755) dusts (spores) of smutted wheat when sown in healthy not capable of independent multiplication. Cadang-cadang of coconut,
seeds resulted to smutted wheat. citrus exocortis and potato spindle tuber are believed to be caused by
 Targioni-Tozetti (1766) and Fontana (1767) studied on cereal rusts and viroids.
concluded that the disease was caused by rust fungi  Bordeaux mixture was discovered by Millardet in October 1882. A
 Prevost (1807) demonstrated that bunt disease of wheat was caused by highly effective fungicide, formed the foundation for the chemical
a fungus. He also noted that seeds soaked in a copper bucket resulted control of plant diseases
in smut-free plants  In 1960, aflatoxin was identified poisonous compound produced by
The period from 1850 to 1900 was called the etiological period, during Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Today, over 200 mycotoxins
which, the theory that, plant diseases were caused by plant pathogenic have been reported
organisms was developed: C. Development of Plant Pathology in the Philippines
Heinrich Anton de Bary (1853) demonstrated that fungi are the cause and
not the result of plant diseases. This marked the end of the autogenetic theory  The first disease reported in the Philippines were coffee rust (1885)
and the acceptance of the germ theory. He showed that the fungus caused by Hemeleia vastatrix and coconut bud rot caused by
Phytophthora infestans was the cause of potato leaf blight. For this, he was Phytophthora palmivora.
considered “Father of Plant Pathology”.  Copeland investigated coconut bud rot and results were published in
 Julius Kuhn (1858) wrote the first textbook on plant pathology entitled 1908. Dr. Copeland as the first dean of the UP College of Agriculture
“The Diseases of Cultivated Plants, their causes and their Prevention”.  Two other diseases earned early attention and these were corn leaf
 Louis Pasteur (1860) com-pleted the overthrow of the theory of blight reported by Robinson in 1911 and corn downy mildew reported
spontaneous generation when he provided irrefutable evidence that by Baker in 1912.
microorganism arose from pre-existing living entities.  Baker also published “The Lower Fungi of the Philippine Islands” in
 Ivanowski (1892) and Beijerinck (1898) showed that some plant 1914.
diseases are caused by very small entities that could pass through  Prof. Reinking and his students published “Philippine Economic Plant
bacteria-proof filters. This started the field of Virology Diseases” in 1918
 Stanley (1935) crystallized a virus for the first time (TMV)  Ocfemia (1918) made numerous studies notably on abacca bunchy top
 Needham first observed wheat gall in 1743 but it was Cobb who including the vector of the causal organism. Because of his
conducted extensive studies on the morphology and taxonomy of plant outstanding works, he was given the title “Dean of Filipino Plant
parasitic nematodes from 1913 to 1932. Pathologists”
 Flagellate protozoans were first observed by Lafont in 1909. In the 1950‟s an 1960‟s the College of Agriculture, UP underwent a large
scale development program which lead to the advance training of several
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personnel here and abroad. The Philippine Phytopathological Society was classifying plants also believed in the Theory of Spontaneous Generation. The
established in 1963 and is still going strong at present. advancement of plant pathology was even more held back because scholars like
In 1980‟s up to the present, there has been a tremendous concern on the Linnaeus also believed in the theory. *The present system of naming living
hazards posed by extensive use of chemicals to control diseases and pests. This things followed the Latin binomial established by Linnaeus. He also wrote the
has encouraged investigations on finding alternative means of controlling plant book “Species Plantarum”
diseases The theory of spontaneous generation for larger organisms was easily
 In 1983-84, Davide and co-workers investigated a fungus, shown to be false, but the theory was not fully discredited until the mid-19th
Paecilomyces lilacinus, as biocontrol against plant parasitic nematode century with the demonstration of the existence and reproduction of
During the latter part of the 20th century, advances in Molecular Biology microorganisms.
have aided plant pathologists. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) demolished the theory of spontaneous
 Scientists in the country have used monoclonal antibodies for the generation and established the germ theory. Prior to Pasteur it was generally
detection of viruses and other pathogens. accepted that some life forms arose spontaneously from non-living matter.
 Kits for rapid screening of tungro infection, aflatoxin contamination Pasteur experiments disproved the theory of spontaneous generation and
and papaya ringspot were developed demonstrated that microorganisms occur everywhere– even in the air.
 The bacterium which caused sugar cane ratoon stunt was detected
using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique by researchers in OVERVIEW THE BEGINNING OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY
UP Los Baños
 In this age of GE and advances in IT, there remains much to be done. While early civilizations were well aware that plants were attacked by
Many new diseases crop up every year, resistance to chemical control diseases, it was not until the invention of the first microscope that people began
have sprung up and new virulent strains have surfaced. Plant to understand the real causes of these diseases. There are references in the Bible
Pathology is still a fertile field for study and research in the country. to blights, blasts, and mildews. Aristotle wrote about plant diseases in 350 B.C.
and Theophrastus (372-287 B.C.) theorized about cereal and other plant
HISTORY OF PLANT PATHOLOGY diseases. During the Middle Ages in Europe, ergot fungus infected grain and
The Early Beliefs Shakespeare mentions wheat mildew in one of his plays.
Theophrastus 300 B.C. (The Father of Botany), recognized problems After Anton von Leeuwenhoek constructed a microscope in 1683, he
(maladies) with plants such as scorch, rots, scabs and rusts. Early Romans was able to view organisms, including protozoa and bacteria, not visible to the
worshipped “a god of rust” called “Robigus” in the hope to prevent from naked eye. In the eighteenth century, Duhumel de Monceau described a fungus
getting rust problems in their cereals. Ancient times (the middle ages) – there disease and demonstrated that it could be passed from plant to plant, but his
was an intellectual “blackout”. People believed in superstitions, avoidance of discovery was largely ignored. About this same time, nematodes were described
reasons and religious dogmas. These blocked the minds of intellectuals. During by several English scientists and by 1755 the treatment of seeds to prevent a
these times they believed in “Theory of Spontaneous Generation” of lower wheat disease was known.
plants and animals. This theory passed down from century to century. Theory of In the nineteenth century, Ireland suffered a devastating potato famine
Spontaneous generation stated that an organism is formed or created from due to a fungus that caused late blight of potatoes. At this time, scientists began
where it exists or from where it comes from. For example frogs live in pond, so to take a closer look at plant diseases. Heinrich Anton DeBary, known as the
the frog was created there at the pond! The supposed development of living father of modern plant pathology, published a book identifying fungi as the
organisms from nonliving matter, as maggots from rotting meat.. cause of a variety of plant diseases. Until this time, it was commonly believed
During the middle ages, the intellectual thinking was limited by the that plant diseases arose spontaneously from decay and that the fungi were
strong belief in the theory of spontaneous generation. Scholars were impressed caused by this spontaneously generated disease. DeBary supplanted this theory
with appearance of plant diseases but confused as to the factors that brought of spontaneously generated diseases with the germ theory of disease.
them about. The advancement of plant pathology was held back due to the firm Throughout the rest of the nineteenth century scientists working in many
belief in the Theory of Spontaneous Generation. In the 16th, 17th and 18th different countries, including Julian Gotthelf Kühn, Oscar Brefeld, Robert
centuries, scholars were sceptical of the theory but views on this were not Hartig, Thomas J. Burrill, Robert Koch, Louis Pasteur, R. J. Petri, Pierre
accepted. Linnaeus (1753) who established the Latin binomial in naming and Millardet, Erwin F. Smith, Adolph Mayer, Dimitri Ivanovski, Martinus
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Beijerinck, and Hatsuzo Hashimoto, made important discoveries about specific community. It was difficult even with results based on sound data, to be
diseases that attacked targeted crops. accepted by the scientific community.
Viruses
During the twentieth century advances were made in the study of
nematodes. In 1935 W. M. Stanley was awarded a Nobel Prize for his work Adolf Meyer (1886) – published a report on the disease of tobacco he
with the tobacco mosaic virus. By 1939, virus particles could be seen under the called “mosaic”. He was the first person to give the term “mosaic” and also the
new electron microscope. In the 1940s fungicides were developed and in the first person to record experimental transmission of a virus disease. The sap
1950s nematicides were produced. In the 1960s Japanese scientist Y. Doi from the diseased plant was inoculated to the midrib of a healthy plant and
discovered mycoplasmas, organisms that resemble bacteria but lack a rigid cell showed symptoms of the disease in the young leaves.
wall, and in 1971, T. O. Diener discovered viroids, organisms smaller than E.F. Smith (1891) transmitted peach yellows by bud grafting. Dimitri
viruses. Ivanowski (1892) – proved that tobacco mosaic was not caused by bacteria. He
Fungi demonstrated that the juice of tobacco mosaic when passed through bacteria-
The destructive disease caused by “holy fire” took place in the Middle proof filter. The filtrate was still infectious!
Ages in Europe. The disease brought about human poisoning of the gangrenous Martinus Willem Beijerink (1898)– reported minute amount of sap of
type; toes, fingers, ears and nose become necrotic followed by death. The tobacco mosaic was sufficient to infect several plants and was the first person to
disease was caused by Ergot infected grain. The disease is presently known as give the term “virus”.
“ergotism” Hashimoto (Japan, 1894-1895)– demonstrated that insects can
In Europe, the main cereal for bread was rye. The disease became transmit virus! He demonstrated by proving leafhoppers transmit dwarf virus to
epidemic several times in France and Germany from 16th to 19th century. The rice plants. That was the first demonstration of proving insects could serve as
disease was very severe and of the convulsive type; affected the human nervous “vectors” for plant diseases.Stanley (Rockefeller Institute, 1935)– was the first
system causing convulsions followed by death person to crystallize tobacco mosaic virus. In 1958, a plant virus was found to
Ergot poisoning did not become severe in America because the main be transmitted by a plant parasitic nematode. This virus was previously
bread crop there was wheat which was less susceptible than rye. Prevost described as being “soil-borne”.
(1807)– was a Swiss professor and he observed germination of spores of the
wheat bunt organism. He theorized that this organism penetrated the young Nematodes
wheat plant and was the actual cause of bunt! This revolutionary idea only Nathan A. Cobb– the Father of Nematology
gained favourable attention 40 years later by the French Academy. Prevost was Christie and Perry (1951)–discovered a group of nematodes that can damage
the first person to clearly demonstrate that microorganism could cause disease. roots without entering them.
He was the first person to promote the “Germ Theory”.
The tragic event “Irish Famine” where several million Irish people While early civilizations were well aware that plants were attacked by
died marked the starting point of scientific study in plant pathology This tragic diseases, it was not until the invention of the first microscope that people began
event occurred in 1845-1846. Two circumstances were responsible for the to understand the real causes of these diseases. There are references in the Bible
tragedy: 1. Peasant population wholly dependent on potato for food. 2. Potato to blights, blasts, and mildews. Aristotle wrote about plant diseases in 350 B.C.
crop almost completely destroyed by the “potato late blight” disease. Almost and Theophrastus (372-287 B.C.) theorized about cereal and other plant
one third of a population of 8 million died of starvation! De Bary described the diseases. During the middle Ages in Europe, ergot fungus infected grain and
nature and the life history of the causal pathogen of this disease. Modern Plant Shakespeare mentions wheat mildew in one of his plays.
Pathology was borned out of catastrophe-----The Germ Theory was accepted.
After Anton von Leeuwenhoek constructed a microscope in 1683, he
Bacteria was able to view organisms, including protozoa and bacteria, not visible to the
Burril (1877) from the University of Illinois reported that bacteria naked eye. In the eighteenth century, Duhumel de Monceau described a fungus
could cause disease. He showed that fire blight of pear was incited by bacterial disease and demonstrated that it could be passed from plant to plant, but his
organism. A lot of controversies took place at these times among the scientific discovery was largely ignored. About this same time, nematodes were described

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by several English scientists and by 1755 the treatment of seeds to prevent a the difference between disease and injury with the former progressing
wheat disease was known. over time whiles the latter as instantaneous.
 Merril (1980) defines diseases as “a dynamic interaction between
In the nineteenth century, Ireland suffered a devastating potato famine organism and its environment which results in abnormal physiological
due to a fungus that caused late blight of potatoes. At this time, scientists began and often morphological or neurological changes in the organism”.
to take a closer look at plant diseases. Heinrich Anton DeBary, known as the  Agrios (1978) defined diseases as “any disturbance brought about by a
father of modern plant pathology, published a book identifying fungi as the pathogen or environmental factor which interferes with manufacture,
cause of a variety of plant diseases. Until this time, it was commonly believed translocation or utilization of food, mineral nutrients and water in
that plant diseases arose spontaneously from decay and that the fungi were such a way that affected plants changes in appearance and yields less
caused by this spontaneously generated disease. DeBary supplanted this theory than a normal healthy plant of the same variety”.
of spontaneously generated diseases with the germ theory of disease.  In 1998, the author changed this definition to “any malfunctioning of
Throughout the rest of the nineteenth century scientists working in many host cells and tissues that result from continuous irritation by a
different countries, including Julian Gotthelf Kühn, Oscar Brefeld, Robert pathogen or an environmental factor and leads to the development of
Hartig, Thomas J. Burrill, Robert Koch, Louis Pasteur, R. J. Petri, Pierre symptoms”.
Millardet, Erwin F. Smith, Adolph Mayer, Dimitri Ivanovski, Martinus  NAS (1968) defines diseases as “harmful alteration of the normal
Beijerinck, and Hatsuzo Hashimoto, made important discoveries about specific physiological and biochemical development of a plant”.
diseases that attacked targeted crops. Salient points of the above definitions:

During the twentieth century advances were made in the study of 1) the presence of physiological disorders that are generally detrimental
nematodes. In 1935 W. M. Stanley was awarded a Nobel Prize for his work 2) morphological abnormalities result from the physiological
with the tobacco mosaic virus. By 1939, virus particles could be seen under the malfunctioning
new electron microscope. In the 1940s fungicides were developed and in the Definition and terminologies in Plant Pathology
1950s nematicides were produced. In the 1960s Japanese scientist Y. Doi Pathogen – any agent (biotic or abiotic) that cause a disease. However, the
discovered mycoplasmas, organisms that resemble bacteria but lack a rigid cell term is generally used to refer living organisms.
wall, and in 1971, T. O. Diener discovered viroids, organisms smaller than Parasite – organisms which depend wholly or partly on another for its food.
viruses. Most parasites are pathogens.
Obligate parasite – restricted to subsist only on living organisms (living
UNIT 3: CONCEPTS OF PLANT DISEASES, TERMINOLOGY,
tissues)
DIAGNOSIS,
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT DISEASES Facultative parasites – subsist both living and non-living tissues; it has the
Concepts of Plant Diseases ability to become a saprophyte.
Definition of diseases Host – in Plant Pathology, refers to the plant that is being attacked by the
parasite; a food relationship exists between the plant and pathogen.
 Whetzel (1929) considered diseases as “physiological malfunctioning Suscept – a plant that is susceptible to the disease whether or not the pathogen
caused by animate agents” in contrast to physiogenic diseases caused is parasitic.
by inanimate or non-living agents.
Pathogenicity – capacity of the pathogen to cause the disease
 Stakman and Harrar (1957) considered diseases as “any deviation from
normal growth or structure of plants that is sufficiently pronounced Pathogenesis – disease development in the plant
and permanent to produce visible symptoms or to impair quality or Virulence – refers to the quantitative amount of disease that a pathogen can
economic value cause in a group of plants in terms of size or number of lesions.
 Horsefall and Dimond (1959) states that diseases is “a malfunctioning Aggressiveness – measures the rate at which virulence is expressed by a given
process caused by a continuous irritation”. This definition emphasizes isolate of the pathogen.

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Resistance – inherent ability of the plant to overcome the effects of the Die-back – a drying backward from the tip of twigs or branches
pathogen. Fasciculation or fasciation – clustering of roots, flowers, fruits or twigs
Tolerance – ability of the plant that is severely affected by the pathogen around a common focus.
without experiencing severe reduction in yield. Leak – the host‟s juices exude or leak out from soft-rotted tissues
C. Requisite for Disease Gummosis – oozing out of viscid gum from wounds in bark
Pathogen – virulent Flecks – extremely tiny spots on leaves, fruits, stems, etc.
Host – susceptible Mosaic – the presence usually on leaves of variegated patterns of green and
yellow shades with sharply defined borders.
Environment – favorable Mottling – variegation is less defined and the boundaries of light and dark
variegated areas are more diffused.
Mummification – infected fruits are converted to a hard, dry, shrivelled
Host mummy.
Pathogen Phyllody – metamorphosis of sepals, petals, stamens or carpels into leaf-like
structures
Pitting – definite depressions or pits found in the surface of fruits, tubers and
other fleshy organs resulting in a pocked appearance
Rosetting – shortening of internodes of shoots; crowding of foliage in a rosette
Environment Rotting – disintegration and decomposition of host tissue. A dry rot is a firm,
D. Symptoms of Plant Diseases – expression of diseased plants dry decay whereas a soft rot is a soft, watery decomposition
Russeting – superficial brownish roughening of the skin of fruits, tubers or
Abscission – premature falling of leaves, fruits or flowers due to the early
other fleshy organs due to suberization of epidermal or sub-epidermal tissues
laying down of the abscission layer.
following injury
Blast – term applied to the sudden death of young buds, inflorescence or young
Sarcody – abnormal swelling of the bark above wounds due to the
fruits.
accumulation of elaborated food materials
Bleeding – flow of plant sap from wounds.
Savoying – the cupping or pocketing of parts of the leaf; curling or puckering;
Blight – an extensive, usually sudden death of host tissue
due to underdevlopment of veins or leaf margins
Blotch – large, irregular spots on leaves or fruits with necrotic injury of
Scab – slightly raised, rough, ulcer-like lesions due to the overgrowth of
epidermal cells.
epidermal and cortical tissues.
Callus – an overgrowth of tissue formed in response to injury in an effort of the
Shot-hole – a perforated appearance of a leaf as the dead areas of local lesions
plant to heal the wound.
drop out
Canker – an often sunken necrotic area with cracked borders that may appear
Spot – a localized necrotic area also referred to as lesion. It may be circular,
in leaves, fruits, stems and branches.
angular or irregular in shape
Chlorosis – yellowing caused by some factor other than light, such as infection
Streak or stripe – long, narrow necrotic lesions on leaves or stems
by a virus or a mycoplasma.
Vein clearing – the leaf veins are translucent or pale while the rest of the leaf is
Curling – abnormal bending or curling of leaves caused by over growth on one
normal in color.
side of the leaf or localized growth in certain portions.
Virescence or greening - development of chlorophyll in tissues or organs
Damping- off - rotting of seedlings prior to emergence or rotting of seedling
which is normally absent.
stems at an area just above the soil line.

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Wilting – may be due to an infectious agent or other abiotic causes. a. Freezing injury – common in areas where T gets down to below 0C.
E. Signs of Plant Diseases – expression/manifestation of the organism causing This is due to the formation of ice crystals inter/intracellularly
the disease which kills the cells.
b. Chilling injury – occurs at low temperatures slightly above freezing.
Fungi – sexual/asexual spores, fruiting bodies, sclerotial bodies, fungal
Tropical fruits and vegetables are susceptible; symptoms are
mycelia
pitting and water soaking; predisposed to anthracnose and
Bacteria – ooze
alternaria fruit rot.
Nematodes – eggs, larvae, adults 2. Diseases caused by too high temperatures
Phanerogams – seeds, any plant parts a. Sunscald – fruits/vegetables exposed to high temperatures and bright
F. Plant Disease Diagnosis sunlight. Affected area exhibits light colored, blistered or discolored
Koch‟s Postulate: skin.
1. constant association of the organism with the diseased plant b. Heat necrosis – characterized by yellowing or browning of the skin
2. isolation of the suspected organism into pure culture Ex: potatoes grown in light soil where it is hot and dry
3. inoculation of the organism 3. Lack of oxygen – common in water-logged and poorly aerated storage areas
4. reisolation of the suspected organism Ex: potato black heart – potatoes show black coloration of internal tissues
G. Classification of Plant Diseases 4. Light – too much or too little
According to affected plant organ a. etiolation – due to inadequate light; increase susceptibility to
Ex: root diseases, foliar diseases pathogenic invasion
According to symptoms b. scorching/sunscalding – too much light along with high T
Ex: leafspots, rusts, smuts, anthracnose 5. Adverse meteorological conditions
According to type of affected plants Ex: strong winds, heavy rains, lightning, etc.
Ex: vegetable diseases, fruit diseases 6. Air pollutants
According to type of pathogen a. ethylene – a plant hormone in proper concentration at the right time
Ex: bacterial diseases, fungal diseases, etc. Effect: premature senescence, etiolation, flower drop, leaf malformation
UNIT 4 – NON PARASITIC AGENTS OF PLANT DISEASES Source: motor vehicle exhausts
Common non-parasitic agents of plant diseases: b. nitrogen oxides – combustion of coal, gasoline, antural gas and fuel oils
Effects: irregular brown or white lesions along leaf margins and
1. temperature (excessively low or T that is too high) between veins
2. lack of oxygen Source: automobile exhausts
3. too much or too little of light c. peroxyacetyl nitrates (PAN‟s) – when nitrogen oxides undergo
4. adverse meteorological conditions photochemical reaction with gaseous hydrocarbons to form ozone and
5. air pollutants PAN‟s
6. mineral deficiencies/excesses Effect: plasmolysis the spongy mesophyll and lower epidermal cells
7. unfavorable soil pH
followed by dehydration and filling up of empty spaces with air.
8. excessive pesticide levels
9. improper agricultural practices - bronzing, silvering of leaf surfaces
10. lack/excess soil moisture Source: smog of large cities
11. naturally occurring toxic chemicals d. ozone
1. Diseases caused by too low temperatures Effect: water-soaked spots on leaves and black flecks on veinlets
Source: smog
e. particulates – lime and cement dusts, ash and soot

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 Effects: necrosis of leaves, leaf fall Zinc deficiency – mottled chlorosis followed by necrosis and eventual
Sources: burning fields, cement factories, lime kiln operation, volcanic defoliation, die-back of twigs of fruit trees and abnormal shortening of growing
eruptions parts. Zn is involved in certain enzyme systems.
7. Diseases due to mineral deficiencies Calcium deficiency - leaf mesophyll tissue, stems and flower stalks frequently
Plants vary in their nutritional requirements but generally require large collapse and the growing parts may be killed resulting in die-back; roots are
amounts of the macroelements (N, P, K, Ca, S, Mg) and smaller amounts of the poorly developed. Ca is a component of cell walls and membranes. It is also an
microelements (Fe, Mn, Cu, Mo, Cl). enzyme activator.
Nitrogen deficiency – chlorotic leaves, dwarfing, premature leaf fall, poor seed
Molybdenum deficiency – leaf blades do not develop, leaving the midribs
and fruit production. Nitrogen is a constituent of enzymes, proteins and nucleic
bare. Mo is an electron carrier in N metabolism.
acids such as DNA and RNA
NOTE: Deficiency diseases are corrected by the application of the
Phosphorus deficiency - subnormal roots, leaves are erect, small, necrotic;
appropriate chemicals.
cereal leaves take on reddish or purplish tints. P is a constituent of
phospholipids, sugar phosphates, nucleic acids, etc.
8. Diseases caused by excesses of nutrient elements
Potassium deficiency – tips of leaves become chlorotic (starting with the older
 high level of certain elements caused or affects the solubility of other
leaves); tips and marginsappear scorched. The leaves may develop bronzing elements
and marginal scorching, finally turning reddish brown and dying. K is involved a) high Ca reduces the availability of Mn and Fe
in Ps and Rn. b) too much N causes too luxuriant vegetative growth
Magnesium deficiency - chlorosis first appear on older leaves; necrotic lesions c) excess Bo causes necrosis and dwarfing
may develop; normal green color tends to remain around the veinsfor sometime. d) excess Na can cause dwarfing
9. Diseases caused by improper agricultural practices
Since Mg is an essential component of chlorophyll, chlorosis is the primary
a. Unfavorable pH - high pH (alkaline) affects the availability of certain
symptom (interveinal chlorosis)
minerals required for growth; with very low pH (acidic), there is
Iron deficiency - general chlorosis; leaves becoming almost colorless as in accumulation in toxic levels of Fe and other elements.
pineapple yellows disease. Mottling and die-back of twigs may also occur. It is b. Improper use of pesticides – due to excessively high concentration of
common in alkaline soils where Fe is not made available for plant use. Fe is a the chemical, from vapor drifts to sensitive plants and from incorrect
constituent of cytochromes involved in respiration. It is a component of heme methods of pesticide application.
enzymes and is involved in chlorophyll synthesis. - Inadequate or too much watering can cause physiological disorders
Manganese deficiency - chlorosis and scattered necrotic spots on young - Too deep cultivation may injure roots of plants
leaves; dwarfing and premature death of plants. Mn is an enzyme activator in - Potted plants that are in containers which are too small may be
photosynthesis, carbohydrate metabolism and nitrogen metabolism. stunted and grow poorly
Sulfur deficiency – yellowing of leaves and die-back; S is a component of c. Lack of or excess soil moisture
amino acids cysteine, cystine and methionine as well as of vitamins such as - Cause wilting
biotin and thiamine. - Excess water will deplete O2 supply in the soil and weakens the root
Boron deficiency – por growth, young growing parts‟ often become yellowish system and favors water-loving pathogens to multiply.
and the terminal shoots die. Bo is involved in the sugar transport and in 10. Diseases caused by naturally occurring toxic chemicals
carbohydrate metabolism. - substances produced by other plants and is toxic to others
Ex: hydrogen sulfide may form in rice fields in the presence of ferrous
Copper deficiency – die-back of leaf tips, wilting, stunting, distortion of
ion under flooded condition that is detrimental to rice
certain plant parts. Cu is involved in photosynthesis and is part of certain
- Juglone formed by walnut that is toxic to potatoes and apples
enzymes.
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- Amygdalin produced by old peach roots is broken down to toxic hydrogen Important in industrial processes
cyanide and benzaldehyde; lethal to new peach trees. ex. Vinegar – Acetobacter aceti, Steroids – Streptomyces sp., Yoghurt
– Lactobacillus sp., Nata de coco – Acetobacter xylinum
IV. PARASITIC AGENTS OF PLANT DISEASES BACTERIA GENERA OF PLANT PATHOGENIC BACTERIA:
Acetobacter Brenneria Acidovorax Burkholderia
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Agrobacterium Clavibacter Arthrobacter Clostridium
Typically one-celled Bacillus Corynebacterium Curtobacterium Pectobacterium
• Possess a unit membrane and a rigid cell wall Enterobacter Pseudomonas Erwinia Ralstonia
• Nuclear material consists of DNA Gluconobacter Rathayibacter Nocardia Rhizobacter
• Reproduce by binary fission Pantoea Rhodococcus Sphingomonas Serratia
Shape: Spiroplasma Streptomyces Xanthomonas Xylella
Spherical or ellipsoidal (cocci) ex. Staphylococcus, Streptococcus Xylophilus
Rod-shape or cylindrical (bacilli) ex. Lactobacillus, E. coli Symptoms caused by Bacteria:
Spiral-shape or helicoidal (spirilla) ex. Treponema, Borellia 1. Leaf Spot – bacteria colonize the substomatal cavities and parenchyma cells
COLONY MORPHOLOGY of leaves causing lesions
Color:colored - orange, yellow, white, pink, black, red translucent - colony ex. Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria – leaf spot of tomato or pepper
would appear clear, like glass, or a drop of water Pseudomonas syringae pv. mori – leaf spot of mulberry
Based on Cell Wall Contents (Staining Methods) Leaf Spot of pepper
Gram-Positive Bacteria - the thick layer of Peptidoglycans is stained purple Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria
by the crystal violet dye, which is why gram-positive bacteria appear purple or 2. Soft Rot – bacteria produce hydrolytic enzymes that degrade the middle
blue. lamellae and cell walls of the host. A soft watery, slimy decay results
Gram-Negative Bacteria - the thin layer of Peptidoglycans cannot retain the ex. Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum – bacterial soft rot of
crystal violet dye, and thus appear red or pink due to the retention of the vegetables cabbage soft rot Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum
counter-stain. 3. Blight – causes general necrosis
Based on Requirement of Oxygen - bacteria are also classified based on the ex. Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci – tobacco wildfire
requirement of oxygen for their survival. Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. diffenbachiae – blight of anthurium
• Aerobic bacteria - Bacteria that need oxygen for their survival. tobacco wildfire Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci
• Anaerobic bacteria - Bacteria that do not require oxygen for survival. 4. Gall – hypertrophy and hyperplasiaof meristematic and parenchymatous
Based on Formation of Spores: tissues
• Endospore forming bacteria ex. Agrobacterium tumefaciens – crown gall of roses
• Non-endospore forming bacteria 5. Canker – phloem and parenchyma tissues become sunken, dry up and die
IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA: ex. Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri – canker of citrus
Important in the global ecologyex. recycling of nutrients such as C, N, S 6. Wilting – disorders involving the xylem vesselss resulting in the wilting as
decomposition of organic materials the bacteria multiplies and block the normal flow of water
Cause human diseases ex. Ralstonia solanacearum – wilt of solanaceous crops
ex. Syphilis – Treponema palidum, Gonorrhea – Neisseria gonorrhoea, Pantoea stewartii subsp. sterwartii – bacterial wilt of corn
Tetanus – Clostridium tetan, Food Poisoning – Clostridium botulinum Emerging Infectious Diseases (EIDs) in Asia: Moko Disease Bacterial Fruit
Cause plant diseases Blotch
ex. bacterial wilt of solanaceous crops- Ralstonia solanacearum Re-emerging Infectious Diseases (EIDs) in the Philippines:
soft rots of fruits and vegetables- Pectobacterium carotovorum 1. Huang long bin of Citrus (Citrus Greening) – due to Liberibacter spp.
bacterial leaf blight of rice - Xanthomonas translucens 2. Bacterial Crown Rot of Papaya due to Erwinia papayae
bacterial stalk rot of corn- Erwinia chrysanthemi Control of Bacterial Diseases:

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1. Cultural practices (sanitation to reduce inoculum, crop rotation, proper Phylum Dictyosteliomycota
watering and drainage to inhibit infection and disease spread) Phylum Acrasiomycota
2. Seed treatment Phylum Myxomycota
3. Resistant cultivars PHYLUM OOMYCOTA
 most members are aquatic; watermolds
FUNGI  produce sexual spores called oospores
 produce asexual spores called zoospores (flagellated)
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS ex. Phytophthora infestans – late blight of potatoes
 Filamentous (have hyphae) PHYLUM CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA (chytrids)
 Spore-bearing  having zoospores (motile cells) with a single, posterior, whiplash
 Septated or non-septated structure (flagellum)
 With absorptive nutrition  microscopic in size
 Reproduce sexually and asexually  most are found in freshwater or wet soils
 Unicellular or multicellular  most are parasites of algae and animals or live on organic debris (as
 Spore-bearing saprobes)
Distribution:  few species in the order Chytridiales cause plant disease
 Primarily terrestrial but some are freshwater or marine  Order Chytridiales (causing plant diseases):Synchytrium endobioticum
 Many infect plants and animals (potato wart disease or black scab)
 Form beneficial relationship with other organisms  Order Chytridiales (causing plant diseases): Olpidium brassicae
ex. Mycorrhiza – association of fungi with plant roots (blackleg disease)
Lichens – association of fungi with either algae or Cyanobacteria PHYLUM ZYGOMYCOTA (bread molds)
Structure of Fungi:  reproduced sexually and asexually:sexual spores – zygospores asexual
• The vegetative structure is the thallus; long filaments of cells joined spores - sporangiospores
together called hyphae  hyphae are coenocytic (non-segmented) ex. Rhizopus stolonifer
• Structure of Fungi:  Choanephora cucurbitarum (soft rot of squash)
Hyphae PHYLUM ASCOMYCOTA (sac fungi)
• The hyphae could be septated (presence of cross walls or septum) or  very diverse: from unicellular yeasts to powdery mildews, molds and
Non-septated (coenocytic) to large and complex cup fungi
• Structure of Fungi:  Penicillium sp.
• When environment favors, the hyphae grow, entertwine and form a  reproduce sexually and asexually: fruiting body is the ascus which
mass called mycelium produce sexual spores called ascospores (8);
FUNGAL CLASSIFICATION:  asexual spores are the conidia
1. Kingdom Chromista (Stramenopila) TYPES OF FRUITING BODIES:
Phylum Oomycota 1. Perithecium – flask-like containing asci w/ascospores ex. Phyllachora
Phylum Hypochytridiomycota cinnamomi Phyllachora cinnamomi (tar spot)
Phylum Labyrinthulomycota 2. Cleistothecium – completely close, spherical containing asci with
2. Kingdom Fungi ascospores ex. Uncinula necator (powdery mildew)
Phylum Chytridiomycota 3. Apothecium – cup-like with asci containing ascospores ex. Peziza sp.
Phylum Zygomycota HARMFUL MEMBERS
Phylum Ascomycota Some species of Aspergillus produce the toxin aflatoxin, w/c is detrimental to
Phylum Basidiomycota plant, human and animal health
3. Kingdom Protista PHYLUM BASIDIOMYCOTA (club fungi)
Phylum Plasmodiophoromycota

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  common mushroom, puffballs and other fleshy fungi; parasitic rusts a. Sedentary – strictly endoparasitic; enters roots as 2nd stage larva and
and smut fungi complete their life cycle inside the roots
 the fruiting body is callled the basidium w/c produce the sexual ex. Meloidogyne spp. – root-knot nema
spores called basidiospores b. Migratory – enters the roots, feeds, lays eggs and then gets out from
 common mushroom, puffballs and other fleshy fungi; parasitic rusts the roots
and smut fungi ex. Helicotylenchus sp. (spiral)
IMPORTANT MEMBERS: Pratylenchus sp. (lesion nema)
 Edible mushroom: Volvariella, Agaricus, Auricularia, Pleurotus, Radopholus similis (burrowing)
Termitomyces spp., Calocybe indica c. Semi-endoparasites – only a portion of its body is inside the roots
 Poisonous mushroom: Amanita sp. ex. Rotylenchulus reniformis - reniform
 Plant Pathogenic: rusts, smuts, root rots, etc. Tylenchulus semipentrans –citrus nema
CLASS DEUTEROMYCETES: 2. Ectoparasites – those that feed on the outside portion of the roots
Asexual Spores Produced: ex. Paratylenchus sp., Hemicycliophora sp.
1. Arthrospores – formed from the fragmentation of thallus or septate Xiphinema sp. – vector of viruses
mycelia into a single slightly thickened cells SYMPTOMS:
2. Chlamydospores – thick-walled spores formed by rounding and 1. Galls – result of hypertrophy and hyperplasia (caused by root-knot
enlargement within a hyphal segment nematodesMeloidogyne incognita)
3. Sporangiospores – formed within the sporangium borne at the tip of 2. Stunting – reduction in growth
sporangiophores 3. Wilting – due to injured roots
4. Conidiospores – not enclosed in a sac; produced in chain at the end of a 4. Leaf spots, distortion and twisting
conidiophore 5. Necrotic
5. Blastospores – consist of a bud coming off from the parent cell CONTROL:
CONTROL OF FUNGAL DISEASES: 1. Nematicides
1. Sanitation in the field and after harvest 2. Biological control
2. Rouging of diseased plants early in the season ex. Paecilomyces lilacinus
3. Use of resistant cultivars 3. Cultural Practices
4. Crop rotation if the pathogen has a limited host range - Crop rotation, fallowing, flooding, trap crops, resistant varieties
5. Hot water treatment
6. Use of antagonists of plant pathogens VIRUSES
7. Control of insects and other vectors GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS:
8. Use of chemicals only when absolutely necessary  Latin word for “poison”
 Ultra-microscopic entities that can pass through bacterial filters
NEMATODES  Obligate parasites
Nematodes “nematos” – thread “eidos” – like thread-like organisms plant  Intracellular (require the synthesizing machinery of living cells to
pathogenic; some on animals and humans feed on the above- and below-ground multiply)
plant parts w/ their stylet (needle-like structure at the anterior end of the body)  Contain protein coat that surrounds the nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
 Saprophagous – nematodes that feed on dead or decaying organic SHAPE OF VIRUSES:
matter 1. Helix or helical – resembles a tightly-wound coil or spring
 Predaceous – nematodes that feed on other nematodes and on all ex. rabies, tobacco mosaic TMV
forms of plant life including plants and algae, fungi and bacteria 2. Icosahedron – a polyhedron with 20 triangular faces and corners
GROUPS OF PLANT PARASITIC NEMATODES: ex. polio virus, herpes virus
1. Endoparasites – feed inside the roots

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 3. Complex (binal) viruses – combination of helical and icosahedral viruses ex. reduction in photosynthesis increase in respiration
ex. bacteriophage (with icosahedral head with a collar and tail Virus Transmission
assembly in the form of a helix) 1. Transmission by vegetative propagation
Bacteriophage – a virus that destroys bacteria; consists of a head (containing ex. grafting, budding, cuttings, infected tubers, corms, bulbs or rhizomes
the genetic material) and a tail (attaches to the bacterium) the genetic material 2. Transmission through sap – when plants are wounded during cultural
directs the bacterium to create new bacteriophages practices, virus-infected sap adhering to hands or clothing and tools is
Virion – a complete, fully developed viral particle composed of a nucleic acid accidentally transferred to healthy plants
surrounded by a coat (infective form) 3. Seed Transmission – about 100 viruses are reported to be transmitted by
Nucleic Acid (DNA or RNA) – the core of the virus particle; single- or double- seeds
stranded; circular or linear 4. Insect Transmission – aphids, leafhoppers, treehoppers, planthoppers,
Capsid – protein coat composed of protein subunits called capsomeres whitefly, mealy bugs, scale insects, plant bugs, thrips, beetles
IMPORTANT PLANT VIRAL DISEASES 5. Mite Transmission – mites of the family Eriophyidae are known to transmit 9
TMV – Tobacco Mosaic Virus viruses
Tungro Disease in Rice 6. Nematode Transmission – approximately 20 viruses have been shown to be
Tulip Break/Variegation transmitted by Longidorus, Xiphinema, Trichodorus and Paratrichodorus
Symptoms of Virus Infection 7. Fungal Transmission – ex. Olpidium sp. transmits 4 plant viruses:
1. Reduction in growth – stunting or dwarfing; always cause yield tobacco necrosis cucumber necrosis
reduction or even total crop loss lettuce big vein tobacco stunt virus
2. Reduction in vitality – increased susceptibility to other pathogens or 8. Dodder Transmission –
adverse conditions ex. Cuscutta sp. forms haustoria and penetrates the vascular system where
3. Color deviations – infection leads to variegation; a discoloration the virus could pass through
irregularly distributed over the surface of an organ Control of Plant Viruses
Color Deviations 1. Exclusion
ex. 2. Eradication
Mosaic , Flecking or spotting, Mottling, Chlorosis 3. Controlling insect vectors
Viruses may also enhance expression of other colors: 4. Soil fumigation (nematodes)
Reddening or purpling – anthocyanins are involved 5. Use of virus-free planting materials
ex. carrot red leaf diseases – luteovirus 6. Use of resistant varieties
Browning or blackening – due to melanin accumulation 7. Tissue culture
ex. pea early browning – tobavirus bean black root – bean mosaic necrosis 8. Foliar application of growth- regulating substances which stimulate growth
potyvirus of virus-suppressed parts resulting in increased production
4. Water Shortage
ex. Wilting – due to excessive transpiration or impeded supply MECHANISM OF DISEASE RESISTANCE
Withering – irreversible dessication of tissues leading to death • Resistance to disease is quite common in the plant kingdom
5. Tissue and Plant Death • Majority of the plants are not infected by a given pathogen because it
ex. Necrosis – rapid local death does not carry the specific molecules called “recognition factor” that
6. Malformation – imbalanced development cannot be recognized by a given pathogenic organism as its host
ex. leaf rolling, curling, distortion, narrowing, rugosity – retarded, growth of • Similarly, if the pathogen does not produce elicitor molecules that are
veinal tissue, rosetting – shortening of internodes (or “little leaf”) recognized by the host, no host pathogen interaction and no infection
epinasty – curling or turning of leaves downward occurs
enations – outgrowths on leaves, veins, stems • Non-host and resistant plant cultivars are usually equipped with pre-
swellings/tumors – enlargement of stems or roots existing as well as inducible mechanisms for depending themselves
7. Physiological or biochemical derangements – against pathogenic attack

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 DEFENSE MECHANISMS -The organisms that lack these enzymes will not be able to
A. Defense Mechanism to Penetration establish a parasitic relationship with the host.
• The cuticle offers a physical as well as a chemical barrier to b. presence of toxic substances
penetration of most pathogens c. inability of the pathogen to form the enzymes necessary for further
- Young tissues are generally more prone to infection because invasion
their cuticle is thinner than the mature tissues. d. presence of tissues that block the progress of the would-be pathogen
- The waxy layers on the cuticle also offer some degree of such as lignified and suberized layers, endodermis, sclerenchyma,
resistance. Waxes induce water on inclined leaf and fruit and
surfaces to run off, thus limiting the formation of infection e. unfavorable factors within the tissues such as moisture stress, too
droplets. high or too low pH for the pathogen, unfavorable osmotic
• The outer epidermal wall offers physical resistance particularly to concentration, etc.
wound pathogens which can readily penetrate the bruised epidermis Example to illustrate the nutritional factor as a resistant mechanism.
- Thick and tough epidermis may hinder spore liberation - resistance of white cultivars with low reducing sugar content to
thereby reducing the inoculum bacterial soft rot caused by Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp.
• Stomatal opening also provides resistance to infection of pathogens atroseptivum. The pathogen apparently thrives better in potato with
that enters through stomates. high reducing sugar
- Closed or partially closed stomata prevent entry of the 1. Pre-formed toxic substances inside the cells
pathogen. - Tannins and other phenolic compounds such as caffeic acid,
- Narrow stomata with broad projecting guard cells that chlorogenic acid and hydroquinones have fungitoxic properties
almost cover the opening hinder the entrance of the pathogen. - Senescent potato roots are more susceptible to Verticillium
• Presence of compounds which are found inhibitory to fungi alboatrum than younger roots probably because of the decreasing
- The cutin of citrus lime contains acids which are toxic to the chlorogenic acid content of the aging roots.
fungus Colletotrichum limetticola. This compound is also believed to be involved in the ressitance of potato
- Colored scales of red onion makes them resistant to smudge tubers to Streptomyces scabies.
caused by Colletotrichum circinans while unpigmented onion Sterols have been implicated in resistant mechanism
varieties are susceptible. This is because of the catechol and catechuic - Tomatine, a steroid glycoalkaloid in tomato and other solanaceous
acid secreted by the onion scales plants was found toxic to microorganisms which are not pathogenic to tomato
- Exudates from roots can be toxic or antagonistic to the but rather to other pathogens
pathogen 2. Osmotic pressure and parasitism
B. Passive defense mechanism to establishment of the pathogen - a high osmotic pressure and reduced permeability in plant cells
- These are induced as well as preformed defense mechanisms would make them difficult for invading microorganisms to obtain
in the host. water and nutrients from them, thus rendering them more resistant.
The preexisting mechanisms of defense include the C. Active defense mechanisms to the pathogen establishment
following: - Active defense mechanisms are those resorted to by the host in
a. lack of a nutrient that is required by the microorganisms response to the activities of the pathogen.
Unavailability of nutrients in the host and inadequate enzyme - They are not pre-formed or preexisting in the plant.
potential of the pathogen 1. Mechanical barriers to pathogenesis
- Some microorganisms are so specialized in their food - Formation of corky layer around the infected area to seal off the
requirements and may find the plants not capable of providing pathogen from healthy tissues. The corky tissue should be formed rapidly
the needed growth factor enough to be effective.
- Some can synthesize enzymes in the absence necessary Ex. Streptomyces scabies is successfully walled off in resistant potato
growth factor if they have the full complement of enzymes ciltivar “Menomonee” but not in susceptible “Smooth-Rural where
required for synthesis.

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 cork development is quite slow. A shot hole effect is produced when EPIDEMIOLOGY, FORECASTING AND ASSESSMENT OF DISEASE
the tissues surrounding the corky layer dies. INCIDENCE AND CROP LOSS
- Formation of gums, resins and other exudates that are formed in EPIDEMIOLOGY – study of disease development in plant populations
response to pathogen invasion also offer some resistance. These • EPIPHYTOTICS – to refer epidemics of plant diseases
substances may be fungitoxic and provide a mechanical barrier when • ENDEMIC DISEASES – one that is native or indigenous to a
they dry up into hard, solid masses. particular place
Ex. Plum cultivars that are susceptible to silver disease caused by • EPIDEMIC – widespread, explosive disease outbreak (layman‟s
Stereum purpureum because they produce only small amounts of gum. view). On the epidemiologist point of view, it is the increase in
2. Hypersensitivity disease incidence within the plant population with time.
- is the rapid localized death of host cells around the pathogen. • EXOTIC DISEASES – introduced from some other areas
- This will result to the confinement or even death of the pathogen as it • PANDEMIC DISEASES – worldwide or widespread occurrence
becomes surrounded by dead cells. throughout a continent or region
-it has been reported that in hypersensitive reaction, compounds called • SPORADIC DISEASES – occur at irregular intervals
phytoalexins are formed by the plant cells in response to infection. • DISEASE FORECASTING – predicting when a disease will occur
3. Plant Immunization and how severe it will be for farmers to be guided properly in making
- An active immune system like that which is present in animals is decisions on disease control
absent in plants because the latter do not produce antibodies. • DISEASE ASSESSMENT – appraisal on the amount of disease
- However, through genetic engineering, mouse genes have been present (disease severity or prevalence) and relate these to yield loss
incorporated in the genome of the plants. FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF EPIDEMICS
- These antibodies are expressed in transgenic plants and produce  susceptible plants at their susceptible stage are exposed to viable
antibodies called plantibodies. Ex. Production of plantibodies against inoculum of a virulent pathogen during favorable conditions for
virus coat proteins. pathogen multiplication, infection and dissemination
4. Other post-inflectional toxic substances  practice of monocropping over a wide area
- aromatic compounds such as phenolic glucosides, polyphenols,  predisposition of plant to infection due to excessive use of N fertilizer
flavonoids, anthocyanins, aromatic amino acids and coumarin and injuries
derivatives are said to accumulate around infection sites are believed  presence of abundant inoculum and efficient vectors
to inhibit the pathogen. ANALYSIS OF EPIDEMICS
- Polyphenol oxidases oxidize fungistatic phenolics to quinones which • The increase in the amount of disease at any one time is dependent on:
are more toxic. a. initial amount of inoculum or disease
5. Detoxification b. rate disease of increase
- Some plants resist pathogenic invasion by inactivating deleterious c. duration or period of time involved
compounds produced during pathogenesis • Like money deposited in the bank (van der Plank), the amount of
Ex. a. Resistant oat cultivars inactivate victorin, the toxin produced by disease is similar to the increase in money invested at different interest
Cochiobolus victoriae rates wherein the amount of money one has depends on the initial
b. The toxin pyricularin produced by Magnaporthe grisea can be deposit, interest rate and duration of investment.
detoxified by some resistant cultivars • Like money, disease could be grouped into “compound interest
c. certain apple varieties resistant to brown rot caused by Sclerotinia diseases” and “simple interest diseases”
fructigena inactivate the pectinolytic enzymes by the pathogen. • compound interest diseases
6. Induced resistance - are those which readily spread from plant to plant during the disease
- involves a change in response to stimulus which makes the plant cycle and with repeating cycles with several generations of pathogens
more resistant to a given disease. (ex: powdery mildew and rusts)
- Induced resistance involves an elicitor that triggers the defense • simple interest diseases
reaction, and to which the plant has receptor(s) for the elicitor.

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 - are those that spread from plant to plant do not occur and only - involves the system concept where every stage in the life cycle of the
consist of one generation of pathogens without the repeating cycles pathogen is modeled taking into considerations the effects of the
(ex: nematode diseases, vascular wilts environment. The steps are then integrated using the computer.
• Van der Plank pointed out the plant epidemics followed a sigmoidal (ex: EPIDEM model for predicting early blight of tomato)
curve rather than a straight line. At the start of the epidemics, there is When is control necessary? Is the amount of losses due to the disease
a logarithmic increase in the amount of disease until the remaining worth the application of control? Would it pay to apply costly
uninfected plant decreases. For some time, after the onset of the chemicals?
epidemics, disease incidence become logarithmic until all remaining The answer is accurate disease assessment.
infection court are eliminated
• The basic compound formula is: METHODS OF DISEASE ASSESSMENT
X = Xoert 1. Determining the percentage of diseased plant, organs or tissues.
 Percentage disease plants – systemic diseases which kill the host
x = amount of disease rapidly like vascular wilts, damping-off, root rots
xo= initial amount of inoculum  Disease that damage entire organs such as fruit rots, leafblights, may
e = base of natural log, 2.718 be measured by recording percentage of infected organs
r = rate of infection  For diseases with varying amounts of infection in different parts as
t = time leafspots, estimates may be obtained by taking percentage of affected
leaves and percentage of infected leaf tissues (more laborious)
to solve for r (rate of infection):  Another is to measure the diameter or length of the lesion from which
the area of infected tissue is calculated
1 X
r  log e 2. Use of descriptive disease ratings on a numerical scale
t Xo  Scales used for rating diseases describe in detail the grades of diseases
Ex. IRRI rates leaf blast of rice using the scale of 0-9.
RELATION OF EPIDEMIOLOGY TO CONTROL PRACTICES 0-no lesions
 control practices that reduce Xo may cause a delay of the specific point 1- Small brown specks of pinhead size
of time at which a given disease level is reached. 2- Larger brown specks
ex. Roguing, chemical eradication, hot water treatment, destroying 3- small roundish to slightly elongated necrotic gray spots
plant debris 4- Typical blast lesions, elliptical, 1-2cm long, usually confined to the
 control measures aimed at modifying the environment or cultural area of the main veins infecting less than 2% of the leaf area
practices hinder the growth and reproduction of the pathogen 5- Typical blast lesions infecting less than 10% of the leaf area
ON DISEASE FORECASTING 6- Typical blast lesions infecting 10-25% of the leaf area
The occurrence of a particular disease varies from season to season. There 7- Typical blast lesions infecting 26-50% of the leaf area
is a need to predict when a particular disease will occur to guide farmers in 8- Typical blast lesions infecting 51-75% of the leaf area and many
making decisions on disease control dead leaves
METHODS OF FORECASTING 9- All leaves dead
1. EMPIRICAL FORECASTING Trait expressions can be used to describe the reaction of the varieties
- done for several years based on field observations and experiences. to rice blast infection such as;
Recent methods were devised based on pathogen development and life 3 or less – sources of resistance in breeding work and for commercial
cycle as affected by the environment purposes
2. VAN DER PLANK ANALYSES 4-6 - acceptable for commercial uses
- using the data on Xo and r as earlier discussed 7-9 – undesirable traits
3. COMPUTING SIMULATION  The rating scale for systemic diseases is based on percentage infected
plants per hill

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 Methods of Measuring Crop Losses b. amount of mutilation
After the amount of disease has been determined, the next thing to do c. environment
is to relate this to crop loss or yield loss. Crop loss assessment can be done d. other factors
by:  After crop or yield loss estimates have been made, these are expressed
1. Survey Methods in monetary terms and a decision made on whether or not the
2. Experimental Methods application of control measure is in order.
1. Survey Methods PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PLANT DISEASE
 Involves the gathering of a large number of reports on disease CONTROL
incidence as well as on crop loss and yield estimates that have been  The reason for the science of plant pathology is the control of plant
collected through the years. diseases
 A wide scale appraisal of disease severity and prevalence of disease in  All studies conducted in the name of phytopathology are ultimately
a country, region or continent aimed at finding effective control measure
 The accuracy depends on how reliable the data from the assembled  One prime requisite of a control measure is that it must be economical
reports are. or that the amount of money spent on control should be more
 The objectives of plant surveys are: compensated for the increased quantity and quality of the produce
a. determine the geographical distribution of a certain disease, certain  The purposes of plant disease control are:
pathogens or certain physiologic race. a. prevent disease development
b. detect and monitor newly introduced disease. b. maintain a tolerable disease incidence
c. determine the alternative and alternate host. c. minimize yield loss\
 All these will aid in the evaluation of the relative importance of Four general principles of plant disease control:
diseases and assist in the development of cooperative control program a. Exclusion
 A comparison of the yield data before and after the application of the b. Protection
control measures c. Eradication
 Yields during seasons or years may be also compared. This data is d. Immunization
quite reliable if data from several seasons/years will be used EXCLUSION
 Interviews (using a prepared questionnaire). If the questionnaire is Defined as the prevention of the new pathogen from being introduced
filled with accurate information will provide data on disease severity into a locality where it is currently unknown. This involves legal
and prevalence, crop loss estimates, varietal susceptibility, etc. methods of control. Plant materials must undergo initial inspection and
2. Experimental Methods issued health certificates before they are allowed to enter into a given
 Properly designed for sound statistical analysis locality or country
 Adequate replicates must be carried over several seasons  Prohibition is the complete prevention of the entry of infected plant
 Yield comparisons between diseased and healthy plants will give the materials by quarantine laws that regulate the movement of plants and
amount of crop loss plant parts.
 Yield differences between susceptible and resistant varieties in the Example:
presence of the disease will also give a pretty good estimate of yield  Potato tubers infected with late blight may pass inspection undetected
loss in the tuber unless the tuber is planted and grown in certain conditions.
 The damage caused by the pathogen can be artificially reproduced by  Same is true with seedborne pathogens; materials must undergo post
picking some fruits to simulate fruit rots or cutting out right sizes from entry quarantine.
portions of the leaves  Plants are grown in nurseries and greenhouses and observed for
 The yields of mutilated plants are then compared to those of normal symptoms of disease before they are released
plants  Quarantine should be based on the knowledge of the biology of the
 Yield then is affected by: host and the pathogen and is justified only if it is reasonably effective
a. time in preventing the entry of the pathogen

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 And if:Quarantine is economically as well as administratively feasible  Involves modifying certain physiological or physical features of the
 Quarantine laws are “worth their weight in gold” as evidenced by host so that it can repel infection as in the breeding for disease
reports on epidemics that occurred because of the introduction of the resistance
pathogen. Terms related to the explanation and understanding of resistance
Protection Resistance – relative ability of the plant to overcome the effects of
- Defined as prevention of infection by putting a barrier between the the pathogen
pathogen and the suscept Susceptibility – opposite of resistance
 putting a chemical barrier between the pathogen and the - The plant does not have the relative ability to overcome the effects of
suscept the pathogen
 Protectant chemicals must be applied on the plant surface Klenducity – is the lack of infection in a susceptible variety due to
before inoculum deposition to prevent infection suscept‟s effect on something other than the pathogen such as the
 The protectant prevents spore germination or kills vector
germinating spores Virulence– is a measure of the degree of pathogenecity.
 Refrigeration of freshly harvested fruits, vegetables preventing the Aggressiveness – is a measure of the rate at which virulence is
spread of infection expressed.
 Storage at controlled atmosphere or modified atmospheres with high Two recognized types of resistance:
carbon dioxide or reduced oxygen or both to inhibit pathogen a. Vertical resistance (also called major gene resistance, oligogenic
development and host senescence resistance, specific resistance)
 Wrapping of individual fruits with paper provides a barrier between b. Horizontal resistance (also called minor gene resistance, polygenic
infected and healthy fruits resistance, non-specific resistance, generalized field resistance)
 Drying of cereal grains to safe moisture content Vertical Resistance
 Clean storage areas to avoid infection present in dust and debris  Controlled by one or few genes and is effective only to one or few
 Crop management practices such as choice of planting site and races specific races of the pathogen
planting date, adjustment of soil pH, fertilization and irrigation Horizontal Resistance
methods  Controlled by several or many genes and is theoretically effective
ERADICATION against all races or strains of the pathogen
Defined as the application of measures which are intended to Methods of Plant Disease Control
eliminate, inhibit or kill the pathogen that have become established within Sanitation
the plant or in an area  Destroying plant refuse or debris
 Use of chemical formulations (systemic or contact)  Cleaning and disinfecting implements used for pruning or trimming
 Hot water treatment  Cleaning, disinfecting, fumigating warehouse before and during
- 35-53 0C – is used to eradicate viruses, viroids, mycoplasma and storage of produce
rickettsia in dormant plant parts Cultural Practices
- 35-400C for growing plants  Eradication of diseased plants
 Soil fumigation, chemical or heat treatment kills soilborne pathogens  Crop rotation or planting of non-host
 Use of radiation to control postharvest pathogens  Practices that improve the growing conditions of the plans such as
 Eradication or removal of alternate hosts, wild hosts and weeds proper drainage., tillage, fertilization, irrigation
 Roguing or the removal and destruction of infected plants/plant parts  Providing conditions which are unfavorable to the pathogen such as
to eliminate the source of inoculum dry fallowing or flooding the field to reduce pathogen population by
 Crop rotation desiccation, insufficient oxygen or starvation
- To starve the pathogen  Tissue culture of meristem tips which is used for viruses and diseases
 Eradication or removal of infected plant debris due to Fusarium spp.
IMMUNIZATION OR IMPROVING HOST RESISTANCE Physical Methods

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  Heat treatment of plants, plant parts, soil, containers, etc. using hot  A pathogen race would tend to invade only one or two of the varieties
water, moist heat, dry heat or sun in the multiline
 Low temperature storage d. Gene or Variety deployment
 Controlled atmosphere storage  Involves the use of different resistance genes or varieties in various
 irradiation geographical areas instead of the widespread monoculture
Chemical Methods 6. Legislated or Regulatory Control methods
 Seed treatment with chemicals  Enactment of laws that regulate, restrict or prohibit the entry or
 Fumigation of the soil, warehouses movement of diseased plant materials into or within the area
 Chemical control of insect vectors  Order certain activities that would contain a disease
 Use of chemical protectants and chemotherapeutants  Strict implementation of the quarantine measures
 Use of fungicides THE CONTROL DECISION
 Use of antibiotics The decision whether or not to control a certain disease, when to
Biological Methods control and what method of control to apply depends on:
Employ the use of microorganisms that compete with, parasitize or are  Characteristics of the causal agent
antagonistic to the pathogen  Disease severity
1. Cross protection  Crop loss assessment
 Protection of a plant by a mild virus strain against infection of another  Use and value of the crop
strain of that same virus that causes more severe symptom  Cost of control
2. Interference CROP PROTECTION (ENTOMOLOGY)
 The biological agent may provide a barrier to infection. Ex. History of Entomology
Mycorrhizae  Perhaps the earliest graphic record of an insect species is found in
3. Use of bacteriophage Egyptian hieroglyphic documents dating back to the first dynasty
 Control of bacterial pathogens with a phage virus. (about 3100 B.C.) suggesting that King Menes, the founder of the
 Bacteriophage – are viruses infecting bacteria dynasty, made the oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis) the symbol of the
4. Use of parasites or antagonistic pathogens kingdom of lower Egypt for many years to come (Harpaz, 1973).
 Fusarium root rot of corn can be controlled by dipping the seeds in  The early development of Entomology was the effect of transposing
solutions containing the antagonistic microorganism and applying, and later utilizing the principle observed in related fields
 Soil amendments that favor the growth og the antagonists to “insect studies”.
 Nematodes are parasitized by bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa and Some early known scientists/entomologists
other soil organisms 1. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
5. Use of Resistant Varieties  Considered as the “Father of Zoology”
a. Selection  Also considered as the “Founder of General Entomology and
 Planting seeds from resistant plants in the field that survived the Entomology as a Science”, as he was the first to systematize our
onslaught of a disease knowledge on insects.
b. Gene Pyramiding He realized that insects were both winged and wingless, and had
 Involves the incorporation of several resistance genes in one host two basic types of mouthparts, chewing and sucking. He also realized
variety so that it would take the pathogen a long time to be able to that insects had different life history and underwent metamorphosis, but
overcome the resistance thought that pupae were eggs.
 Some believed that gene pyramiding might lead to the development of 2. Theophrastus (ca. 380-287 B.C.)
a “super pathogen”  Included in his botanical work, the observations of plant pests and
c. Multiline Varieties diseases.
 A multiline variety is a mixture of several lines with similar agronomic 3. Pliny (23-79 AD), also called Pliny the Elder
characteristics but each with a different gene for resistance

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  Roman author best known for his 37 books published in native insects found introduced plants much to their liking- with disastrous
HistoriaNaturales which embraces all aspects of natural history results.
 Book eleven of HistoriaNaturales (77 AD) was devoted entirely to • Agriculture in the colonies, particularly in the United States suffered severe
insects. losses as a result of damage by insects; consequently scientists began to study
4. PetrusCrescenti (1304-1309) the biology and control of economically important insect pests.
 An Italian who discussed many insect pests and their control in Viewpoints on the Historical Development of Phil. Entomology
RuraliumCommodorum, the last great Western work of the Middle  Pre-Spanish period
Ages that treated entomological subject matter, and perhaps the most - No clear records of how insects were regarded; whatever existing
influential in that it appeared just prior to the Rennaissance record there is may be in the form of folklore or superstitions.
5. Dioscorides (ca. 60 AD)  Spanish period (1521-1899)
 An Asiatic Greek, a military surgeon; described the significance of - First written record of an insect in the Phil. was the amusing
insects for pharmacology. Ex. Beetles containing cantharidin when narrative of the leaf insect by the Italian historian Pigafetta which he
killed over steam or glowing ashes, preserved and added to other found in Palawan in
medicaments were used against leprosy, carcinomas, herpes and also 1521 during the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan
dropsy. - concerned on migratory locusts and silkworms
6. Francesco Redi (1626-1697) Locusts - affected greatly the supply of food so everybody
 Disproved the theory of spontaneous generation with the aid of was required to destroy locusts by gantas. Another attempt to locust
maggots of house flies from spoiled meat control was by importing a starling- Aetheopsarcristatellus – from
7. John Ray (1627-1705) Southern China in 1849 to serve as biological control. In spite of this,
 A botanist with a basic interest in insects, published the first locust swarms continued to engulf periodically the whole country.
descriptions of insect life histories, including an accurate account of Silkworm rearing – which was first introduced by Spanish
caterpillar metamorphosis. missionary in 1593 and revived later in 1780 by Father Galliana, did not
 He wrote HistoriaInsectorum prosper. Feasibility studies of course were not in vogue during the time
8. Rene Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur (1683-1757) and any undertaking was a hit –and-miss proposition. As a result
 Through his six volume Memoires Pour Server A L‟histoire Des sericulture was later abandoned because it was found to be unprofitable
Insects (1734-1742), he initiated Modern Entomology and produced and rather laborious especially in the case of the larvae. Sericulture was
the first well illustrated classification. Such was the first entirely undertaken again lately but this time with better economic prospects
original compendium of entomology produced since Aristotle. than before.
9. Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) The later part of the 19th century accomplishments of:
Sanchez in 1894
 Swedish physician and botanist, often called the “Father of
Taxonomy” introduced the modern system of binomial nomenclature. Jordana in 1885
Elera in 1895
 He published SystemaNaturae (Classification of Living Things)
Eschscholtz in 1816
where the 10th edition was the starting point of zoological
Carl Semper in 1859-1865
nomenclature.
Hugh Cuming in 1831
10. Johann Christian Fabricius (1745-1808)
 The Early American Occupation (1900-1920)
 The student of Linnaeus, from South Jutland, Denmark, published
More studies were done on mosquitoes which were vectors of
SystemaEntomologicain 1775 and subsequent volumes, he
malaria and filariasis, and for insect pests of leading agricultural crops.
attempted to classify the insect fauna of the entire world.
 The Rise of the Filipino Entomologists (1922-1939)
• At about the same time with the increase of colonialism, many species of
plants of potential agricultural value were being transported from place to place. Uichanco (1915); Otanes (1918); Edrozo (1913); Cendana (1922);
• Frequently, the plants flourished in their new surroundings, as did some of the Merino (MS in 1926 and PhD in1933, both Entomology as major);
insect pests that were inadvertently transported with them. In some cases, Baisas (in 1927 published 71 new species of mosquitoes; etc.

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  War Setback and Rebuilding (1941-1959) Figure 1. Body regions of a male grasshopper, Melicodestenebrosa(Orthoptera:
Cendana and Baltazar (1947) - study on cotton leafhopper, the first Acrididae) (Adapted from Baltazar and Salazar, 1979)
publication after the war Among the various insects, three positions of head can be
 Development and Directions distinguished according to the location of mouth parts (Figure 2).
Read: A Little History., from Atkins, M. 1978. Insects in Perspectives
as well as Milestones of Philippine Entomology by Gabriel, B. P. 1981. 1. Hypognathous type – when the mouth parts are directed
downward as in orthopteroid insects like the grasshoppers.
Philippine Entomologist 4(6): 495-501.
2. Prognathous type – when the mouth parts are directed forward as
General Structure of Insects in some beetles like the ground beetle.
Insects are more or less elongate and cylindrical in form and are 3. Opisthognathous type – when the mouth parts are directed
bilaterally symmetric. The body is divided into three main regions, namely: postero-ventrally as in homopterans like the cicada.
the head, thorax and abdomen (Figure 1).
The head bears the mouthparts, eyes and antennae – the structures for
ingestion and Sensation
The thorax bears the legs and wings – the organs for locomotion
The abdomen is composed of a varying number of legless segments,
houses most of the visceral organs, including components of the digestive,
excretory and reproductive systems – center for metabolic processes and
reproduction.

Figure 2. Position of mouthparts relative to the head capsule: a, hypognathous,

b, prognathous, c, opisthognathous ( Romoser and Stoffolano, 1998)
Compound eye
HEAD
The head is the anterior region, consists of a hardened capsule for the
protection of the delicate coordinating centers inside and provides rigid
Spiracles attachment surface for the strong musculature of mouth parts.
It is also on this capsule where a pair of compound eyes, 3 ocelli and a
pair of antennae are located. The head capsule, minus the appendages is the
cranium. The cranium has an internal, sclerotized structure called the
tentorium.

EYES

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 The compound eyes are easily recognized as large paired organs
located dorsolaterally on the cranium. The surface of the eye is covered with
minute facets, each of which represents the lens of an individual eye unit, or
ommatidium. Situated between the compound eyes on the face are as many as
three simple eyes, or ocelli. Each has a lens. One is usually present on the Fig. 3. Types of antennae: a, filiform, threadlike as in grasshopper; b,
midline, and the others are placed above and at each side. setaceous, bristlelike as in dragonfly; c, moniliform, beadlike as in termite; d,
ANTENNAE clavate, clublike or thickening gradually at the tip as in lady bird beetle; e,
Antennae are paired, segmented appendages located on the head,
capitate, distinctly clubbed as in sap beetle; f, serrate, sawlike as in female click
usually between or below the compound eyes. Three parts can readily be
recognized: beetle; g, geniculate, elbowlike as in ant; h, lamellate, leaflike as in June beetle;
1. Scape is the basal or first segment, generally larger than the other segments i. flabellate, fan-like as in cedar beetle; j,stylate, spinelike as in snipe fly; k,
2. Pedicel is the second segment which contains internally the Johnston organ, pectinate, comblike as in male click beetle; l, plumose, featherlike as in
which responds to movement of the distal part of the antenna relative to the mosquito and m, aristate, aristalike with enlarged third segment bearing a
pedicel bristle as in syrphid fly.
3. Flagellum consists of the remaining segments, often filamentous and multi
segmented but may be reduced or variously modified. MOUTHPARTS
Special terms for the different shapes of antennae are presented in The type of mouthparts an insect has determines how it feeds
Figure 3. and what sort of damage it does. The mouthparts enclose the preoral cavity,
within which are the true mouth and the opening of the salivary glands. These
structures are modified, sometimes significantly, in different insect groups and
are often used in classification and identification.
Various schemes for classifying functional mouthparts have been
proposed. Based on the taxonomic groups, there are those with Entognathous
mouthparts and Ectognathous mouthparts. In the Entognathous mouthparts, the
mandibles and maxillae are recessed and largely hidden from view by lateral
folds of the head. Examples include those in the Protura, Diplura and
Collembola. In the Ectognathous mouthparts the mandibles and maxillae are
visible or secondarily recessed, but lateral folds of the head are absent.
Examples are all members of the Class Insectawhere the detailed parts are
described as follows:
The mandibulate, or chewing, type of mouthparts (Figure 4) is the
basic type from which the specialized types have been derived. Insect
mouthparts typically consist of a labrum, a pair each of the mandibles and
maxillae, a labium and a hypopharynx.
The labrum (or upper lip) is a movable flaplike, broad-flat structure
covering the top of the mouth like an upper lip which is attached to the ventral
border of the clypeus.
The mandibles (upper jaws) are paired, unsegmented, broadly based
and heavily sclerotized structures which horizontally move back and forth of
the mouth immediately behind the labrum.
The maxillae (lower jaws) are paired, segmented structures lying
behind the mandibles. They work in unison with mandibles and help tearing off
bits of food. Each maxilla consists of a basal cardo and a central body called
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the stipes that gives rise to a 5-segmented sensory palp, borne on a lobe called thrusts, the mandibular blades pierce the host‟s tissues and provide an entry for
palpifer; toothed lacinia and an outer lobe called the galea. the maxillae. The vascular systems of both plants and vertebrates are
The labium (or lower lip) – consists of a proximal postmentum and penetrated by the mouthparts of the Hemiptera.
distal prementum. The prementum bears a pair of palps and a group of apical In the non-piercing mouthparts like in the Lepidoptera, the adult moths
lobes (inner glossae and outer lobes, paraglossae) which constitute the ligula. and butterflies take water, nectar, or honeydew with a long proboscis that is
The sensory labial palps borne on the lateral lobes of the prementum are called coiled beneath the head when not in use. The proboscis represents the galeae,
palpigers.
greatly elongated and tightly interlocked to form a tube (Figure 6).
The hypopharynx is an unsegmented fleshy lobe that arises from the
membranous floor of the cranium.

Figure 4. Mouthparts and preoral cavity: a, diagram preoral cavity and lateral
view of hypopharynx; b, labrum of Romaleamicroptera (Acrididae), c,
mandible of same, d, maxilla of same, e, labium of same (Daly, et al., 1998)
Figure 6. Head and mouthparts of an adult lepidopteran
In the suctorial mouthparts, one or more feeding appendages are
modified into a tubular organ for taking liquid food. The piercing-sucking
THORAX
mouthparts (Figure 5) include one or more appendages that are sharp at the
This region comprises three segments, the pro-, meso- and metathorax.
apex and suited for piercing the surface of the plant or animal bodies. Saliva is
In most insects the latter two segments bear wings and together form the
usually injected while feeding. Insects that attack vertebrates often have
pterothorax. The appendages of the 3 segments include:
anticoagualnts in the saliva to aid the flow of blood. In the Hemiptera, an
1. prothorax – bears the first pair of legs (prothoracic legs)
elongate proboscis is formed by the mandibular and maxillary stylets and the
2. mesothorax – bears the second pair of legs (mesothoracic legs) and the first
labium. The labium or beak encloses the stylets but does not penetrate the host.
pair of wings (forewings)
The maxillary stylets interlock and create two canals by matching their
3. metathorax – bears the third pair of legs (metathoracic legs) and the second
opposing grooves. The anterior canal which leads to the cibarial pump and
pair of wings (hindwings)
mouth is appropriately named the “food canal”. The posterior or salivary canal
carries saliva under pressure from a syringelike organ within the hypopharyx.
At each side of the united maxillae are the separate mandibles. By alternate
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 Each thoracic segment consists basically of a dorsal tergum (called the LEGS
notum when applied to segments of the thorax), a ventral sternum and a pair of The thoracic legs of insects are sclerotized and subdivided into a
lateral pleura. number of segments (Figure 8). There are typically six segments: the coxa, the
Spiracles are usually situated on the mesothorax (or between the basal segment; the trochanter, a small segment following the coxa (coxae, pl.);
prothorax and mesothorax) and metathorax. the femur (femora, pl.), usually the first long segment of the leg; the tibia
Insect wings. The wings of insects are outgrowths of the body wall (tibiae, pl.), the second long segment; the tarsus (tarsi, pl.), usually a series of
located dorsolaterally in the mesothorax (forewings) and metathorax small subdivisions beyond the tibia; and the pretarsus, consisting of claws and
(hindwings). Typical insect wings are membranous, strengthened by a series of various padlike or setalike structures at the apex of the tarsus.
sclerotized veins, and function for flight. Insect wings vary according to
number, size, shape, venation, function and texture, relationship to one another,
position at rest and coloration (Figure 7).

Figure 8. Foreleg of Romaleamicroptera (Acrididae) (Daly et al., 1998)

ABDOMEN
The insect abdomen (Figure 9) differs from the head and thorax by its
simplicity of structure and general lack of segmented appendages. It serves as
the container of the principal viscera like most of the alimentary canal and
dorsal circulatory vessel, as well as the Malpighian tubules, fat body, and
reproductive organs. Thus biologically, the abdomen of insect plays an
important role in respiration, reproduction, digestion, excretion and
intermediate metabolism.
In general, the abdomen of an insect is made up of a maximum of 10
or 11 segments. The first 8 segments may each have a pair of spiracles and
internally a ganglion of the ventral nerve cord. The openings of the respiratory
system, the spiracles, typically are located in the pleuron. Each segment
typically has a dorsal sclerite, the tergum; a ventral sclerite, the sternum; and
membranous laterals, the pleura (sing. p;euron). Terga and sterna may be
subdivided: these parts are referred to as tergites and sternites. Sclerites in the
Figure 7. Variations in wing structure: a, wings of wasp with reduced venation, pleural wall are called pleurites.
b, wings of dragonfly with an elaborate network of veins, c, ladybird beetle
with left elytron (forewing) and hindwing extended, d, hemelytron (forewing
of a true bug, e, lateral view of the thorax of a true fly (Romoser and
Stoffolano, 1998)

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 Order Coleoptera
Suborder Polyphaga
Superfamily Chrysomeloidea
Family Chrysomelidae
Subfamily Hispinae
Tribe Hispini
Genus Promecotheca
Subgenus ____
Species cumingi
Subspecies ____
Methods of Identifying an Unknown Insect:
1. The specimen may be sent to an expert.
Figure 9. Abdomen and external genitalia: a, lateral view of 2. It may be compared to the specimens in the labeled collection.
Romaliamicroptera(Acrididae); b,same of male abdomen and genitalia; c, 3. It may be compared with pictures or descriptions
diagram showing general structure of female genitalia; d, same of male 4. It may be identified by the use of a taxonomic key.
genitalia. S, sternum; T, tergum(Daly et al., 1998) Insect Nomenclature
Nomenclature is involved with the naming of organisms and groups pf
CLASSIFICATION, IDENTIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF organisms and the rules and procedures to be followed in such naming. Insects
INSECTS have 2 types of names, scientific and common. The use of common names has
been extensive and has the advantage of easy communication especially when
Taxonomic Categories applied to agricultural and medical pests since they facilitate communication
A convenient way of classifying insects is to group them into the between the professional and lay person. Two particularly outstanding common
following seven major categories: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, names are “bugs” and “flies”.
Genus and Species. Additional categories are formed by adding the prefixes
Scientific names are used throughout the world. This is pioneered by
super- and sub- to any of the major categories. The prescribed endings are –
oidea for the Superfamily, -idae for the Family, -inae for the Subfamily and –ini Linnaeus in 1735 in his Biological System of Nomenclature in which the
for the Tribe. organism is known by two Latin names, the genus and the specific epithet. For
To show the hierarchical arrangement and to introduce the names of example: Apismellifera L. – Apisbeing the genus (to which a number of species
the various categories, let us take as an example the classification of the may belong) and mellifera, being the species to which the honeybee belongs.
coconut leafminer, Promecothecacumingi: Insect Orders
To determine the order to which the insect belongs, one needs to know
Kingdom Animalia at least three to four features (Table 1).The main criteria include.
Phylum Arthropoda 1. Wings: a) presence or absence, b) forms, c) venation, d) structure
Subphylum Atelocerata 2. Mouth parts: a) chewing, b) sucking, c) other modification
Superclass Hexapoda 3. Metamorphosis: a) lacking, b) gradual, c) incomplete, d) complete
Class Insecta 4. Special characteristics or peculiarities
Subclass Pterygota
CLASSIFICATION OF HEXAPODOUS ARTHROPODA
Division Endopterygota
(After several sources)
Infraclass Neoptera

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Superclass HEXAPODA Order Lepidoptera (moths, butterflies)
Entognathous HEXAPODA Order Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps)
*Class and Order PROTURA (proturans)
Class and Order COLLEMBOLA (springtails) * Not recorded in the Philippines
Class and Order DIPLURA (diplurans)
Ectognathous HEXAPODA
Class INSECTA
Subclass APTERYGOTA – primitively wingless insects
Order Archaeognatha (primitive silverfish, jumping bristletails)
Order Thysanura (silverfish)
Subclass PTERYGOTA – winged insects (including secondarily wingless)
Infraclass Paleoptera – primitively winged insects
Order Ephemeroptera (mayflies)
Order Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies)
Infraclass Neoptera - modern winged insects
Division Exopterygota – insects with simple and slightmetamorphosis
Order Plecoptera (stoneflies)
Order Isoptera (termites)
Order Blattodea (cockroaches)
Order Mantodea (mantids)
*Order Grylloblattodea (rock crawlers)
*Order Mantophasmatodea (heel walkers)
Order Phasmatodea (walkingsticks, leaf insects)
Order Embioptera (=Embidiina) (webspinners)
Order Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, katydids)
Order Dermaptera (earwigs)
Order Zoraptera (zorapterans, angel insects)
Order Psocoptera (book lice, bark lice)
Order Phthiraptera (biting lice, sucking lice)
Order Thysanoptera (thrips)
Order Hemiptera (true bugs, cicadas, hoppers, psyllids,
whiteflies, aphids, scale insects)

Division Endopterygota– insects with complete metamorphosis

Order Neuroptera (lacewings, ant lions, owlflies)
*Order Megaloptera (alderflies, dobsonflies)
*Order Raphidioptera (snakeflies)
Order Coleoptera (beetles) Figure 6.Cladogram of postulated relationships of extant arthropods, based on
Order Strepsiptera (Twisted-Wing Parasites)
combined morphological and nucleotide sequence data. Italicized names
Order Diptera (flies)
*Order Mecoptera (scorpionflies, hangingflies) indicate paraphyletic taxa. Broken lines indicate uncertain relationships
Order Siphonaptera (fleas) .Thysanurasensulato refers to Thysanura in the broad sense (After Gullan and
Order Trichoptera (caddisflies) Cranston, 2005)

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 INSECT, VERTEBRATE, AND MOLLUSK PESTS
OF MAJOR CROPS AND STORED PRODUCTS

1. The Concept of Pest

The concept of pest is Anthropocentric in nature considering human as
the central fact of a system and circumstantial. In other words, the concept of
pest is man-made and it started when humans grow crops.
Insect pests are insects that injure or cause damage to human‟s
interest. They are organisms or animals that destroy crops; compete with
humans for food and shelter; transmit diseases; and reduce availability, quality,
and value of human resources. It is restricted to refer only to insects and mites
that cause economic damage to agricultural crops, plant products, and
structures.

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2. Kinds of Pests
A pest can be a weed, disease pathogen, insect, vertebrate, mollusk,
rat, bat, bird, nematode or even a human being that infest or destroy and cause
economic damage to agricultural crops, plants, plant products, and structures.
3. Classes of Insect Pests Based on Feeding Habits
Insect pests may be classified based on feeding habits during their
destructive stage of growth, such as:
a. Chewing insects as in the larvae of stem borers.
b. Rasping-sucking insects as in nymph and adult thrips.
c. Cutting-sponging insects as in adult horse fly.
d. Piercing-sucking insects as in nymph and adult of green leaf
hoppers.
MAJOR PESTS OF IMPORTANT CROPS IN THE PHILIPPINES,
THEIR CHARACTERISTIC DAMAGE AND NATURAL ENEMIES
PART 1. INSECTS, MITES & MOLLUSK PESTS
A. RICE

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 I. MANGO
COMMON SCIENTIFIC ORDER CHARACTERISTIC
NAME NAME DAMAGE
1.Philippine Bactrocera Diptera Maggots feed on fruits
fruit flies philippinensis which eventually rot due
to secondary
contamination with
pathogens
2.Leafhoppers Ideoscopus Hemiptera Blossom wither & fruit
clypealis setting prevented & sooty
molds abundant
3.Mango Niphonoclea Coleoptera Twigs are girdled &
twig albata, eventually wither & die
borers
Niphonoclea capito

J. BANANA

H. COCONUT COMMON SCIENTIFIC ORDER CHARACTERISTIC

NAME NAME DAMAGE
COMMON SCIENTIFIC ORDER CHARACTERISTIC
NAME NAME DAMAGE 1.Banana leaf Irionata thrax Lepidoptera Portion of leaves rolled,
rollers larvae feed on the leaves
1.Coconut Oryctes rhinoceros Coleoptera Adults bore unopened
rhinoceros leaves; triangular gashes 2.Banana Cosmopolites Coleoptera Plants wilt or turn yellow
beetles are seen after leaves open weevils sordidus & collapse; grubs infest
the pseudostem
2.Asiatic palm Rhynchophorus Coleoptera Adults bore through
weevils ferrugineus cabbage, larvae feed on 3.Abaca Pentalonia Hemiptera Transmit virus causing
soft bud, crown destroyed aphids nigronervosa bunchy top symptom

3.Coconut leaf Brontispa Coleoptera Larvae feed on the K. STORED GRAINS

miner longissima epidermis of unopened
COMMON SCIENTIFIC ORDER CHARACTERISTIC
palm leaves. Infested
NAME NAME DAMAGE
leaves become scorched
(burned or dried out) 1.Rice Sitophilus oryzae Coleoptera Feed on both milled &
weevils unmilled grains
2.Corn Sitophilus zeamais Coleoptera Cause direct grain

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 weevils damage N. COFFEE

3.Rice moths Corcyra Lepidoptera Feed on milled grains COMMON SCIENTIFIC ORDER CHARACTERISTIC
cephalonica NAME NAME DAMAGE

L. SUGARCANE 1.Coffee Hypothenemus Coleoptera Holes on berries

berry hampei
COMMON SCIENTIFIC ORDER CHARACTERISTIC
borers
NAME NAME DAMAGE
2.Leaffolders Homona coffearia Lepidoptera Larvae fold leaves & eat
1.Root grubs Leucopholis Coleoptera Leaves unthrifty &
on the epidermis
irrorata stunted; grub feeds on
roots O. CACAO

2.Sugarcane Tetramoera Lepidoptera Larva bores through stem COMMON SCIENTIFIC ORDER CHARACTERISTIC
dead heart schistaceana causing dead heart NAME NAME DAMAGE
borers
1.Pachyrrhynchid Pachyrrhynchus Coleoptera Adults feed on bark,
3.Yellow Chilo infuscatellus Lepidoptera Larvae bore through the beetles moniliferusa leaves & bore through
top stem fruits; larvae also feed
borers on fruits

M. ROOT CROPS 2.Pink mealy Planococcus Hemiptera Feed on leaves & young
bugs lilacinus shoots, cause stunted
COMMON SCIENTIFIC ORDER CHARACTERISTIC
growth, sooty molds
NAME NAME DAMAGE
present
1.sweet potato Cylas formicarius Coleoptera Tubers with rotting
3.Cacao Conomorpha Lepidoptera Beans of older pods are
weevils formicarius section, larvae bore
pod cramerella bored & eventually rot
tunnels through the tubers;
borers
infested ones exude
disagreeable odor & bitter 4.Mosquito Helopeltis Hemiptera Pods riddled with black
taste bugs collaris necrotic areas

2.Cassava red Tetranychus Acari 3 Yellowing & drying of Helopeltis bakeri

spider mites kanzawai leaves
Polyphagous species:
Phylum Arthropoda, Class Chelicerata, Subclass Arachnida, and Suborder 1. Oriental migratory locusts, Locusta migratoria manilensis (Orthoptera)
Acariformes. defoliate leaves
2. Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera, Please refer to the Table.)

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PART II. VERTEBRATE PESTS to refer only to insects and mites that cause economic damage to
Vertebrate pests include birds, rats, bats, monkeys and rabbits. agricultural crops, plant products, and structures.
However, from the economic point of view, only birds and rats are important. c. Insecticides- any substance used to kill insects. However,
Common rat species in the Philippines include: insecticides also kill or affect other organisms, man, and animals.
1. Norway rat – Rattus norvegicus The term pesticides include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides,
2. Philippine field rat – Rattus mindanensis bactericides, nematicides, molluscicides, and rodenticides.
3. Asian field rat – Rattus argentiventer d. Agro ecosystem- is an agricultural area sufficiently large to permit
4. Polynesian rat – Rattus exulans long-term interactions of all the living organisms in their non-
PART III. NATURAL ENEMIES living environment.
A. PARASITOIDS – include organisms that require only one host to e. Insect Control- the performance of any practice that prevents
complete their life cycle. A parasitoid is usually smaller than the host further increase in insect pest population growth or that suppresses
(pest). It could either be an endoparasitoid (found inside the host body) or or reduces existing insect pest population. To many, insect
ectoparasitoid (found outside the host body). control denotes chemical control.
Examples: 1. Trichogramma evanescens (Hymenoptera) – Principles of Insect Control
parasitizes eggs of the corn borer.
2. Xanthopimpla stemmator (Hymenoptera) – The principles of insect control can be divided into two groups, namely:
parasitizes larvae of striped stem borer those that reduce insect pest populations and those that decelerate their
B. PREDATORS – include organisms that feed on several prey (pest) to rates of increase.
complete their life cycle. Reduction of Population of Insect Pests
Examples: 1. Coccinellid beetles (Coleoptera): The initial population of an insect pest may be reduced by any measure
Cheilomenes sexmaculatus – feeds on aphids exemplifying any of the four principles: exclusion, eradication, therapy, or
2. Brown lacewings (Neuroptera) vertical resistance.
Pseudomicromus igorotus – feeds on aphids A.1. Exclusionary measures- are those applied directly against insect pests
3. Wolf spiders (Araneae) to keep out those pests that are already outside the field, farm, region, or the
Lycosa pseudoannulata – preys on aphids, country. Legally enforced stoppages of insect pests at ports of entry- by
leafhoppers, plant hoppers, larvae of stem borers inspection, interception, destruction, and quarantine- are perhaps the most
and other insect pests familiar preventive insect pest control measures that exemplify the principle of
C. PATHOGENS – include microorganisms that cause disease on other exclusion. Other examples are planting of seeds or materials that are certified
organisms. free of insect pests, weeds, and pathogens that are not yet established on a farm,
Examples: 1. Metarhizium anisopliae – a fungus that infects region, or country.
rhinoceros beetle grubs (pests of coconut) A.2. Eradicative measures are eliminative; they get rid of insect pests
2. Bacillus thuringiensis – a bacterium that already present in an area. Eradicative measures are frequently taken against
produces toxins that kills larvae of diamond pests during interim between growing seasons for crop plants, but some such
back moth (pest of cabbage) measures may continue year round. The most familiar eradicative pest control
measures are soil treatment with heat or chemicals to control insect pests,
METHODS OF INSECT PEST CONTROL weeds and pathogens; chemical treatments to poison insect pests, and vermin;
dormant sprays with insecticides and other pesticides; crop rotation with non-
Definition of Terms and Their Implications susceptible plant species to deny insects and other pests of their sustenance;
b. Insect Pests are insects that injure or cause damage to man‟s genetic insect control method (introduction of sterile males in an island); and
interest. They are organisms or animals that destroy, compete mechanical or chemical destruction of pests. The essence of an eradicative
with humans for food and shelter, transmit diseases, and reduce control measures is its reduction of pest populations to a point below economic
availability, quality, and value of human resources. It is restricted thresholds (ETL) by eliminative action taken directly against pests themselves.

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 A.3. Therapeutic measures- are those that control insect pests by acting storage of rice is protective (or preventive). Residual spraying is also
directly against the pests, but only after the pest-victim relationship has begun. protective. Treatment of cereal-grain seed with pesticidal chemicals may be
Although therapy acts to reduce the population of insect pests, therapeutic therapeutic (if there is a systemic effect), eradicative, if seed infesting insects
treatments, unlike exclusionary and eradicative ones, are made on crop plants. are killed.
For example, systemic insecticides (pesticides) applied to plants act upon, b.3. Avoidance- is a control measure in which people work with the
respectively, colonizing insect pests or pests. Heat therapy may be used to free environment to enable their plants to escape contact with pests exemplifies the
propagative parts of infesting pests. It is difficult to see how the principle of principle of avoidance. It is unique principle because the target of other pest
therapy might be used against weeds and vermin (mice) by treating the crop
control principles is either the pest or its victim; the target of avoidance is the
plant-victim.
A.4. Vertical resistance - is the heritable capacity of the plant species to third member of the triad, the environment. Outstanding examples of
withstand the onslaught (fierce attack) of a would-be pest. A vertical resistant avoidance are cultural practices like early planting, intercropping, water
crop-plant variety is almost completely resistant to the predominantly strains or management, fertilizer management and other related practices.
biotypes of insect pest species, and that resistance is usually conferred by a
single gene or a very few genes. But a variety that is vertically resistant to one 4.1. Methods of Insect Pest Control
or more strains/biotypes of plant pest species may be susceptible to other a. Cultural Control- is the use of different cultural practices in the
strains/biotypes of the same pest species. It is a kind of biological control of insect pests. Examples are tillage, water management,
discrimination. It is usually inherited monogenically or qualitatively. sanitation, fertilizer management, crop rotation, use of pest-free
It is used against several devastating insect pests like Hessian fly of propagation materials, and other similar practices.
wheat, the phylloxera of grapes, and corn leaf aphids. However, vertical b. Mechanical and Physical Control- is direct mechanical and
resistance seems to play no role in the control of weeds. physical methods of barring, avoiding, and killing insect pests.
The use of mechanical equipment or materials like screens and
Decelerating the Rate at which Insect Pest Population Increase
plastic sheets houses, fences and mechanical traps protect high-
Control measures like horizontal resistance, protection, or avoidance seek
value or small-area crops from insect pests. Pests are still
to maintain insect pest populations at sizes below economic thresholds
physically collected (handpicking) and then destroyed in areas
(ETL).
where labor is cheap. Some physical methods for destroying
b.1. Horizontal resistance- is inherited polygenically, quantitative, or
insect pests are temperature (heating or cooling), humidity,
relative. It permits some infection/infestation (colonization) by insects or pests.
energy, and sound. Unfortunately, this type of control needs
It allows pest species only a fraction of what they need from victimized plants
costly equipment, usually beyond the reach of small farmers in
for their most rapid growth and reproduction.
developing countries.
It has the advantage of stability; it does not wither under pressure of attack
c. Host Plant Resistance- is the control of insect pests by planting
by different strains of pest species in different localities and over time to keep
resistant plant varieties. Example is planting of Matatag 3,4,5 and
pests below ETL. However, it is more difficult to develop plant varieties with
6 rice varieties which are resistant to green leafhoppers and
horizontal resistance than vertical resistance.
consequently to rice tungro virus (RTV).
b.2. Protection or protective measures may mean any effort that controls
d. Genetic Insect Control Method- is altering the DNA of the pest or
pests, but here, it is used to mean those in which growing plants or plant
crop for insect control. There are two techniques used under this
products are so treated that a barrier-either chemical or physical is placed on or
method. The first is sterile male technique used in fruit flies. The
immediately surrounding the plants to prevent pests in the vicinity from
second is the use of biotechnology (also called as molecular
establishing pest-victim relations with them. Ultimately their effects slow
technologies) in the control of insect pests. It covers the
down the rate of increase of insect pest population. If we do something to the
application of molecular biology (entomology) in agriculture,
potential victim in order to control pests, the treatment is protective. If we
environment, and health. It emphasizes the improvement of the
attack the pests directly, the control is exclusionary or eradicative. Examples:
genetic characteristics of the cell (of plant, animal, bacterium, or
inspection of ships and cargo to ensure their freedom from rats is exclusionary;
fungus) by exploiting recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
killing rats with poison is eradicative; construction of rat-proof bins for the
and other molecular technologies to develop improved methods

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 and modified organisms or genetically engineered organisms. In manipulated to make them produce abundant alien proteins for
the context of plant protection, transgenics are genetically therapeutic, diagnostic, and prophylactic purposes.
modified plants. Some transgenics are already available for cross Many research projects are now directed at:
breeding with existing crop varieties. Biotechnology has yielded
already herbicide resistant, insect-resistant, and virus-resistant  Investigating the molecular biology of key genes controlling insect
transgenic plants. Genetic engineering is an extension of development and reproduction;
conventional breeding, which involves gene transfer.  Studying the molecular aspects of current biological insecticides to
The following are cited as practical applications of biotechnology solve problems in production and efficacy; and
in plant protection:  Studying gene-to-gene relationships by host-pathogen interactions.
e. Biological Control- the use of living organism(s) for the control
 Monoclonal antibodies are used in testing seeds, planting materials, of insect pests. The following are agents used in biological
cuttings, and grafts for the presence of viruses and bacteria. control:
 In vitro regeneration makes use of the fact that each plant cell e.1. Predators and parasites (parasitoids) like Curinus coeruleus
contains all the genetic information needed to regenerate a complete Mulsant (a metallic blue beetle used against Leucaena psyllids), spiders, toads,
plant. Meristematic tissue that has no virus is used in tissue or in and frogs; and Trichogramma spp., respectively.
vitro cultures to produce virus-free plants. The technique is also e.2. Fungi: green muscardine fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae, white
used for production of transgenic plants. muscardine fungus, Beauveria bassiana against beetles and bugs.
 Herbicide-resistant plants are those in which resistance has been e.3. Bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis, against diamond back moth larvae.
incorporated through gene transfer using a bacterium that is e.4. Viruses like nucleic polyhedrosis virus (NPV) against the larvae of
resistant to herbicide. Usually, the bacterium, Agrobacterium armyworms and cutworms and Baculovirus oryctes against rhinoceros beetles,
tumefaciens is used for transferring the resistance gene. Oryctes rhinoceros
 Transgenic plants resistant to virus infection are obtained by e.5. Nematodes: Romanomermis spp., against flies, gall midges, and
incorporating into plants the “coat protein-gene” of six leaf miners and Neoaplectana spp., against larvae of Lepidoptera and termites.
economically important viruses, such as tobacco mosaic virus e.6. Protozoa, Nosema locustae, against locusts.
(TMV) and potato X virus. Several transgenic plants (tobacco, f. Chemical Control- is the use of insecticides in the control of
potato, tomato) with built-in protection against virus infection have insect pests. Examples of insecticides are Karate, Chix, Cymbush,
been developed. Rador, Magnum, and other related products. Insecticides act in
 Transgenic plants possessing insect resistance can be obtained by various ways:
transferring a natural “insecticide-gene,” originating from Bacillus  Stomach poisons are eaten by the pests and absorbed into the body
thuringiensis, into plants. Transgenic plants produce a protein through the digestive tract.
(toxin) that, when ingested by a feeding caterpillar, will kill it. An  Contact poisons enter an insect‟s body because of contact with treated
example is Bt corn. surfaces such as plant foliage.
 Insect-pathogenic symbionts of plants. If a gene governing the  Fumigants enter the insect‟s body through the respiratory system.
production of insect toxins is introduced into the soil-borne  Systemic poisons move through the plant‟s vascular system. Insects
bacterium, Pseudomonas, which lives in close association with plant that feed on the leaves, stems, fruits, or roots of treated plants absorb
roots (rhizosphere), the plant itself is influenced by the transgenic them.
bacterium and becomes repulsive to soil-living insects that normally  Physical poisons kill insects by suffocating them (e.g., dusts) or by
feed on its roots. desiccation (e.g., petroleum oils disrupt cuticle formation).
 Hypervirulent baculoviruses. Genetic manipulation can increase  Juvenile hormones are substances that regulate insect development and
the virulence of insect-pathogenic baculoviruses to make them more prevent them from reaching maturity. Synthetic compounds are being
effective insect control agents. The baculoviruses can also be developed for use as biochemical control agents.

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  Growth regulators are natural chemical substances in plants and  Occurrence of pest outbreaks. It is an increase in population of
animals that control their growth and are usually specific in action. minor pests due to the destruction of natural enemies by
These substances may interfere with hatching, molting, and pupation continuous use of insecticides.
in insects or with cell division and cell elongation in plants. These  Biomagnification of pesticidal residue through the food chain or
substances are analyzed and synthesized. An example is NOMOLT. food web. It means an increase in insecticide residue in food or
 Pheromones are substances used for communication between crop produce or animals at higher level along the chain or web.
individuals of the same species in the form of natural sex-attractants or  Rising cost of insecticides. It is an increase in the price of
sex pheromones, food attractants and repellents (or deterrents) are insecticides due to further development of new insecticides, which
synthesized. The use of these substances as a method in pest control is require longer processes since previously developed insecticides
also called insect behavior-related techniques. An example is Methyl are not effective anymore against pests. Monetary devaluation
Eugenol as food attractant. also added to this problem of costly insecticides.
g. Quarantine/Legal Control- is also called as preventive control  Human health effects. Insecticides are biocides hence; these are
method. A law is imposed by disallowing plants, plant products, hazardous or poisonous to human beings, animals, and wildlife.
plant materials, organisms, and other materials to be transported to To minimize such problems, farmers must diversify their pest
another island, province, or country without undergoing strict control practices. The government through Presidential Pronouncement of
quarantine and regulatory control procedures like fumigation,
IPM as the crop protection policy of Philippine agriculture in mid-1986
spraying or other suitable control measures to prevent the spread
of pests. The governments are responsible for overseeing supports this strategy.
regulatory control programs that may include eradication, H.3. the Basic Elements of IPM:
containment, and suppression of pests.
h. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) - is the best mix of pest a. Natural control- the maintenance of population number (or
control tactics for a local pest problem as measured by the biomass) with certain upper and lower limits by the action of the whole
parameters of yield, profits, safety and stability. IPM includes the environment (biotic and abiotic factors). It is otherwise known as
management of insects, pathogens, weeds, rats, mollusks, and bird equilibrium position or balance of nature. It is defined also as the average
pests. Insect Pest Management (IPM) may be defined as the population density of pest over a long period.
practical manipulation of insect or mite pest populations using any b. Sampling or monitoring- quantitative measure of pest
compatible “control” methods in a sound ecological manner. density or amount of insect pest damage.
h.1. Objectives of IPM: c. Control action threshold (CAT)- is the insect density at
which control measures should be applied to prevent and increasing pest
 To maximize net profit with least input cost; population from reaching the economic injury level or economic damage.
 To preserve the environment; It is also called as economic threshold level (ETL). Economic damage is
 To avoid poisoning due to careless use of pesticides; and the amount of injury (or damage) equal to the cost of control.
 To attain fewer insect pest outbreaks. Using ETL is the soundest way of determining whether or not to
h.2. Why IPM? treat or apply control measures against the insect pests.
The concept of IPM came up because total reliance to Pest Density
insecticides or pesticides lead to the following undesirable side effects: (Rice black bug/20 hills)
 Development of insect pest resistance to insecticides or pesticides;
 Pest resurgence. It is an increase in population of major or key
pests due to their ability to adopt/utilize/degrade the insecticides
that have been continuously and indiscriminately used for some
time.

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 IPM is dynamic and ever changing system, as we develop a
better understanding of all the factors that affect the system; and all
management practices do not have to function at the same time.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTICIDES AND
TYPES OF INSECTICIDE TOXICITY

1. Classification of insecticides according to their mode of action. The

mode of action of an insecticide is the way in which an insecticide acts in
an insect to cause death. These types of insecticides are the following:
1.1. Physical poisons kill insects by some physical action
Examples are mineral oils which exclude air and silica
aerogel dust that leads to loss in water.
Insect pest biology-ecology is the life history of a pest and its 1.2. Protoplasmic poisons kill insects by precipitating protein
relationship to the environment. from the tissues. Examples are arsenicals which are known as
H.4. the Important Principles Behind the IPM Concept: first generation chemicals.
a. Allow pest population to exist below ETL. Eradication of insect pests is 1.3. Metabolic inhibitors inhibit metabolism of an insect.
not the goal of IPM but maintaining pest population below ETL. Examples are hydrogen cyanide, a respiratory poison;
b. Understand that an ecosystem is a management unit. An ecosystem has dinitrophenols; rotenone; and sodium fluoracetate, inhibitors
components and each component has an important role to play. of carbohydrate metabolism.
c. Maximize the use of non-chemical methods of pest control. These 1.4. Nerve poisons include many of the current insecticides. They
methods of control reduce pollution and other undesirable side effects of are of three types:
insecticides. 1.4.1. Anticholinesterase compound such as
d. That any control tactic may produce undesirable or unexpected effects. organophosphorus and carbamates insecticides
The desirable, as well as, undesirable effects of any control strategy should increase excitation of the nerve system.
be analyzed before recommendation. 1.4.2. Chemicals that affect the Na+1 and K+2 ions such as
e. Promote an interdisciplinary approach for developing an IPM DDT, chlordane, and pyrethrins.
Programme. Holistic team approach is important for a successful IPM 1.4.3. Compounds that affect the nerve receptors or
Programme implementation. synaptic ganglia like nicotine.
H.5.Constraints in IPM implementation: 2. Classification of insecticides according to their chemical structure or
origin. This type includes the following:
a. Unacceptable monitoring procedures. 2.1.Inorganic insecticides which include the following:
b. Risk averseness of farmers. This is due to hang over of insecticide 2.1.1.Lead arsenate controls chewing insects in shrubs, fruit
application. trees and shade trees.
c. Inability of the farmers to perceive the non-monetary advantage of IPM. 2.1.2.Sodium flousilicate is used as bait for ants, cockroaches
d. Consumer demand for insect damage free produce. and grasshoppers.
e. Gender issue. Farming is a family enterprise. Hence, technology 2.1.3. Sulfur is finely ground to become dust which has
extension should be focused not only to the male farmers but also to his been used to control mites and certain fungi.
wife and children as our target clients in extension. 2.2. Organic insecticides which include the following:
The concept of IPM is not new, only the name, since many of 2.2.1. Oils may serve as insecticides themselves. Examples are summer
the components of sound IPM systems were known 60 years ago to oils which are highly refined oils that are not so
effectively suppress pests. toxic to plants and can be applied to trees in leaf,
such as citrus trees, to control mites and scale
insects.

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 2.2.2.Botanicals are plant products used in insect control. These include: used for communication between individuals of the same species. The use
2.2.2.1.Eugenol and Geraniol which attract insects. of these substances as a method in pest control is also called insect
2.2.2.2.Citronella and oil of cedar which repel insects. behavior-related techniques.
2.2.2.3.Cotton seed oil which serves as solvent or extender. 2.2.3.9. Fumigants are volatile substances that are toxic and repellent to
2.2.2.4.Nicotine, pyrethrum, and rotenone are toxicants that are most insects. These are chemicals that at certain pressure become gaseous in
important. form and toxic to insects and other organisms.
2.2.3.Synthetic organic insecticides (second generation insecticides) comprise 2.3. Biological insecticides are insecticides based on biological organisms.
two types or classes: Synthetic derivatives of insect secretions or other organisms naturally do
2.2.3.1.Chlorinated hydrocarbons are known as organochlorines. They are not fall into this category. So far, only two biological insecticides have
persistent in the environment. Examples: DDT (dichloro diphenyl been toxicologically cleared for agricultural use, namely: Bacillus
trichloroethane), BHC (Benzene hexachloride), perthane, Toxaphene, thuringiensis (Bt) and the nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV). NPV is not
cyclodienes (aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, endosulfan, endrin, and yet marketed in the country. Bt is bacteria produced by fermentation
heptachlor). These are banned for use in agricultural crops. processes in which spores are applied as a spray just like most insecticides.
2.2.3.2.Organo-phosphorus insecticides (OP) comprise the larger number 2.4. Other type of insecticide like cartap hydrochloride does not belong to
of synthetic insecticides which include: any one of the insecticide types described above. This is a derivative of
2.2.3.2.1. Plant and animal systemic. Demeton, dimethoate, etc. are plant nereistoxin, a naturally occurring insecticidal substance isolated from
systemic which are absorbed by plants, whose sap become toxic to insects. marine segmented worms, Lubrinereis heteropoda and L. brevicirra. This
While Asuntol (coumaphos) is animal systemic this is absorbed by animals is a systemic insecticide and examples are Cascade 10 WDC and Vegetox
whose blood become toxic to other organisms. WP.
2.2.3.2.2. Non-systemic are diazinon, malathion, and parathion are used in 3. Classification of insecticides according to their mode of entry. These are
agricultural crops. They contain phosphoric acid. the following:
2.2.3.3. Carbamate insecticides are chemicals that break down 3.1. Stomach insecticides are eaten by the pests and absorbed into the
easily/readily and leave no harmful residue. Their mammalian toxicity body through the digestive tract. Stomach insecticides may
varies from low to high. Examples are sevin (carbaryl), furadan also act as contact insecticides. Examples are malathion,
(carbofuran), and lannate (methomyl). brodan, sevin, etc.
2.2.3.4. Synthetic pyrethroids are synthesized from petroleum-based 3.2. Contact poisons enter an insect‟s body because of contact with
chemicals. They are related to the natural pyrethrins. Examples are treated surfaces such as plant foliage. These penetrate the
baythroid (cyfluthrin), pytox (permethrin), and decis (deltamethrin). insect‟s exoskeleton through the respiratory system, breaks in
2.2.3.5. Insect growth regulators (IGRs) are the juvenile hormones and
the exoskeleton, diffusion or crystal penetration through the
growth regulators which are naturally found in animals and plants. These
substances may interfere with hatching, molting, and pupation in insects. soft membrane, and several other pathways. Examples are
These substances were analyzed, synthesized and came into market in parathion, baythroid, decis, and others
1975. They are known as third generation (synthetic) insecticides whose 3.3. Systemic poisons move through the plant‟s vascular system.
action/effect is specific. Examples are nomolt, diaract, and methoprene. Insects that feed on the leaves, stems, fruits, or roots of
2.2.3.6. Chemo-sterilants induce varying degrees of sterilization in insects. treated plants absorb them. Examples are furadan, marshal,
Examples are apholate, tepa, metepa and thiotepa. actara, oshin, cartap, etc.
2.2.3.7. Insect repellents keep insects away from humans and animals and 4. Types of insecticide toxicity
are not necessarily toxic. Examples are naphthalene balls and off There are two main types of toxicity, the acute and chronic.
(dimethyl phthalate). 4.1. Acute toxicity involves only single exposures. It is determined by
2.2.3.8. Insect attractants comprise natural substances such as sugar, applying different concentrations of an insecticide to
molasses, yeast extract, fatty acids, Eugenol and geraniol. Insect laboratory animals like rabbits, rats, mice, guinea pig, or to
attractants can be food attractants like kalingag (cinnamon) and methyl their immediate environment. Mortalities are taken at
Eugenol for fruit flies or sex pheromones (attractants) like grandlure. It is predetermined intervals. A dosage or dose vs. mortality

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 graph is then constructed and the statistical expression of f. Determine the amount of water required to spray 1 ha, using the
lethal dose (LD50) or lethal concentration (LC50) is obtained. following steps:
These refer to the dose (LD50) or concentration (LC50) of the f.1. Measure the amount of water to refill the tank to its original volume.
insecticide/pesticide which will result in 50% mortality to the
test population. The smaller the value, the more toxic is the f.2 Determine the amount of water needed to spray 1 ha using the following
compound. In this example, compound A (LD50=18.5 mg/kg) equation:
is more toxic than compound B (LD50=175 mg/kg.
Acute toxicity values are generally determined for three
routes of application, namely: oral, dermal, and inhalation.
The toxicity through these three routes is very important
because they represent the most common route of human
exposure.
4.2. Chronic toxicity works in more insidious ways. The symptoms
are exhibited only after prolonged exposure which may take
years. By that time, it would probably be too late to apply 2. Insecticide Calculation
medication to affect complete cure as organ damage could
already be extensive. To achieve the desired results in insect pest control, one must know
SPRAYER CALIBRATION AND INSECTICIDE how to calculate the quantity of insecticide required in making a recommended
CALCULATION application of foliar spray, dust, wettable powder, or granules.
The commercial formulation or an insecticide is mixture of inert
1. Sprayer Calibration ingredients. Only the active ingredient kills the insects; the inert ingredient is
The procedures in sprayer calibration are: an additive in the formulation, which improves storability, application, and
a. Measure and mark a known distance. other characteristics of the insecticide. The recommended rate or dosage of an
b. Fill the sprayer with water. insecticide may be expressed in:
c. Determine the time required to cover the measured distance and a. Percent concentration of the active ingredient (a.i.) in the spray
area covered. solution.
d. Repeat and determine the average time and area covered. b. Weight (kg) or volume (liter) of active ingredient per area to be
e. Determine the time required to spray one hectare using the treated (ha).
following equation: c. Liter or kilogram of the formulated product (FP) per hectare to be
treated.
We also have to remember the following measurements/equivalents:

Area: 1 ha =10,000 square meters (m2)

1 acre =4,000 m2 or 0.40 ha

Volume: 1 liter =1,000 milliliter (ml) or cc

1 ml =1,000 micro liter (l)

=1 g = 1 cc

1 l/liter (lit. or l.) = 1 ppm

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 Weight: 1 kilo =1,000 grams

1 gram =1,000 milligram (mg)

1 mg/kg =1 ppm

Before any calculation can be made, at least three of the following 5

bits of information must be known:
a. The recommended weight in kg or liter have the active ingredient/ha
or liter(s) or the formulated product to be applied/ha.
b. Percent spray concentration to be applied. b. Recommended rate of EC, WP, and F based on kg a.i./ha.
c. Amount of spray solution per ha when applying foliar spray. b.1. Given: Rec. Rate = 0.75 kg a.i./ha
d. Percent a.i. of the insecticide in the commercial formulation. Vol. of Spray Soln Specified = 160 liters/ha
e. Area to be treated. A.I. Contains of EC,WP, F = 70%
3. Problem Solving Examples b.2. Problem: How many kg of the comm. Formuln. are needed to treat or spray
a. Recommended rate of EC, WP, F based on % conc. of spray 0.5 ha?
solution.
a.1 Given: Rec. conc. 0.04%
Specified spray vol. 160 liters/ha
% a.i. in the formulation 45%

a.2 Problem: How many liters of the commercial

formulation are needed to treat an area of 0.5
ha?
a.3 Solution: First compute 320 lit/ha x 0.5 = 80 liters of
spray solution or volume needed for 0.5 ha.
c. Recommended Rate of Granules or Dust Based on Kg A.I./Ha.
c.1. Given: Rec. Rate = 2 kg a.i./ha
Conc. of Comm. Formn. = 10% a.i. (Furadan 10G)
Area to be Treated = 0.5 ha

c.2 Problem: How many grams of Furadan 10G are needed to

treat 0.5 ha?

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 Its main goal is the formulation of most effective, economical, and satisfactory
methods of controlling weeds.
1.1 . Stages in the evolution of weed control practices (Hay. 1974)
10,000 B.C. - removing weeds by hand
6000 B.C. - use of primitive hand tools to till the land and destroy weeds
1000 B.C. - animal powered implements like harrows
1920 A.D. - mechanically powered implements like cultivators, blades, etc.
1930 A.D.- biological control
1947-chemical control such as 2,4-D and MCPA (2-methyl 3
chlorophenoxyacetic acid)
1.2 History (klingman, 1961 In Mercado, 1979)
d. Recommended Rate Based on the Amount of the Formulated
1908 Bonnet (France), Shultz (Germany) & Dolley (USA) found that a solution
Product (FP) in Liters or Kg/Ha.
ofcopper and salts would selectively kill broadleaf weeds in cereals.
d.1. Given: Rec. Rate of FP = 1 liter/ha = 1000 ml/ha
1909 Bolley (USA) used table salt, iron sulfate, and sodium arsenate to control
Specified Spray Vol.= 160 liters/ha
weeds in wheat
Area to be Treated = 0.5 ha
1943 Zimmerman & Hitchcock (USA) reported 2,4-D for field weeds
d.2. Problem: How many liter(s) of the comm. or formulated
1948 2,4-D was initially tested in the Philippines to eradicate weeds in lawns,
product are needed to treat or spray 0.5 ha?
vacant lots and pastures
1955other new herbicides and growth inhibitors were studied in the country
2. What is a weed?
2.1 Definition
1. A plant unwanted at a particular time and place.
2. Unwanted and undesirable plants, which interfere with utilization of
land and water resources and thus adversely affect human welfare.
Concept of a Weed
Weeds are important component of the agro ecosystem. They are
important factors in the management of land and water resources and their
economic impact is greatest in agriculture. They often dictate many of the crop
production practices management decisions in growing crops.
―Nature held o concept of disharmony or undesirableness. The needs
of man dictated whether a species would be a weed or a crop. Thus, the concept
of a weed is man-made‖. However, some species occur as a weed 99% of the
time, such as barnyard grass and pickerelweed in a rice field; itchgrass in a
cornfield; purple nutsedge in a vegetable field. Of the 300,000 species of
angiosperms recorded, some 30,000 or 10% behave as weed 99% of the time.
Origin of Weeds:
1. Obligate weeds are those that are associated with man or found in
cultivated areas.
2. Facultative weeds are found both in the wild state and in
WEED SCIENCE cultivated habitats
1. Weed science defined Two possible origins:
Weed Science is the study of weeds and their control. It is an offshoot 1. The wild species long adapted to sites of natural disturbances.
of plant physiology having evolved from the study of plant growth regulators.

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 2. The new species or biotypes that evolved with the development of Rice dwarf disease (virus) Echinocloa crusgali
agriculture. Rice stripe disease Echinocloa crusgali, Cynodon dactylon
2.2 Characteristics of a Weed Tungro virus Cyperus rotundus, Fimbristylis miliaceae,
a. They have rapid vegetative growth. Cyperus brevifolius
b. They reproduce rapidly and mature early. Melodoyne (nematode) Fimbristylis miliaceae, Echinocloa colona,
c. Most weeds are very prolific and produce abundant seeds Lantana camara
d. They have the ability to survive and adapt to adverse conditions. Root-knot nematodes (in Ageratum conyzoides
e. Propagules possess dormancy or can be induced to become dormant vegetables)
under unfavorable conditions. Tobacco mosaic virus Amaranthus spinosus
f. Adapted to crop competition
2.3 Importance of Weeds/ Effects of Weed on Human Affairs 2.3.2. Benefits that may be derived from weeds
2.3.1. Losses due to weeds a. Reduce soil erosion in hilly areas
a. Reduced yield of crops due to competition for sunlight, moisture - Cogon or I. cylindrica grows well in areas that are hilly and of low soil
and soil nutrients. fertility)
b. Reduced quality of the products (both crop and animal products) b. Add organic matter to the soil when properly incorporated or
c. Added protection cost for other pests plowed under (e.g. Sesbania rostata, green manure in lowland rice)
- Scirpus maritimus is attacked by Pyricularia oryzae, the causal organism or c. Provide food and cover for wild life.
rice blast - Some weeds are edible: Amaranthus species, Portulaca oleraceae, and
-Most grasses=alternate host of green and brown leaf plant hoppers (Table 1) Corchorus olitorius
- Weeds provide suitable habitat for rodents and other pests - Seeds of small grain weeds are used as food, and feed for birds and hogs
d. Losses due to problems in water management - some weeds are used as forage: Sorghum halepense, Panicum maximum or
- Aquatic weeds clog irrigation and drainage canals and hydroelectric gulls. guinea grass, Cynodon plectostachyus or star grass, Brachiaria mutica or
- Aquatic weeds give undesirable flavor and odor to potable water supplies. paragrass, Pennesitum purpureum or Napier grass, Pueraria phaseoloides or
e. Added cost of harvesting and other farm operation kudzu, Brachiaria decumbems or signal grass
-weeds contribute to harvesting losses by increasing fuel consumption and d. Yield useful drugs and delicacies
equipment wear e. Provide habitat for insect predators
- Expenses are incurred in weeding and in cleaning of crop seeds f. Aesthetic Value (Beautify the landscape)
f. Land and property depreciation - Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) and water fern (Salvinia auriculata)
g. Hazard to health and livestock were introduced in the region as ornamental.
- Chromolaena odorata and Lantana camara can cause diarrhea resulting to g. Provide reservoir of germplasm and constitute a potential source of
death of animals. Foliage of Lantana contains pentacyclic triterpenoids that can domesticated plants
cause hepatotoxicity and photosensitivity in grazing animals such as sheep, 3. Classification and Identification
goats, bovines, and horses. Leaves and young shoots have exceptionally high 3.1. Based on Lifespan
nitrate content that can poison feeding livestock. a. Annual weeds – complete their life cycle in one season and mainly
- Pollens of Cynodon dactylon, Eleusine indica, Chrysopogon aciculatus, reproduce
Imperata cylindrica and Sorghum halepense were reported to cause allergy e.g Itchgrass (Rottboellia cochinchinensis), Gooseweed (Sphenoclea
- Pistia stratiotes serve as host of mosquitoes that carry the parasites zeylanica), Water purslane (Ludwigia octovalvis), Gabi-gabi (Monochoria
responsible for rural fillariasis and encephalomyelitis vaginalis)
b. Perennial weeds – weeds that live for more than one season for
Table 1. Weeds as secondary hosts for diseases, insects, and nematodes of several years reproducing vegetatively and by seeds.
rice and other crops a. Simple perennials – reproduce only by seeds
DISEASE/ INSECT HOST WEEDS e.g Sida (Sida acuta), Makahiya (Mimosa pudica), Devil weed (Chromolaena
Bacterial Leaf Blight Leptochloa chinensis odorata), Lantana (Lantana camara)
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 b. Creeping perennials – reproduce by seeds and vegetative propagules as the culm, upper part is the blade with parallel venation; ligules, a hairy
1. Stolon – Bermuda (Cynodon dactylon) membranous outgrowth between the leaf blade and leaf sheath exist.
2. Rhizome – Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense); Cogon (Imperata e.g. Barnyard grass (Echinocloa crusgali), Bermuda (Cynodon dactylon),
cylindrical) Itchgrass (Rottboellia cochinchinensis
3. Tuber – Purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus) b. Sedges – from the Family Cyperaceae; they closely resemble
4. Off-shoots – water lettuce – Pistia stratiotes; water hyacinth – grasses except that their culm are triangular; indistinct nodes and internodes
Eichornia crassipes located at the basal part of the culm; leaf sheaths fused to form a tube
3.2. Based on Habitat around the culm forming rosette leaf arrangement; root system is fibrous.
a. Upland/Terrestrial – well adapted to well-drained soils. e.g. White kyllingia (Cyperus kyllingia) Fimbristylis (Fimbristylis miliaceae),
b. Lowland/Aquatic – weeds thrive best under saturated or flooded Tikiw (Scirpus grossus)
conditions of the soil c. Broadleaves – from Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae. They are
b.1. Emergent – when upper portion is above water but roots anchored identified by their fully expanded, broadleaf structure. Most have netted leaf
to the ground (e.g. Cyperus iria, Sphenoclea zeylanica) venation. Many broadleaves have succulent stems and taproot system. They
b.2. Submerged – all parts are under water (e.g. Hydrilla vericillata) may be monocots or dicots. Families commonly represented are:
b.3. Floating – upper portion is above water but roots are not anchored a. Asteraceae (Compositae) – largest family of flowering plants
to the ground (e.g. water lettuce or Pistia stratioes, Azolla pinnata, Salvinia e.g. Tropic ageratum (Ageratum conyzoides), Little iron weed (Vernonia
molesta) cinerea)
c. Aerial or Ephiphytic – weeds growing in air, attached to trees or b. Euphorbiaceae – weed with milky sap
other support e.g. Garden spurge (Euphorbia hirta), kaliskis (Euphorbia prostrata)
3.3. Based on Growth Habit c. Amaranthaceae – with sessile, apetalous flowers
a. Erect – weeds grow vertically with a single or multiple stem; upright e.g. Spiny amaranth (Amaranthus spinosus), slender amaranth (Amaranthus
growth habit viridis), Taling talingan (Celosia argentea)
b. Creeping/ Prostrate – weeds grow horizontally on the ground; can d. Araceae
be procumbent and decumbent e.g. Water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes)
b.1. Decumbent – lying flat with ascending apex e. Pontederiaceae
b.2 procumbent – stem trailing or lying flat but not rooting at nodes, e.g. Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), Pickerelweed (Monochoria
apex not ascending vaginalis)
c. Twining/ Climbing – these plants need support to grow vertically f. Sphenocleaceae
3.4. Based on Stem Structure e.g. Gooseweed – Sphenoclea zeylanica
a. Herbaceous – stems are soft and succulent; usually annuals g. Papillonaceae/ Leguminosae
b. Woody – stems are hard and with a bark; usually perennials e.g. Cover crop (Calopogonium muconoides), Hairy centrosema (Centrosema
3.5. Based on Area of Origin pubescens)
a. Exotic/ Imported – weeds originating from a particular place, h. Mimosaceae
introduced to another area, adapt to the new place and in time become a serious e.g. Common sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica), Giant sensitive plant (Mimosa
weed. invisa)
b. Native/endemic – the weed is native to the area i. Caesalpinaceae
c. Naturalized/ adventives – these are exotic weeds that need the e.g. Balatong aso - Casia tora
interference of man in order to grown in a new place. j. Convulvulaceae
3.6. Based on morphological characteristics: e.g. kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica), kamuti-kamuti (I. triloba)
a. Grasses- from the Family Gramineae (Poaceae); stem, referred to as k. Commelinaceae
culm, is cylindrical; culm has well defined nodes and internodes; leaves arise e.g. Sabilau (Commelina benghalensis)
alternately in two rows; basal part of the leaf is the leaf sheath which clasp l. Verbenaceae

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e.g. Sapinit or lantana (Lantana camara), kandi-kandilaan ( Stachytarpheta - Average number of weed seeds in the soil – 30,000 to 350,000/m2 or 3 to 3.5
jamaicensis) B/ha
General Groups of Weeds - Phil. Lowland rice field condition – 804,076.074 M seeds containing of 12
1. Common weeds – weeds that are more or less found in every farm species/ha
but are not exceptionally injurious and are readily controlled by - Predominant species: Fimbristylis littoralis and Scirpus supinus var.
ordinary good farming practices. lateriflorus
2. Noxious weeds – weeds that are particularly undesirable, because - Cultural practices that can modify weed seed population: crop rotation,
of their certain undesirable characteristics, like the presence of an fertilizer application and tillage practices
extensive perennial underground system that enables to resist all 4.2 Longevity of weed seeds
the most determine effort to control. Longevity – refers to the length of life or viability of weed seed or vegetative
Noxious weeds are persistent, highly competitive, and propagules
difficult to control and reduce crop yield even at low density. Factors to consider: soil type, sunlight exposure, cultural practices and moisture
content
Persistence= is a measure of the adaptive potential of a weed that enables it to 4.3 Dormancy of weed seeds
grown in environment disturbed by man. Dormancy – the inability of the seed or any vegetative organ or tissue to
Table 1. Classification and identification of the ten world‟s worst weeds. germinate under favorable conditions
-acquired through primary or natural dormancy or secondary dormancy
Primary/Natural/Innate Dormancy- inherent property of the mature seed as it
leaves the parent plant
Secondary dormancy – induced through encounter with unfavorable conditions
Induced dormancy – develops when a non-dormant seed becomes dormant after
exposure to such specific environmental conditions
Enforced dormancy – limitations of the habitat or environment prevents seeds
from germinating
Mechanisms of Dormancy:
1. Physical – impermeability of water and or oxygen
2. Physiological – immature embryo or presence of inhibitors
Methods of breaking dormancy:
1. Microbial action or abrasive treatments: sulfuric acid,
stratification
2. Passage through alimentary tract of livestock
3. Dehulling (physical dormancy)
4. Alternate wet and dry conditions
5. KN03, GA3, Cytokinin, Auxin, etc.
6. Light and temperature treatment
4.4. Weed seed germination
Germination= the resumption of growth of the embryo in the seed or of the
In the Philippines, Echinocloa species may be ranked next to C. young plantlet in a tuber, bulb or rhizome.
rotundus and S. halepense and C. dactylon may be replaced with Paspalum sp Steps/Phases of germination
and Rottboellia cochinchinensis 1. Imbibition- absorption of water accompanied by swelling
1.1. Physical process: absorption of water by starch or non-
4. Weed Establishment living part of the seed
4.1 Soil as seedbank of weeds

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 1.2. Physiological process: absorption of water by the 4. Competitive power of the weed
embryo; initiation and progress of starch hydrolysis; Most weeds derived their competitive power from their rapid
activation of enzymes; breakdown of food reserve that development manifested by:
trigger rapid metabolic activity a. Rapid root growth and development
2. Period of rapid metabolic activity – cell division and cell b. Rapid leaf production
elongation proceed at a fast rate supported by a rapid synthesis of c. Multiple shoot development
materials. The result is the perceptive growth of the embryo. d. Formation of large and expansive foliar-type of cotyledon
3. Emergence of root – radical and root-like structure break through allowing early photosynthetic function
the seeds and grow into the soil e. Formation of toxin, which may be toxic to other higher plants
4. Emergence of the shoot – the shoot grow above the ground 5. Weed reproduction and dispersal
5. Period of independent growth – the dependence on food reserve Weeds have a very efficient method of reproduction and
ceases and the seedling start to manufacture its own carbohydrate. remarkable capacity for survival under a wide range of conditions.
Factors affecting weed germination This is due to their morphological and physiological adaptations,
a. Environmental factors – moisture, temperature, oxygen which are expressions of their high degree of specialization.
b. Cultural factors – water management, cultivation and light, 5.1. Methods of Reproduction
4.5. Seedling growth and development a. Seeds or sexual reproduction – annual weeds reproduce by seeds. Most
The Seedling Stage weeds are prolific seed producers.
- The most competitive stage being characterized by a high demand - Flowering in most annual weeds start as early as five weeks after
for soil nutrients water and light in order to sustain a rapid phase planting and coincides with theperiod of rapaid leaf, shoot or tiller
of growth. production of most crops.
- the most sensitive to environmental influences e.g. E. crusgali starts flowering 48 DAP and mature seeds are
- high water requirement produced in another 14 days; R. cochninchinensis flowers in 47 days
- most vulnerable and most practical stage for control and produce mature seeds in 19 days
- most susceptible stage to herbicide action - Flowers of most weeds are small, inconspicuous and rarely occur
Factors affecting seedling growth and development singly
1. Soil factors b. Vegetative or asexual reproduction- important in the spread of
- Most weeds are more efficient than the crops in drawing nutrient perennial weeds. Vegetative reproduction adds to the difficulty of
from the soil. Amaranthus accumulates calcium, Cleome and control due to the production of dormant underground propagules.
Pistia accumulate potassium - The principal types of vegetative propagules are: rhizomes, tubers,
2. Light – shading increases RH in the area causing decrease bulbs, stolon, off-shoot. Some weeds have more than one type of
transpiration and slow nutrient uptake from the soil; high RH can vegetative propagules (Table 3).
cause higher incidence of diseases -A rhizome resembles a root but is differentiated into nodes,
- Species sensitive to shading: C. dactylon, I. cylindrical, P. internodes and scale leaves (e.g. cogon, Paspalum distichum). In some
stratiotes, C. rotundus species, the terminal portion of the rhizomes develops into a fleshy storage
3. Adaptation to rowing condition organ, the tubers. Some tubers may develop into the basal bulbs, which
- Cynodon dactylon – introduced to Southeast Asia as a turf grass send out rosette of aerial leaves (C. rotundus). Stolon resembles rhizomes
is now growing luxuriantly as a weed in most respect but they remain above the round. The young plant arises from
- Echinocloa crusgali- native of Central and East Asia can survive the lateral but near the basal part of the stem axis (C. dactylon).
in sub-temperate condition
- Rotboellia cochinchinensis – strictly tropical in distribution is now Table 3. Mode of asexual reproduction of some perennial weed species
found in sub temperate areas
- Eichornia crassipes – introduced as ornamental during the
Spanish regime
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 Competition occurs when two or more plants make demands for the
CROP DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE
Garlic Bulb initiation
Okra 10-15 cm height
Carrot 7-10 cm height
Bean Canopy formation
Cucumber Runner initiation
Cabbage Head initiation
Tomato 20-30 cm height
same resources of the environment in excess of the immediate supply or when
5.2. Disseminating agent and dispersal of weeds the resources are supplied in the limited amount. The overall effect of
Dispersal unit = refers to the reproductive structure usually single-seeded competiion is a reduction in the reproductive potential of the competitors.
together with accessory parts that separates from the mother plant and is 6.1.1. Types:
disseminated to other areas. 1. Interspecific competition – competition between plants of different
a. Wind – the various modifications of seed structure that equip them for species.
wind dissemination are termed SACCATE, winged comate (hair- 2. Intraspecific competition – competition between plants of the same
covered), parachute and plumed. species
e.g. Echinocloa sp are light and can be easily blown by wind. Imperata 6.1.2. Component of Competition: Influence of weed on crop growth,
cylindrica and Saccharum spontaneum seeds are with parachute like Partial control of weeds due to the presence of crop.
structure. Ageratum conyzoides and Tridax procumbens are with 6.1.3. Resources being competed for: water, nutrients, and sunlight
pappus consiting of a circle of silky hairs 6.1.4. Factors affecting the degree of competition
b. Water – seeds of many weeds are light or are covered with an oil film, a. Weed species- E.chinocloa competes with rice better than
enabling them to float on the water surface. Some have air-filled Monochoria because of its extensive root system
membranous seed envelops or corky adjuncts of mature fruits which b. Density –the amount of competition increases with the number of
can float on the surface of water. individual species per unit area and their size
c. Animals – the dispersal of seeds in the form of incompletely digested c. Time of weed competition- the critical periods of competition for
materials passing through the animals is termed ENDOZOOCHORY. many crops : 1) at the end of the crop establishment period; 2)
Fruits and seeds of some species may have special structure beginning of the tillering stage of the crop; 3) beginning of the fruiting
such as spines, hooks or sticky substance which enable them to cling period; and 4) beginning of the maturation (Table 4 and 5)
to fur or hides of animals or clothes of man. d. Crop variety of cultivar – crop varieties adopted to the locality are
d. Explosive mechanism of weeds – members of the legume family better competitors than introduced varieties
sometimes explodes and scatters their seeds upon maturity. e. Seeding methods- crop given a headstart to grow can compete better
e. Man – some species have specialized structure hooks, spines, barbs with the weeds. Closer distance of planting makes the crops more
and awns that cling to man‟s clothing and footwear or agricultural competitive with weeds.
implement used by man. f. Nutrients in the soil- weeds grow better under adequate levels of
6. Weed Interference- refers to all types of positive and negative interactions nutrients making them more competitive against the crop
between species indicating their efficiency
6.1. Crop Weed Competition Critical Period of Competition – the length of time wherein the crop is
very sensitive to weed competition

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 Critical Threshold Level – the density of weeds above which yield Paragrass Brachiaria mutica Ilg.-Ganit-ganit
reductions could be incurred
Table 4. Critical period for weed control in different crops Paspalum Paspalum sp. Ceb.Bis.- Bias-biasan; Ig.- Angangsug;
S.L.Bis.- Bias-biasan;Sub.- Bubulis; Tag.-
CROP PERIOD FROM DAYS TO
Paragis, Sabung-sabungan
PLANTING (DAYS) MATURITY
Corn 49 120 Pickerel weed Monochoria vaginalis Bon. –Saksakong; Ceb.Bis.-Gabi-gabi,
Soybean 42 125 Lagtang, Upi-upu; If.- Hahalung,
Mungbean 21-35 60-65 Hakhaklung; Ig.-Saksaklung; Ilg.- Gabi-gabi;
Ilk.- Bil-lagut, Lapalapa; P.Bis.- Gabi-gabi;
Peanut 42 105
Tag.- Biga-bigaan, Kalabua, Kalabuwa,
Upland rice 50 120 Gabing-uak, Gabing-uwak
Lowland rice 30-40 120
Purple nutsedge Cyperus rotundus Bik.-Boto-botones, Kamokamotihan,
Table 5. Stages to be obtained by some vegetables when weeding can be Taragog, Taragug; Ceb.Bis.-Malapandang,
stopped Onod onod, Pandan, Taki, Unod uod; Ilg.-
Sudsud, Sudsuron; Ilk.- Balinsanga,
6.2 Allelopathy
Balinsanga, Baringasa, Barisanga, Barsanga.
It is the harmful effect of one plant or another through the production
Barsanyo; Pamp.- Galunalpas, Kusong,
of toxins or inhibitors that escape into the environments. It is a biochemical Malaapulid, Maluapolid, Mota, Omandiung,
interaction between plants resulting to a direct or indirect effect of one plant on Onoran, Sursur; S.L.Bis.- Unod-unod; Tag.-
another. Such effect could be inhibition of germination, inhibition of root Mutha
elongation as cellular disorganization and other adverse effects.
-toxins from S. viridis cause a disruption and disorganization of Red sprangletop Leptochloa chinensis Bik.- Kurukaruyan; Ceb.Bis.- Paron; Ilk.-
cabbage roots. This affects nutrient absorption and makes cabbage less Marapagay, Maroy- paroy; Tag.- Palaymaya
competitive.
- Cogon has an inhibiting substance in the rhizome that can inhibit the Redweed Melochia concatenata Ilk.- bankalanan; P. Bis.- Klingan:
growth of tomato and cucumber (koline)
Rice flatsedge Cyperus iria Bik.- Alinang, Paiung-pauing, Sud-sud,
- Toxin from itch grass seeds inhibit the growth of cucumber seedlings
Taga-taga; Bon.- Okokiang; Ceb.Bis.-
- Living and decaying rhizomes and leaves of Johnson grass excreted
Busikad; Ilg.- Payong-payong; Ilk.-
inhibitory activity on Setaria viridis, Digitaria sanguinalis and Amaranthus Ballayang, Sirau-sirau; Tag.- Gumi, Payung-
retroflexus payung, Taga-taga
Toxic substances classification:
1. Antibiotic – produced by microorganism and effective against Saccharum Saccharum spontaneum Bag.- Tibayo; Bik.- Tigban; Bon. – Salin;
microorganism Ceb.Bis.- Bogang, bugong; Ibn.- Sikal; Ilk.-
2. Marasmin – produced by microorganism and toxic against higher Lidda; P.Bis.- Tigbau; S.L. Bis.- Tigbau;
plants Tag.- Talahib
3. Phytoncide – produced by higher plant and work against a
microorganism Saromattagrass Ischaemum rugosum Bik.- Ipot-doron; Ilk.- Salsaladay; Ilg.- Bulo-
4. Koline – produced by higher plants and work against another bulo; Pang.- Gulong lapas; Sub.- Daua;
Tag.- Tinitrio, Tiritrigo, Trigo-trigohan
higher plants

ENGLISH NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME VERNACULAR NAME

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Sensitive plant Mimosa pudica Bik.- Torog-torog; Ceb.Bis.- Hibi-hibi, Southern sida Sida acuta Bik.- Surusighid, Surusilhig; Ceb.Bis.-
Huya-huya, Kipi-kipi; Ilg.- Huya-huya; Ilk.- Eskuba, Saliki, Silhigon, Udto-udto; Ibn.-
Babain, Bain-bain, Dilgansusu; Pamp.- Attain a Baka; Ilg.- Eskuba, Silhigon, Ualis,
Malamarine; P.Bis.- Tuyag-huyag; Pang.- Ualisan; Ilg.- Eskuba, Silhigon, Ualis,
Makahiya; Tag.- Damohia, Makahia, Ualisan; Ilk.- Basbasot, Herbera,
Makahiya, Makahiyang babae; S.L.Bis.- Takkinbaka; Pamp.- Higot-balato, Mamalis;
Haru-pay, Harupai, Kiromkirom; Sub.- Pang.- Takling-baka; Tag.- Eskobang-haba,
Sipug-sipug Eskubilla, Higot-Balato, Pamamalis, Taking-
baka, Uaualisin, Ualisualisan, Walisualisan,
Siam weed/devil weed Chromolaena odorata Ceb.Bis.- Hagonoy; P.Bis.- Hagonoy; Tag.- Walis-walisan; Sul.- Sinaguri-langau
Daladay, Malasili, Talpus-palad, Hulo-
hagunoy, Gonoi, Sili-silihan Spreading dayflower Commelina diffusa Bon.- Gatilang, Katkatuang, Kitkit-Auang;
If.- Bangar-an-lalaki; Ilk.-Kolasi, Kulkulasi;
Small flower galinsoga Galinsoga parviflora --- Iv. –Kohasi; Tag.- Tari-tari, Alikbangon

Small flower umbrella Cyperus difformis Ilg.- Baki-baki, Bankoan, Gilamhou; Ilk.- Supine bulbrush Scirpus supinus Bon.- Pulutapi, Pupuegan; Ilk.- Parapipit,
plant Balayang,Sirau-sirau; Tag.- Ballayang, Sirau-sirau; Tag.- Balbas-Kalabaw
Gumi, Ubod ubod
Swamp morning glory Ipomoea aquatica Bik.- Kangkong; Ceb.Bis.- Tangkong; Ilg.-
Smooth crotolaria Crotolaria conjugatum --- Tangkong; Ilk.- Balangang, Balan-geg,
Galatgat; Pamp.- Kangkong; Tag.-
Sour paspalum Paspalum conjugatum Ceb.Bis.- Kauat-kauat, Lakatan, Maligoy, Kangkong
Pad-pad; Mbo.- Bantotan; P.Bis.- Koloka-
wagan; Mbo.- Bantotan; S.L.Bis.-Lakatan; Synedrella Synedrella nodiflora Ceb.Bis- Bukarkag nga kahoy, Kilum; Ilg.-
Tag.- Kulape, Laau-laau Kanding-kanding; Ilk.- Fantankuen,
Fantakuen; Tag.- Kalintuhod, Tuhod-manok
Splindletop Cleome rutidosperma Ikl.- Tantandok, Tantandok-a-dadakel;
P.Bis.- Halaya, Hulaya; Tag.- Apoi-apoian, Three lobe morning Ipomoea triloba Bag.- Sagikat; Bik.- Marakamote; Ceb.Bis.-
Balabanoian glory Kamu-kamuti-kamutihan, Muti-muti; Ilg.-
Karakamote, Oyampong; Ilk.- Bangbangau,
Cleome gynandra --- Kamkamote, Koskusipa; S.L.Bis.- Kuro
Kamote; S.p. Tag.- Aurora; Tag.-
Spiny amaranth Amaranthus spinosus Bik.- Kulitis; Bon.- Baoan, Tadtad; Halobagbug, Kamo-kamotihan, Kamuti-
Ceb.Bis.-Harum, Kalitis, Kulitis, Tilitis; If.- kamutihan, Kupit-kupit
Alayon; Ilk.- Kulitis; Ilk.- Kalunai, Kuanton,
Kuantong; Mag.- Akum; Pamp.- Ayang Torpedo grass Panicum repens Ceb.Bis.- Tagik-tagik; Buwag-buwag;
lalaki, Ayantoto; P. Bis.- Kulitis; Tag.- Oray, Murang Bermuda; Ilg- Sabilau, Luy-a-luy-a;
Urai, Uray, Uri; Sul.- Gitingiting, Taikada Ilk.- Maralaya; Mbo.- Kayana; Tag.- Luya-
luyahan

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Tropic ageratum Ageratum conyzoides Bik.- Kulong-kogong-babae; Bon.- Kahal- with hairy appendages – those with explosive mechanisms or censer
ding, Pagpagai, Taindi-kaldi; Ceb-Bis.- mechanism); water (common in seashores and aquatic weeds – those with
Kading kanding; Ig.- Budbuda; Ilg.- Baho- pericarps/structures that are consists of light tissues of those with inflated
baho, Kanding-kanding; Ilk.- Ambabangot, structures that enable the seeds to be buoyant); animals (seeds that have hard
Bangbangsit, Marakalding, Singilan;
seed coats can pass through the alimentary tract of animals without losing
S.L.Bis.- Kurokandina; Iv.- Kamubuag;
Pang.- Asipukpuk; P.Bis.- Bahug-bahog;
viability and becomes dispersed to areas where these animals excrete their
S.L.Bis.- Kuro-kanding; Sul.- Bahu-bahu; wastes.. examples are the ruminants, birds, bats, etc.); and man ( who is the
Tag.- Bulak-damo; Damong mabaho, best agent of dispersal, consciously or unconsciously). Seed structures that
Damong-pallas, Kolokolong-kabayo adhere to man and animals aid in seed dispersal, like hooks, sharp, hard
structures including sticky substances in seeds.
Water purslane Ludwigia octovalvis Bik.- Malapako, Tubong-talapang; Ig.- Intercontinental dispersal of weed seeds/propagules also occurs. The
Palangdisin; Ilk.- Talangkau; Mag.- movement of ocean currents brings seeds to different places round the globe.
Balansuit; Sul.- Pachar-pachar; Tag.- Movement through ornamental plants from one country to another including the
Balakbak, Malapako, Tayilaktan movement of crop seeds and feed materials contaminated by weed seeds, as
well as the importation and exportation of weed seeds for research purposes.

REPRODUCTION AND DISPERSAL OF WEEDS SHIFTS IN WEED POPULATIONS

The mechanism of reproduction of weeds is one of the most efficient Plant composition in the biosphere keeps on changing, and so do weed
in nature. It has been acquired through natural selection, coupled with natural species in cultivated areas. The major factors affecting population changes are
adaptation. Reproduction can be through seeds and vegetative propagules. control methods, change in water management, fertilizer management and
Seeds produced are numerous and in most cases, possess dormancy. change in crop, variety or cropping systems.
Flowering in most weeds can start in as early as 5 weeks after There is no one method that can control all the weed species in a field.
emergence and the duration of the reproductive period is long and flowers are Some weeds may be unfavorably affected by one particular method, while
successively produced. The major factors affecting flowering and seed others may be favorably affected, directly or indirectly. When the method is
production are photoperiod, vegetative growth, temperature and growth practiced continuously, those unfavorably affected are controlled while the
regulators. The magnitude of seed production of weeds is so high that it is not favorably affected increase in population. A change in water management leads
surprising that there seems to be a never-ending emergence of weeds in the to a shift in weed population/composition. If the change is from a flooded to dry
field every time the soil is disturbed, or when conditions become favorable for condition, weeds that are more adapted to dry environments tend to
their germination and growth. Seeds are the principal means of reproduction by predominate over the aquatic species. Application of fertilizers may suppress or
annual weeds while perennials reproduce more efficiently through vegetative enhance the growth of weeds. Weeds unresponsive to nitrogen fertilization may
propagules. The major factors affecting asexual reproduction are soil texture, be suppressed while N fertilizer-responsive weeds will grow vigorously.
daylength, light intensity and duration and mineral sufficiency. Because of the different competitive power of crops and crop varieties, a
If the seed production capacity determines the abundance of weed change in a crop or variety planted will affect the composition of the weed
species, dispersal determines its spread. The structure of the seed and the population. A change in the cropping system may entail changes in the crop
habitat of the weed are the key determinants for its dispersal. Adaptive planted, in fertilizer management and water management which will evoke
structures and proper habitat, together with the activities of man contribute to a different responses from different weed species. In some cases, however, a
great deal to the dispersal process. A DISPERSAL UNIT refers to the structure, predominant noxious weed population will not change with a change in
usually single-seeded or multi-seeded, together with its accessory parts that is cropping pattern.
dispersed or separated from the mother plant. It functions to perpetuate the Shifts could also be within a species like the development of
species. For plants, they could be seeds and vegetative parts that are capable of herbicide-resistant weeds. Herbicide resistance development comes as a result
regenerating into a new plant. The most common agents of dispersal are wind the continued application of herbicides with the same mode of action, resulting
(for seeds that are light, flattened in structure, with wing-like outgrowths and to the selection and evolution of a biotype that cannot anymore be controlled by
the herbicide applied. The presence of these herbicide-resistant weeds in the

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field could be viewed in two possible ways; first, the weed species is inherently 4.
Level of Nutrition. Fertilization can sometimes decrease crop-weed
very resistant to the herbicide and the elimination of its competitors favors its competition. There are cases however of severe weed competition
dominance; and second, the weed species has gradually acquired resistance when the level of soil nutrition is high. Weeds are more responsive to
through continued absorption of the herbicide at sub-herbicidal concentrations fertilizer application than the crop. The more fertile the soil is, the
or the build-up of a resistant strain of a normally susceptible population. better will be weed growth and the more they could compete.
CROP-WEED COMPETITION Generally, crops are not as responsive to nitrogen fertilizer application
as the weeds.
 The kinds of weeds that are associated with a particular crop is MAJOR FACTORS FOR COMPETITION
determined foremostly by the growing conditions, cultural practices
and geographical location. They are nourished by the same nutrients 1. Competition for nutrients. Among the essential nutrients taken from
and environmental elements needed by the crop. Because of the the soil, nitrogen seems to be the most critical for most crop-weed
limited supply of these vital elements, their association leads to competition. Blackman and Templeman(1938) observed that in a
competition for these elements for survival. In weed control, the period of normal rainfall, competition between crops and weeds is
ultimate goal is to shift the competition in favor of the crop to make it primarily for nitrogen. Fertilization favors weed growth more than
more competitive than the weed. crop growth
 During the cropping period there is a particular duration when the crop 2. Competition for water. Water is one of the critical factors in crop
is very sensitive to competition (the CRITICAL PERIOD OF production. In tropical areas where there is a distinct dry season, crop
COMPETITION); as well as the presence of weeds above a certain weed competition for water becomes a serious problem. In a situation
density that will cause a significant reduction in yield (the CRITICAL where weeds utilize much more water than the crop, the limited
THRESHOLD LEVEL) amount of water in the soil would benefit the weed more than the crop
FACTORS AFFECTING THE COMPETING ABILITY OF A CROP 3. Competition for light. The amount of light reaching the earth may be
AGAINST WEEDS more than enough for all photosynthesizing organisms of the earth but
efficient utilization is limited by their light trapping system. Shading
1. Weed Species, Density and Duration of Competition. Different species of leafy weeds (those with high leaf area index, LAI) reduces the light
have different competing abilities. The weed population also affects available for photosynthesis.
the capacity of the crop to compete. If competition is prolonged, and  The over-all competitive ability of a plant is partly controlled by its root
when it falls during the critical period of competition, yield loss is system. Those with extensive root system that spread within the plow depth
sure. The greater competing ability of some weeds is attributed to its of the soil will benefit more from additional supply of nutrients and water.
similarity in morphology with the crop it is associated with. The Those with the taproot system that goes deeper into the ground better under
densities of weeds that will occupy a certain area vary according to conditions of very limited water supply. Many weed species have
season of the year. Usually, weeds population is higher during the wet adventitious roots that spread within the plow layer and extends deeper into
season than the dry season. the ground. Such characters usually give a big competitive advantage.
2. Seeding Method. Crops given a head start can compete better than  Broadleaves tend to cause higher yield reductions that grasses or grass-like
weeds. Transplanted seedlings/plants usually have a better capacity to weeds due to their more spreading growth form and horizontal leaves that
compete with weeds. Another way by which the crop can be made make them relatively more competitive for light
more competitive is to increase the population density of the crop or to  Most crops can tolerate the presence of weeds for a relatively short time
have closer plant spacing. Such method will allow canopy formation in only, depending upon the weed and the crop
a shorter period of time, thereby checking weed growth at its critical  The time of weed emergence relative to the emergence of the crop has a
stage. profound effect on competition.
3. Crop Variety and Selection. The growth rates and maturity periods of  Weed weight reflects growth factors/requirements captured y the weed, and
crops alter their competitive abilities. The faster the rate of growth, is more closely related to crop yield loss than is weed number/population.
the earlier is canopy formation, thus, the moiré competitive the crop is.

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CROP-WEED COMPETITION is commonly described as the struggle the weeds to cause significant yield losses; or the crop can only tolerate a
between two or more plants for a limited resource in the environment. If the few numbers of the weeds. If the weeds have low competing ability, the
amount of resources, important for plant growth, is scarce (not enough) then CTL value is high because it will need more number of the weeds to cause
there is competition; but if the quantity of these resources are more than the reductions in yield. Therefore CTL is not fixed. It depends on the
combined needs of all the plants in the field, then there is no competition. competing ability of the crop and the weeds that grow with it, as well as the
Competition can be of two types: intraspecific and interspecific. environmental conditions at the period of crop production.
INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION is competition among pants belonging to
the same species, e.g. Amaranthus spinosus versus Amaranthus spinosus. Or
corn versus corn; while INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION is competition
among plants belonging to different species, e.g. rice and Ludwigia octovalvis
or Rottboellia cochinchinensis and Eleusine indica.

The most common factors for competition are water, light and
nutrients. WATER may not be scarce during times of the year when there
is abundant rainfall, but water becomes limiting during the dry season. For
a crop to be competitive it must have an extensive root system that
penetrates deeply into the soil, In addition, it should be able to efficiently
use water in all its processes, especially in food production. LIGHT, on the
other hand is very abundant. As a matter of fact, the light that we receive
every day is more than enough for all the light-requiring processes on
earth. Light becomes limiting when there is mutual shading among plants.
A plant that has good ability to compete for light must increase in height The CRITICAL PERIOD OF COMPETITION (CPC) pertains to
rapidly, form a canopy early and have many broad leaves. NUTRIENTS, the duration, within the lifespan of the crop, when it is most affected by
on the other hand, are always not enough. There is not a single field now-a- competition by other plants (e.g. weeds). Since this is the time when the
days where nutrients are sufficient. Therefore, there is always competition crop is most sensitive or affected by competition, this should also be the
for nutrients. Generally weeds are more efficient extractors of nutrients and time when weeds should be removed/controlled. According to studies, the
they are very responsive to fertilization. That is why weeds should be critical period of competition usually falls during the first 1/3 to ½ of the
removed first before fertilizer application. Because nutrients are generally total lifespan of the crop. For example, if a crop matures in 120 days (i.e.,
absorbed through the roots, a plant with an efficient mechanism of from seedling emergence until harvesting takes 120 days), then the critical
absorption is more competitive, including those with extensive and deep period of competition is from planting to about 40 to 60 days after
roots. emergence. During this period the weeds should be removed from the field
so that the crop will not be adversely affected. Like the CTL, the CPC is
The CRITICAL THRESHOLD LEVEL (CTL) refers to the weed also not fixed. It depends on the competing ability of the crop and the
density (population) beyond which significant reductions will be incurred weeds growing with it, as well as the conditions of the environment (soil,
by the crop. It is the maximum weed population that the crop can tolerate. climate, etc.) at the time of crop culture. A short CPC is more
If weed population exceeds the CTL, there will be significant losses in advantageous to the crop since it will only suffer the harmful effects of
yield. Generally, if the weeds growing with the crop are very competitive, weed competition for a short time. When the crop has passed its CPC, then
the CTL value is low… meaning, it will only require a few populations of it will not be anymore be very much affected by the presence of weeds,

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 hence, weeding will not anymore be intensive. When CPC is zero, there is controls grass weeds but favors the growth of perennial sedge weeds.
no competition, implying that there are no weeds in the field. Application of a herbicide against grasses and sedges will not control the
broadleaf weeds, hence the broadleaves will take-over. Burning of the field
REPRODUCTION AND DISPERSAL OF WEEDS controls annual weeds but not the creeping perennials whose vegetative
reproductive parts are buried in the soil.
REPRODUCTION refers to the increase in the number of
individuals. It ensures the proliferation and perpetuation of a species. In
WATER MANAGEMENT. When the water regime in the area
weeds, reproduction can be achieved through two methods: sexual
reproduction and asexual or vegetative reproduction. SEXUAL changes, the weeds that grow will also change because different plants
REPRODUCTION involves the use of seeds and is common for annual have different water requirements. If a lowland field is converted to an
weeds. ASEXUAL/VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION, on the other hand upland field, then most of the lowland weeds are controlled while the
involves plant parts (e.g. stem cuttings, root cuttings, offshoots, leaves, upland weeds will dominate. Changing the source of irrigation may also
etc.) other than seeds. Asexual reproduction is common for perennial change the weed composition in the field. The water will bring in the seeds
weeds. The reproduction by weeds is one of the most efficient in nature. of the weeds found in or near the water source that may not be present in
DISPERSAL pertains to the movement and spread of a species or an
the field when using the old source of irrigation.
individual. If the reproductive capacity of the weed determines its
abundance, dispersal determines its extent of spread or distribution. A
FERTILIZER MANAGEMENT. Generally, weed growth is
DISPERSAL UNIT refers to the structure, together with its accessory
parts, that is dispersed or separated from the mother plant, and which enhanced by fertilizer application, and the weeds are more responsive to
functions to perpetuate the species. The adaptive structure(s) in dispersal fertilization than the crop. Fertilization enhances the growth of responsive
units, together with proper habitat and the activities of man contribute to weeds but may suppress the growth of non-responsive ones. Also, when the
dispersal. The most common agents of dispersal are wind, water, animals growth of fertilizer-responsive weeds is enhanced, the growth of less
and man… sometimes, the explosive mechanisms in plants. Seeds/Plant competitive weeds is suppressed, thereby changing the weed composition
parts efficiently dispersed through wind are very light, flattened in in the field.
structure, with wing-like outgrowths and feathery appendages. Adaptations
for dispersal through water include plant parts that have „corky‟ ad inflated CHANGE IN CROP OR CROPPING SYSTEM. Because crops
structures, including those which are flattened and those that easily float in
water. Other plant parts have thorns, spines or hooks that easily stick to vary in competing abilities and growth requirements, a change in the crop
clothing and on skin of animals. Other seeds have sticky substances that planted or even in the variety used will also affect the weed composition in
enable them to be attached easily to the skin. the field. The weeds in an onion field will obviously be different from a
WEED POPULATION SHIFTS field planted to okra or eggplant. A change in the dropping system may
entail changes in the crops planted, in fertilizer management and water
Plant population and composition keep on changing. The most management, which will result to different responses from different
common weeds ten years ago may not anymore be the most common in the species. Only the weeds that could adapt to the changes in cropping
same field today. This is because weed population shifts or changes. system-pattern will be able to dominate the field.
Shifts/Changes in weed population is brought about by factors like weed
control methods, water management, fertilizer management, and a change FACTORS FOR COMPETITION
in crop or cropping system.
1. COMPETITION FOR NUTRIENTS
WEED CONTROL METHOD. There is not a single control method
that is effective for all weeds. One method may control some weeds but the  Fertilization favors weed growth more than crop growth
same method may favor the growth of other weeds. Constant handweeding  Nitrogen is the most critical nutrient for competition

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  Most weeds are very responsive to nitrogen application 1. WEED SPECIES, DENSITY AND DURATION OF COPETITION
 Pistia is not responsive to N-application A. WEED SPECIES
2. COMPETITION FOR WATER  Weed species differ in competing abilities
 Competition becomes more severe if the morphology of the crop and
 Water is one of the critical factors in crop production the weed is similar
 The efficiency of a plant to obtain, utilize and conserve water is a  Considerations: - plant architecture/morphology
competitive advantage - Plant height
 Water use efficiency (WUE) = amount of dry matter (g) x 100 - Leafiness, root system, etc
1000g water applied - Physiology of the plant (efficient or non-efficient)
B. WEED DENSITY
 The higher the WUE, the better is the competing ability of the plant  The more plants there are per unit area, the greater is competition
Low water requirement: 260-350g water/g DM  Affected by environmental factors e.g. rainfall
 Critical Threshold Level is an important consideration
High water requirement: 550-970g water/g DM C. DURATION OF COMPETITION
 WUE of some plants:  The longer the duration of competition, the more harmful it is to the
Portulaca - 3.94 (39.4 g DM/L water) crop
Sorghum - 3.73 (37.3 g DM/L water)  As much as possible, the CPC should be short or zero
Corn - 2.77 (27.7 g DM/L water)  Thorough land preparation and adequate weed management are
Soybean - 1.55 (15.5 g DM/L water) important
5,000L of water is needed to produce 1 kg of rice seeds 2. SEEDING METHOD
1,400L of water is needed to produce 1 kg or corn seeds  If the crop is given a headstart over the weeds, the crop can be at a
 Water is a very critical factor at grain-filling better competitive advantage
3. COMPETITION FOR LIGHT  Method of planting is important; usually transplanting is more
beneficial than direct-seeding
 Light is not limiting; more than the needs of all the plants on earth
3. CROP VARIETY/SELECTION
 Its efficient utilization is limited by its light-trapping mechanism
 Plant architecture and morphology
 Shading greatly limits plant growth
 Physiology of the crop, including growth rate
Leaf Area Index (LAI) = Leaf area
4. LEVEL OF NUTRITION
Ground area
 Weeds are generally more responsive to nitrogen fertilization than the
** High LAI usually results to more shading
crop
Light Transmission Ratio = Amount of light reaching below thecanopy
METHODS OF WEED CONTROL
(LTR) Amount of light at the top of the canopy
Objectives of Weed Control and Management:
** High LTR means less shading; Low LTR means more
shading  The main purpose of weed management is to reduce weed population to
levels that will not significantly reduce crop yield. Presence of weeds in
 The over-all competitive ability of the plant is partly controlled by its
a crop does not necessarily lead to significant reduction in yield.
root system. Those with extensive root system will have a better
Control Methods:
advantage for better access to nutrients and water
1. Preventive methods- approaches that reduce production and germination of
weed seeds and vegetative propagules and minimize their establishment
FACTORS AFFECTING THE COMPETING ABILITY
and spread.
OF CROPS AGAINST WEEDS
Examples

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 a. Use of high quality, disease and weed seed-free planting -mulching materials may include soil, organic materials (such
materials – Use certified seeds or planting materials in order as rice straws, rice hulls, sugarcane bagasse, and sawdust) or
to prevent the introduction of unwanted weeds and diseases in plastic.
the area. Effects of Mulching:
b. Control of weeds before they produce seeds or vegetative 1. May reduce light available to the crops and serving as a
propagules – Control the weeds before they produce flowers barrier to weed emergence.
or even earlier to prevent seed formation.. Perennial weeds -Rice straws, rice hulls, sugarcane bagasse, and
that produce vegetative propagules should be controlled sawdust were shown to provide effective control of
before the propagules are formed. Many weed species weeds in transplanted tomatoes in the Philippines.
produce thousands of seeds per plant in one season, e.g -Rice straw mulches have been effective in
Rottboelia cochichinensis (Itchgrass) which is capable of controlling weeds in transplanted
producing more than 700 seeds per hill. This high onions and cabbage, bush sitao, mungbean and corn.
productive capacity allows the weeds to persist and spread 2. Organic mulches improve fertility of the soil
readily 3. Conserve moisture in the soil.
2. Physical/cultural methods f. Water management or flooding
a. Proper land preparation and management of weed seeds and - Effectively used in transplanted lowland rice.
vegetative propagule reserves in the soil. - Many weed species will not germinate under submerged
-essential for providing a weed-free condition which is conditions
favorable for planting and crop growth. g. .Use of competitive crop varieties/cultivars
-Initial plowing buries weeds and stubbles from the previous - Use plant varieties which are adapted to the locality and
crop. It also allows weed seeds to germinate resulting to weed grows rapidly. A crop that produces a canopy ahead than
flushes. the weeds may suppress the growth of the latter.
-Harrowing the field will enhance weed germination and will h. Multiple cropping
subsequently kill the emerging weeds by cultivation. This method could use either of the following:
b. Handweeding/slashing. a. spatial ( intercropping) – use crops that produce leaf
-Weeds are controlled by uprooting or with the use of various canopies ahead than the weeds thus suppressing weed growth.
small local hand implements, like bolos, by slashing. b. temporal (crop rotation or sequential cropping) – this
-Handweeding by uprooting is effective in many vegetable method will result in breaking the cycle of specific crop-weed
crops, home gardens and as supplementary control methods associations and in suppressing crop growth..
in many crops. i. Burning
c. Hoe weeding. This is used on areas not planted with crops like along the
-suitable for many vegetable crops and is used as roads, railroads and other vacant areas which need clearing out of
supplementary control to other methods of weed control. weeds.
d. Interrow cultivation Can be used to get rid of weeds on fields planted with crops
- May be done with animal or tractor drawn implements resistant to heat like sugarcane
- Requires lesser labor than uprooting weeds or hoe 4. Biological Control – it is the deliberate use of weed‟s
weeding but does not provide effective control of weeds natural enemies, such insects and pathogens, to suppress
within crop rows. or reduce the weed population.
- Needs to be supplemented with hand weeding or hoe Types of Biological Control:
weeding for the control of weeds along crop rows. 1. Classical or inoculative approach – this uses host specific imported
e. Mulching living organisms, such as insects or pathogens, from the native
country of origin to control or suppress the growth of weeds in
another country.

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 - This is the most commonly used technique against - Was used to control the northern jointvetch,
weeds. Aeschynomene virginica in rice and soybeans in
Examples of insects used against weeds are : Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi
a. Cyrtobagous salviniae - a curculionid beetle from Brazil The biological control agents are often host specific and
which was successfully used against the floating fern, usually will control only one species of weeds. It should be combined
Salvinia molesta (also originated from Brazil) in Passi, with other control methods to obtain broad spectrum control of common
Iloilo in 1989 and other countries where this weed weed species complex associated with most crops in the field.
species was introduced. 3. Use of other biotic agents such as mammalian and avian herbivores
b. Uroplata girardi – a chrysomelid beetle used against - The herbivores used include grazing animals like sheeps,
Lantana camara in Mindanao in 1985. goats and cattles which are pastured in mature plantation
c. Cactoblastis cactorum – a moth larvae from Argentina crops like palm oil, coconuts, mangoes, etc.
used against the prickly pear cactus (Opuntia stricta) in - White amur or grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella
Australia which was used against weeds in the USSR, Europe and
d. Agasicles hygrophila - an alligator weed flea beetle used US.
to control the alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) 4. Chemical Control – This method involves the use of herbicides for selective
both of which are from South America control of weeds with minimum or no injury to the crop. The use of herbicides
e. Pareuchates pseudoinsulata – a moth from Trinidad whose substantially reduces the labor requirement for weed control and provides early
larvae were used to control the Siam weed (Chromolaena season control of weeds within crop rows. Safety precautions on the label
odorata) from Central and South America. should be strictly followed. Improper use of herbicides may result in crop
2. Inundative or augmentative approach – this uses very large numbers injury, poor or ineffective weed control and drift or residue problems.
of existing and locally occurring natural enemies by mass rearing Classification of Herbicides:
and periodically releasing them in the field to augment the natural Herbicides can be classified according to:
populations. a. Time of application
Fungal pathogens are the common biocon agents utilized in 1. Preplant herbicides – These are applied after land
inundative approach. The active ingredient in the biocontrol material is preparation but before the crop are planted. The herbicide
a fungus and since its propagules are spores or fragments of a is volatile and needs to be incorporated in the soil before
mycelium, it is called biological herbicide, bioherbicide or planting. This is also used to control existing vegetation
mycoherbicide. before the crop is planted.
The bioherbicide approach involves the application of an 2. Preemergence herbicides – These are applied after the crop
inoculum of a weed pathogen in a manner analogous to is planted but before the weed or crop emerge.
chemical herbicide application. 3. Postemergence herbicides – These are applied after the
Examples of bioherbicides are : emergence of the crop or the weeds.
 De Vine – the first fungal pathogen commercially made b. Movement in plants
available in 1981. 1. Contact herbicides – these are herbicides whose
- It is a liquid formulation of Phytophthora palmivora phytotoxic effects are manifested at the sites on the
- Was used against the strangler vine, Morrenia odorata in plants where the spray droplets are deposited.
Florida citrus orchards. 2. Translocated herbicides – these are herbicides whose
 Collego – another mycoherbicide commercially made phytotoxic effects are manifested at and away from the
available in the US in 1982. sites on the plants where the spray droplets are deposited.
- a dry powder formulation of Colletotrichum The herbicide is translocated to other parts of the plant
gloeosporioides sp. aeschynomene. following the flow of food nutrients.
c. Selectivity

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 1. Non-selective herbicides – these are herbicides that have - Locally prevalent in some crop areas in Mindoro and
a broad spectrum activity. It kills all plants. Mindanao
2. Selective herbicides – these are herbicides that kill some  The Polynesian Rat, Rattus exulans (Peale)
plants leaving others practically unharmed. - Smaller than the ricefields rat; hind foot less than 30 mm
- Fur soft; tail nearly as long as head plus body
OTHER PESTS - Upper parts generally dark smokey gray with some off-
In addition to insect pests, diseases and weeds infesting, infecting and color streaks, underparts lighter colored; an agile climber
competing with our crops, respectively, other pests include rats/rodents, birds, - Found in the lowlands as well as croplands of higher
snails/slugs, and other animals (e.g.farm animals). Among these, the rats are elevation.
considered of economic importance in both upland and lowland crops. Under  The Norway Rat, Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout)
lowland condition, snails, preferably the golden apple snail had gained - Larger and heavier (greater than 200 g) than the ricefield
widespread damage of the early stages of growth of the rice plants, especially in rats
the direct seeded method of planting rice. - Thick tail lighter underneath, shorter than head plus body
A. Rats - Fur short with many long thickened, grooved hairs
Rats pose a real problem and challenge to Philippine agriculture. The - Long vibrissae (whiskers) on snout
outbreaks that periodically occurred in the past have brought incalculable - upperparts usually brownish, underparts grayish, but
miseries in terms of food shortages and loss of livelihood among our farmers. color variations common; feet white
Today, we still suffer localized staggering losses caused by rats to rice, corn, - Found all over the Philippines, commensal with man
and many other important crops. Rats may occur at all stages of growth of the - Essentially an urban pest creating problems in health and
crop production and storage. sanitation, food and grain storage, structural damage and
According to Fiedler and Sumangil (1985) there are about 45 species fire hazards, and garbage disposal; reported to be an
of rats in the Philippines but only five are important pests which include the agricultural pest in the ricefields of Iloilo
following:  The Philippine Mouse, Mus musculus castaneous Waterhouse
 The common Philippine Field Rat, Rattus rattus mindanensis - Markedly smaller (12 g) than the Polynesian rat and the
Mearns ricefield rat
- Medium-sized, adults about 175g - Fur short and soft; upper parts generally brownish,
- Generally smaller than the Norway rats underparts light drab
- Tail uniformly dark usually longer than the head plus - Eyes and ears prominent; tail length about equal to or
body longer than head plus body; widely distributed and
- General color is cinnamon-buff with dark streaks on closely associated with man
upper parts, lighter color on underparts - An important pest in urban and rural domiciles, gnawing
- Is the most widely distributed and most destructive of the wood work and feeding on stored grains.
rat species in the Philippines. Economic Importance of Rats
- Found in dry and irrigated croplands, forest edges and Rats have poor eyesight but have a very sensitive sense of smell,
human habitations hearing and touch. Whiskers (vibrisses) and guard hairs (elongated hairs in their
 The Asian Ricefield Rat, Rattus argentiventer Robinson and Kloss short fur) are contact structures that guide them in the dark. Their tails are used
- Generally smaller than the R. r. mindanensis as balancers and brace when climbing. The rat‟s chisel-like incisors grow
- Dorsal pelage has “salt and pepper” appearance continuously to an extra 6-9 inches during its lifetime. Thus, to regulate its
- Tuft of orange hair near base of ear; tail shorter than the length it needs to gnaw on any hard or soft objects and this explains the extreme
head plus body damage caused by rats.
- General color of the upperparts similar to R .r. Rats may live for more than three years in cages but hardly reach one
mindanensis but underparts usually light gray to whitish year in the field because of the presence of predators and other environmental
factors. At the age of 1.5 months old the female rat is ready to reproduce. The
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gestation period is about 21 days with about 8 young‟s per delivery. The female 1986 it was reported to cause severe damage on lowland rice and since then it
rat can reproduce 4 times in a year and weans about 10 young‟s on the average. had continuously pose a problem in rice production
If left undisturbed a pair of male and female rats together with their offspring‟s Nature of Damage
could reproduce about 1,270 rats per year. The golden snail prefers to infest rice on its seedling and early
Rats usually move at night and can travel at an average of 20-40 vegetative stages. It lays eggs in mass on stems of plants protruding from the
meters from their nests. They are also triggered to migrate to long distances water surface, on plants growing on the dikes, or any material found above the
when their environment is altered by fire, flood or lack of food. Rats are also water level. The eggs hatch after a month and both adult and immature stages
great diggers. They dig holes for breeding purposes but rarely use holes feed on rice. They develop slowly and could survive in the field for a year or
abandoned by other rats. The pregnant rats usually close the burrows with soil more. They usually hibernate underneath the soil during the dry season and
and opens them when the young‟s are capable of limited movements. emerge from the paddy soil once irrigation water or rain is introduced into the
Rats prefer to feed on rice plants and grains. Corn and fruits serve as area.
secondary food. Control:
Methods of Rat Control (Pava, 1995)
1. Environmental manipulation – this aims to modify the environment of rats 1. Collect eggs and snails by handpicking and destroy them
a. Reducing food sources 2. Construct small canals within the rice paddies where water will
b. Rat proofing of farm harborage by clean culture drain. Golden snails will congregate on these canals. Handpick
2. Mechanical means – use of devices or instruments used to kill rats the trapped golden snails or apply molluscicides on these canals.
a. Crop trapping 3. Use older seedlings. Young seedlings of the dapog method are
b. Blanket (grasstrap) more susceptible to snail damage. For early maturing rice
3. Chemical methods – this method employs the use of poison to kill rats. varieties use 25-30 days old seedlings.
a. Acute poisons – cause death of affected organisms after 4. Maintain water at 2-3 cm for the first 15 days after transplanting.
ingestion. Alternate flooding and draining of paddies minimize snail
Example – Sodium flouroacetate (compound 1080), population.
thallium sulfate, zinc phosphide and others. 5. Put stakes measuring 90 cm long and 2.5 cm wide near water
b. Slow acting poisons – induce death several days after inlets, outlets and other strategic places for the snails to deposit
ingestion of the poison their eggs. Collect and destroy the eggs deposited on stakes every
Example – Warfarin, racumin, chlorphacenone, morning.
coumarin, tomarin, etc. 6. Trap large size snails which follow the flow of water into the rice
c. Fumigants – poisoning used to kill rats in burrows paddies with the use of a wire screen.
Example – cyanogas, cyanoline, cyamag 7. Pasture ducks 3-45 days after transplanting or immediately after
d. chemosterilants – used to sterilize male or female rats or harvesting until the land is ready for the next crop.
both. 8. Spray molluscicides only on small canals where golden snails
Example – Myrlan congregate. Avoid blanket spraying to minimize hazards to the
4. Biological control – uses living organisms that can kill rats rice ecosystem.
a. Predators – cats, hawks, owls, snakes PESTICIDE CALCULATION
b. Parasites – bacteria and viruses; not thoroughly used
because it can also cause diseases to human beings. To achieve the desired results in pest control, one must know how to
B. GOLDEN SNAIL (Pomacea canaliculata) calculate the quantity of pesticide required making a recommended application
The golden snail is an invertebrate belonging to Phylum Mollusca, of foliar spray, dust or granules.
Kingdom Gastropoda. It was introduced in the Philippines in 1982 to provide A commercial formulation of a pesticide is a mixture of inert and active
extra income and to increase protein in Filipino diet. The government promoted ingredients. Only the active ingredient kills the pests; the inert ingredient is an
their production and distribution as a national livelihood program. However, by additive in the formulation which improves storability, application and other

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characteristics of the pesticide. The recommended rate or dosage of an or solution needed to spray for a 0.5 ha area.
insecticide may be expressed in:
1. Percent concentration of the active ingredient (a.i.) in the
spray solution;
2. Weight (kg) or volume (liter) of active ingredient per
area to be treated (ha.);
3. Liter or kilogram of the formulated product (FP) per
hectare to be treated.
One must also have to remember the following measurements/equivalents:
Area: 1 hectare = 10,000 square meters
1 acre = 4,000 square meters or 0.4 ha.
Volume :
1 liter = 1,000 milliliters(ml)= 1,000 cubic centimeter (cc)
Weight: 1 kilogram = 1,000 grams (g)
Before any calculation can be made, three of the following 5 informations must
be known:
1. The recommended weight in kg or liters of active
ingredient per ha or liter(s) of the formulated product to
be applied per hectare;
2. Percent spray concentration to be applied;
3. Amount of spray solution per hectare when applying b. Recommended rate of EC, WP, F based on kg a.i./ha
foliar spray; Problem:
4. Percent active ingredient of the insecticide in the You were instructed by the farm technician to apply Seven 70WP at the
commercial formulation; and Solution:
5. Area in hectare to be treated. Formula:
Problem Solving Examples: kg of comm. formulation = Rec. rate x area to be treated x 100%
a. Recommended rate of EC,WP, F based on % concentration of spray Percent a.i. in a comm. Formulation
solution. Application:
Problem:
You wish to apply 320 liters/ha of spray solution to a 0.5 kg of comm. formulation = 0.75 kg a.i./ha x 0.5 ha x 100%
ha area. If you will use Padan 10WP at a recommended concentration of 70%
0.04%. How many liters of Padan 10WP will you use? = 0.536 kg or 536 grams
Solution: b. Recommended rate of dust and granules based on kg a.i./ha.
First compute 320 liters x 0.5ha. = 160 liters of spray volume Problem:
Furadan 3G is applied at the rate of 0.5 kg a.i./ha to control
Solution:
Formula:
Kg of granules or dust = Rec. rate (kg/ha) x Area (ha) x 100%
% a.i. in dust or granules
Application:
kg of granules or dust = 0.5 kg kg a.i./ha x 0.5 ha x 100% = 8.33 kg
3%

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 d. Recommended rate based on the amount of the formulated product (FP)
in liters or kg/ha.
D.1. Given: Recommended rate of FP = 1 liter/ha = 1000 ml/ha.
Specified spray volume = 320 liters/ha
Area to be treated = 0.5 ha.
d.2.Problem: How many liter(s) of the commercial product or formulated
product are needed to treat 0.5 ha area?
D.3. Solution:
D.3.1. Formula:
Liter(s) of FP = Recommended rate of FP x Area (ha)
D.3.2. Application:
Liter(s) of FP = 1 liter/ha x 0.5 ha
= 0.5 liter or 500 ml
d.3.3. No. of loads needed if 1 sprayer load is 16 liters?
No. of sprayer loads = 320 liters x 0.5 ha
16 liters
= 10 loads
D.3.4. No. of FP per sprayer load
No. of sprayer load = 1 liter of FP/ha x 0.5 ha
10 loads
= 0.05 liters or 50 ml

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 HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY, CLASSIFICATION AND 15. In 1966, this person did a monumental work for Philippine entomology
IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS when a catalog of Philippine Hymenoptera was published
1. An organized study to obtain knowledge of all phases of insect life and to a. Baltazar b. Calilung c. Gapud d. Delfinado
understand insects‟ roles in nature is 16. The Asian corn borer which is a serious pest of corn in the Philippines, is
a. Insect Ecology b. Insect Taxonomy scientifically known as:
c. Economic Entomology d. Entomology a. Ostrinia nubilalis b. Ostrinia furnacalis
2. Which of the following fields of Entomology deals on insects‟ importance in c. Helicoverpa armigera d. Plutella xylostella
relation to our present day problems, especially on the knowledge of beneficial 17. Recently, our Philippine palms (coconuts and ornamental palms) suffered
and destructive insects including their biology and ecology? from severe infestation of a secretive “leafminer” known as:
a. Molecular Entom b. Economic Entom a. Brontispa longissima b. Brontispa depressa
c. Forensic Entom d. Forest Entom c. Promecotheca cumingi d. Liriomyza trifolii
3. The “father” of Zoology as well as the founder of General Entomology was 18. This dipteran pest, commonly known as a fruit fly infest our Philippine
a. Uichanco b. Fabricius c. Aristotle d. Baltazar fruits
4. The “father” of American Entomology was. a. Bactrocera cucurbitae b. Hydrellia philippina
a. Say b. Peck c. Harris d. Fitch c. Bactrocera philippinensis d. Epilachna philippinensis
5. In the Philippines, the first written record of a Philippine insect was made by 19. Currently, the strawberry plantations in Mountain Province are infested
a. Semper b. Cuming c. Pigafetta d. Sedeno with
6. The first record of Philippine insects was made in a. black bugs b. red spider mites c. leafminers d. fruit flies
a. Leyte b. Laguna c. Panay island d. Palawan 20. Insects serve various roles in the ecosystem. This particular activity of
7. The “father” of Philippine Entomology or the first Filipino instructor in insects is beneficial to man and agriculture:
Entomology was a. feeding on important food plant crops
a. Gapud b. Uichanco c. Baltazar d. Rimando b. feeding on old clothes, books and magazines
8. The earliest observation of a locust swarm in the Philippines was in c. feeding on various insect pests in the field
a. Leyte b. Laguna c. Panay island d. Palawan d. transmitting disease-causing organisms
9. The earliest recorded account of a locust swarm in the Philippines was in 21. The name Arthropoda is derived from Greek words referring to this
a. 1521 b. 1569 c. 1593 d. 1858 character of this group of invertebrates:
10. Sericulture (silk production from silkworms) was introduced in the a. 2 pairs of wings b. jointed/segmented legs
Philippines by a Spanish priest, Padre Antonio Sedeno in this year c. 2 antennae d. segmented bodies
a. 1521 b. 1569 c. 1593 d. 1858 22. The following are true for all insects, except:
11. In 1902, this institution was organized which involved the control of a. they have 1 or 2 pairs of well-developed wings
migratory locust b. they have 3 body regions
a. Bureau of Agric. b. Dept. of Agric. c. they have antennae
c. Ministry of Agric. d. Pest Control Center d. they have 3 pairs of legs
12. The first government entomologist in the Philippines was 23. Mites resemble insects in:
a. Semper b. Sanchez c. Cuming d. Banks a. having 3 pairs of legs in the immature stage
13. This person contributed to the knowledge of Philippine fauna more than any b. having pedipalps in the head
other individual in his time (early 1900‟s). He published 400 papers on c. having chelicerae in the head
Philippine insects. d. having 2 pairs of antennae
a. Ledyard b. Uichanco c. Mackie d. Baker 24. Arachnids share all of the following characteristics, except that they have:
14. The first Filipino acarologist who spearheaded research on mites in the a. 4 pairs of legs b. a pair of antennae
Phil. in 1961 c. a pair of pedipalps d. a pair of chelicerae
. a. Cendaña b. Gabriel c. Corpuz-Raros d. Rimando 25. This type of mouthparts is generally found among butterflies and moths
a. chewing b. chewing-lapping

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 c. piercing-sucking d. siphoning c. prothorax and metathorax d. all segments of the thorax
26. In the chewing type mouthparts, this component cuts and grinds the food 41. Butterflies and moths have this type of wings (responsible for the various
a. labrum b. mandibles c. maxillae d. labium patterns of wings):
27. From an agricultural point of view, insects are beneficial because of the a. tegmen b. elytron c. fringe d. scaly
following activities, except when 42. Among true bugs, the forewing is divided into a hard portion and a
a. They feed on other insects which serve as crop pests membranous portion.This type of wing is referred to as:
b. They promote decomposition . a. tegmen b. elytron c. fringe d. hemelytron
c. They serve as pollinators of weeds competing with food plant crops 43. Halteres are found among:
d. They produce honey in honeycombs a. cicadas b. thrips c. aphids d. mosquitoes
28. This particular activity of insects is destructive to man and agriculture 44. In what type of insect development are there larval and pupal stages?
a. production of silk by silkworms a. ametabolous b. hemimetabolous
b. production of royal jelly by honeybees c. paurometabolous d. holometabolous
c. feeding inside stems of food plants 45. What insect has a paurometabolous type of development?
d. pollinating important food plant crops a. dragonfly b. leafhopper c. house fly d. silverfish
29. These products come from insects, EXCEPT: 46. Insects are classified into orders using the following features, except:
a. silk b. antibiotics c. varnish d. royal jelly 30. An a. wings b. mouthparts c. body color d. metamorphosis
insect which carries and transmits a disease in plant or animal 47. In the coconut leafminer, Promecotheca cumingi Baly, Baly is
a. predator b. parasite c. vector d. symbiont a. the man who described the species
31. A biological control organism that consumes many preys in its lifetime b. the man who collected the insect
a. predator b. parasitoid c. parasite d. symbiont c. the man who described the genus
32. The collective term for parasitic and predatory insects is d. the name of the place where the insect was collected
a. phytophagous insects b. entomophagous insects 48. Which of these groups of insect orders are purely endopterygotes
c. polyphagous insects d. all of these (holometabolous)?
33. A very good egg parasitoid, Trichogramma evanescens belongs to order a. Odonata, Hemiptera, Siphonaptera, Anoplura
a. Diptera b. Hemiptera c. Lepidoptera d. Hymenoptera b. Trichoptera, Orthoptera, Isoptera, Thysanura
34. Which of the following insect species is destructive? c. Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Dermaptera
a. Bombyx mori b. Apis mellifera d. Siphonaptera, Trichoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera
c. Scirpophaga innotata d. Laccifer lacca 49. These insects have short wings, hence the abdomen is exposed. They are
35. In Philippine folklore, fireflies are associated with the so-called “not like predatory in habit and have the characteristics forceps-like cerci at the tip of
ours”. Fireflies belong to order the abdomen
a. Coleoptera b. Diptera c. Lepidoptera d. Hymenoptera a. termites b. earwigs c. leaf insects d. wasps
36. In cicada, what structure constitutes the beak that encloses the stylets? 50. The largest order of insects
a. labrum b. mandible c. maxilla d. labium a. Lepidoptera b. Hymenoptera c. Coleoptera d. Odonata
37. An insect is a borer which means that the most anterior portions of its
anatomy are its mouthparts. What do you suppose is its type of head INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR CROPS
connection in relation to the thoracic region? 1. Which one of these rice diseases is vectored or transmitted by green
a. hypognathous b. prognathous c. opisthognathous d. a and b leafhopper?
38. The moniliform type of antenna is found among a. grassy stunt b. ragged stunt c. orange leaf d. tungro
a. thrips b. beetles c. dragonflies d. termites 2. The green leafhoppers (GLH) cause this type of direct damage
39. Grasshoppers have this kind of hind legs a. whitehead b. dead heart c. hopper burn d. bug burn
a. grasping b. digging c. walking d. jumping 3. Balance of nature is synonymous to
40. The two pairs of insect wings when present are located in : a. equilibrium position b. natural control
a. prothorax and mesothorax b. mesothorax and metathorax c. a and b d. none of the answers

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4. Which one of these environmental factors is considered biotic? a. systemic poisons b. contact poisons
a. temperature b. wind c. food plants d. soil type c. stomach poisons d. fumigants
5. In the food chain, which one is considered as primary consumer? 19. These group of insecticides are more effective against chewing insects
a. spiders b. snake c. insects d. chicken a. systemic poisons b. contact poisons
6. Which one of these insect control methods is cultural approach? c. stomach poisons d. fumigants
a. handpicking b. pest-free planting material 20. This method of pest control is also referred to as legal control
c. use of screen d. use of trap a. chemical control b. integrated pest management
7. Which one of these pest control methods is mechanical control? c. physical control d. quarantine
a. rat snap trap b. heating c. cooling d. use of sound 21. This control method combines two or more compatible “control” methods
8. Which one of these pest control methods is physical control? in a sound ecological manner
a. mechanical trap b. screen house a. chemical control b. integrated pest management
c. sanitation d. handpicking c. physical control d. quarantine
9. Planting of pest resistant crop variety is considered as 22. The principle in IPM is to
a. cultural control b. biological control a. eradicate pests c. reduce pest population at manageable levels
c. host plant resistance d. genetic control b. leave the pests as they are d. spray insecticides
10. The use of Trichogramma spp. in the control of insect pests is 23. The brown plant hoppers, Nilaparvata lugens, cause this disease in rice
a. genetic control b. biological control a. bug burn b. white head c. dead heart d. ragged stunt
c. Cypermethrin d. physical control 24. The rice black bugs, Scotinophara coarctata, can cause this damage in rice
11. The use of botanical extract with insecticidal effect against insect pests is a. bug burn & white head c. bug burn & tungro
almost similar to b. bug burn & dead heart d. dead heart and burn
a. chemical control b. insect control 25. The damage caused by rice stem borers at vegetative stage is called
c. herbal control d. cultural control a. white head b. bug burn c. dead heart d. wilting
12. Which one of these insecticides is classified as cholinesterase enzyme 26. Which species of rice bugs is most abundant in the field?
inhibitor? a. Leptocorisa acuta c. Leptocorisa cheninsis
a. organophosphorus b. pyrethroid b. Leptocorisa oratorius d. Leptocorisa linearis
c . organochlorine d. nicotine 27. The Asiatic corn borers, Ostrinia furnacalis, is most abundant in corn
13. Which one of these insecticides affects the Na+ and K+ ions of the nerves? during the
a. organophosphorus b. carbamates a. wet season b. dry season
c. organochlorine d. nicotine c. wet and dry seasons d. summer period
14. Which group of insecticides is known as first generation chemicals? 28. The damage caused by corn seedling maggots, Atherigona oryzae, at
a. arsenicals b. organophosphorus seedling stage is called
c. carbamates d. pyrethroids a. white head b. dead plant c. dead heart d. wilting
15. Which group of insecticides is known as second generation chemicals? 29. The corn earworms, Helicoverpa armigera, is also called as
a. arsenicals b. organophosphorus a. tobacco budworm b. corn budworm
c. botanicals d. pyrethroids c. tomato budworm d. cotton budworm
16. Which group of insecticides is known as third generation chemicals? 30. In crucifers, the leaf damage cause by this insect pest is lace-like in
a. arsenicals b. organophosphorus appearance.
c. insect growth regulators d. pyrethroids a. armyworm b. cabbage worm
17. These group of insecticides kill insect by contact with treated surfaces such c. cutworm d. diamond back moth
as plant foliage 31. This is the scientific name of yellow squash beetles in cucurbits
a. systemic poisons b. contact poisons a. Dacus cucurbitae b. Bemisia tabaci
c. stomach poisons d. fumigants c. Aulacophora indica d. Spodoptera litura
18. These group of insecticides are more effective against sucking insects 32. This is the scientific name of cotton bollworms

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 a. Dysdercus cingulatus c. Pectinophora gossypiela a. chemical control b. biological control
b. Helicoverpa armigera d. Aphis craccivora c. mechanical control d. cultural control
33. Which one of these is a newly introduced insect pest of palms in the 5. The principles of insect control can be grouped into two, these are?
Philippines? a. pest population reduction & decelerate their rate of increase
a. Rhynchophorus ferrugineus c. Ideoscopus clypealis b. pesticide application & population reduction
b. Oryctes rhinoceros d. Brontispa longissima c. deceleration of rate of increase & pesticide application
34. This insect pest causes galleries of pencil lead size shot holes on the trunks d. pesticide application and cultural control
and eventual death of the 6. Quarantine control is synonymous to
a. fruit borers b. carpenter moths a. eradicative measures c. vertical resistance
c. trunk borers d. pachyrrynchid beetles b. therapeutic measures d. exclusionary measures
35. The rambutan seed borer also attacks 7. Therapeutic measures is applied to
a. mango b. citrus c. pineapple d. cacao a. pest b. ground c. plant d. air
36. In biological control, pests are controlled by 8. Vertical resistance in crop variety plays no role in the control of
a. pathogens & parasitoids c. Trichogramma spp. a. insects b. weeds c. birds d. rats
b. spiders & other predators d. answers a, b, c 9. Horizontal resistance in crop variety is
37. Which one of these control methods in mango is best recommended against a. more stable to insect infestation
fruit flies? b. less stable than crop variety developed through vertical resistance
a. sterile male technique b. bagging c. none of the answers
c. insecticide spraying d. intercropping d. answers a and b
38. Which one of these insecticides is used in banana against corm weevils, 10. Residual spraying by the use of contact insecticide is
nematodes, trunk borers, aphids, and other insect pests? a. therapeutic b. eradicative c. protective d. exclusionary
a. Furadan b. Lorsban 11. The target of avoidance measures is
c. treated polyethylene bags d. Cypermethrin a. insects b. rats c. plant d. environment
39. Which one of these chemicals is most safe to humans, animals and wildlife 12. Which one of these methods is considered as cultural control?
in controlling lepidopterous insect pests in crucifers? a. use of screen c. handpicking
a. Cypermethrin b. Marshal b. use of pest-free planting materials d. control of humidity
c. Furadan d. insect growth regulators 13. Planting of crops inside plastic sheet houses is
40. Which one is considered as the first strategy against major insect pests of a. chemical control b. physical control
rice? c. cultural control d. mechanical control
a. pest resistant and high yielding varieties c. molluscicide 14. The use of sound in the control of insect pests is
b. insecticides d. Trichogramma spp. a. mechanical control b. cultural control
c. physical control d. sonic control
METHODS OF INSECT PEST CONTROL 15. Planting of tungro resistant rice variety is called as
1. Insects are animals that have a. biological control b. cultural control
a. 2 pairs of legs b. 1 pair of legs c. genetic control d. host plant resistance
c. 4 pairs of legs d. 3 pairs of legs 16. Control of corn borer by incorporating Bt into the corn is called as
2. Insecticides kill a. cultural control b. genetic control
a. insects only c. golden apple snails (kuhol) c. host plant resistance d. Biological control
b. insects and other organisms d. insects & kuhol 17. The utilization of nematodes in the control of insect pests is classified as
3. An agro-ecosystem allows interactions between a. biological control b. legal control
a. insects & predators c. insects & other insects c. cultural control d. genetic control
b. insects & parasitoids d. insects & temperature 18. The use of insect hormone in the control of insect pests is
4. To many, insect pest control denotes a. biological control b. cultural control

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 c. chemical control d. genetic control 29. In IPM, all management practices
19. The use of sex pheromone in the control of insect pests is (a. do have b. Do not have c. always have d. none have) to function at
a. chemical control b. biological control the same time.
c. genetic control d. physical control 30. Insect pest management is
20. The application of food attractants and repellents (or deterrents) is a. a new system b. an ever changing system
classified as c. static system d. None of the answers
a. genetic control b. biological control 31. Which of the following stored product insect pests has 6 saw-like
c. chemical control d. host plant resistance projections on each side of the thorax?
21. Insect hormones, pheromones, attractants, repellents, deterrents, alomones a. saw-toothed grain beetle b. lesser grain borer
and kairomones are collectively referred to as c. rice weevil d. Khapra beetle
a. semiochemicals b. allelochemicals 32. A stored product pest which begins infesting grains in the field
c. stimulants d. inhibitors a. saw-toothed grain beetle b. Angoumois grain moth
22. Pheromones are compounds that operate their effects c. Khapra beetle d. Cadelle
a. intraspecifically (same species) 33. An introduced stored product pest in the Philippines which can survive
b. interspecifically (different species) without food for several months.
c. non-specifically a. Angoumois grain moth b. Cadelle
d. specifically c. Khapra beetle d. no answer
23. Allelochemicals (alomones and kairomones) are compounds that operate 34. A stored product pest which specifically infests dried fruits and chocolates
their effects a. merchant grain beetle b. cacao podborer
a. specifically b. interspecifically (different species) c. cowpea weevil d. Cadelle
c. non-specifically d. intraspecifically (same species) 35. Which of the following is not a stored product insect pest?
24. Insect hormones, pheromones, attractants, repellents, deterrents, alomones a. cacao podborer b. Cadelle
and kairomones are collectively referred to as c. Khapra beetle d. rice weevil
a. synomones b. allelochemicals 36. Which of the following does not attack stored corn?
c. stimulants d. behavior modifying chemicals a. rice weevil b. Cadelle
25. The utilization of bacteria, fungi, viruses and other microorganisms in a c. Angoumois grain moth d. lesser grain borer
process that is similar to insecticides is collectively referred to as 37. Which of the following stored product insect pests has the cannibalistic
a. biological control b. chemical control characteristic?
c. bio pesticide control d. none of the above a. rice weevil b. red flour beetle c. Cadelle d. no answer
26. The use of two or more compatible control tactics against insect pests is 38. Which of the following stored product insect pests leaves a prominent odor
called as to warn other stored pests that the stored commodity was already colonized
a. biological control b. chemical control a. rice weevil b. red flour beetle c. Cadelle d. all of these
c. bio pesticide control d. IPM 39. Which among these stored product insect pests is known as “scourge” to
27. In IPM, control measures against insect pests are implemented when their warehouse owners?
population reaches a. rice weevil b. red flour beetle c. Cadelle d. no answer
a. economic injury level c. economic damage 40. Which of the following stored product insect pests could not survive in
b. economic threshold level d. economic number tropical countries?
28. The principles behind the IPM concept are to a. rice weevil b. red flour beetle
a. allow pest population below ETL and maximize chemical control c. Cadelle d. confused flour beetle
b. allow pest population below ETL and neglect the ecosystem 41. The red flour beetle can be distinguished from the confused flour beetle
c. allow pest population below ETL and maximize non-chemical control because its antenna is
methods a. longer b. shorter
d. understand the ecosystem and analyze the desirable effects c. last 3 segments of the antenna form a club d. absent

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42. Which of the following is not a characteristic of the lesser grain borer? a. lay eggs at night on vegetation above water surface
a. seldom fly b. infest dirty grains b. immature stage are voracious and grow faster
c. a strong flyer d. a primary pest c. hermaphrodite
43. Which of the following is not a primary insect pest of stored products? d. can survive under polluted condition
a. rice weevil b. lesser grain borer 8. Which of the following is/are food of the golden apple snail?
c. cadelle d. red flour beetle a. rice seedlings b. algae and azolla
44. Which of the following seldom fly? c. decomposing organic matter d. all of these
a. rice weevil b Khapra beetle 9. Which of the following is/are naturally occurring biological control agents of
c. flat grain beetle d. cowpea weevil snails?
45. Which of following stored product pests cause damage only during their a. red ants b. ducks c. field rats d. all of these
larval stage? 10. Which of the following cannot control the golden apple snail?
a. Angoumois grain moth b. Khapra beetle a. deep water irrigation
c. Rice moth d. all of them b. use of botanical plants like neem tree and sambong leaves
46. Which of the following characteristics distinguishes Oryzaephilus mercator c. use of attractants like gabi and banana plants
from O. surinamensis. d. construction of small canals along the edges of rice paddies.
a. cannot tolerate low temperatures 11. Which of the following new informations about the golden apple snail is
b.with 6 tooth-like projections on each side of the thorax NOT TRUE?
c. infest dried fruits and chocolates a. rice varieties like PSB Rc36, Rc 38, Rc 40 and Rc 68 are least preferred by
d. larvae yellow to brown in color the golden apple snail
47. The cowpea bean weevil lays eggs on b. sterile male technique can control the golden apple snail
a. leaves of the plant b. bean pods c. basal application of complete fertilizer and urea at recommended dosage
c. seeds of legumes d. b & c only during the last harrowing can reduce population of golden apple snail
d. niclosamide are more effective against native snails than metaldehyde
GOLDEN SNAIL formulations
1. The scientific name of the golden apple snail is
a. Pomacea reticulata b. Pomacea canaliculata INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)
c.Pomacea caliculata d. Pomacea oryzae 1. IPM was first adopted in what year?
2. The golden apple snail was introduced into the Philippines a. 1995 b. 1996 c. 1997 d. 1998
a. between 1980 and1982 b. between 1982 and 1984 2. IPM is embodied in what D.A. Special Order No.?
c. between 1986 and 1988 d. in 1980 a. 594 b. 945 c. 954 d. 495
3. The golden apple snail originated from 3. The maximum pest population that the crop can tolerate before it results to
a. Malaysia b. Vietnam c. Thailand d. South America significant yield losses
4. The purpose of the importation of the golden apple snail into the Philippines a. economic injury c. critical period
a. as food for human beings b. as predators of insect pests b. economic threshold level d. tolerance level
c. as decoration in ponds d. to get rid of the native snails 4. The process of preventing a pest or a potential pest from contaminating an
5. The most destructive stage of the golden apple snail is when its size is area
a. 60-80 mm b. 90-100 mm c. 10-40 mm d. 100-120 mm a. eradication b. resistance c. therapy d. exclusion
6. The most vulnerable stage of rice to golden apple snail 5. The measure directed at manipulating the environment around the crop to
a. newly transplanted seedlings up to 15 days after transplanting make it escape contact with pests
b. 4 days to 30 days after sowing for direct-seeded rice a. avoidance b. therapy c. resistance d. protection
c. both a and b 6. The process of totally eliminating the pest already present in the area
d. no answer a. therapy b. eradication c. avoidance d. protection
7. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the golden apple snail

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7. Measures directed to the crop to destroy pathogens found within or on the 3. Which of the following pesticides are banned/restricted from being sold in
crop the market?
a. exclusion b. eradication c. therapy d. avoidance a. Endosulfan b. DDT c. organophosphates d. a and b
8. An injurious physiological process due to the continued irritation of a 4. It refers to the innate capacity of a compound to produce harm/injury
primary causal factor, which results to abnormal cellular activity and expressed a. hazard b. toxicity c. toxicology d. no answer
in a pathological condition called symptom 5. It refers to the risk or likelihood of an adverse effect in using the product
a. disease b. injury c. interference d. competition a. hazard b. toxicity c. toxicology d. no answer
9. Which among the list below does not belong to the group? 6. It is the poisonous effect of a pesticide on animals and human after a single
a. spores b. bacteria c. mycelia d. gall dose
10. Which among the following below does not belong to the group? a. hazard b. acute toxicity c. toxicity d. chronic toxicity
a. spots b. bacteria c. rot d. streaks 7. It is the poisonous effect of a pesticide on animals after small, repeated doses
11. This indicates the presence of the plant pathogen in a diseased plant over a period of time.
a. sign b. spore c. symptom d. abnormality a. hazard b. acute toxicity c. toxicity d. chronic toxicity
12.Weeds affect the crop due to the following except… 8. You wish to apply 160 liters of spray solution to a 1.0 ha area. If you will use
a. allelopathy c. interference Deliver 5 EC at a recommended concentration of 0.04%. How many liters of
b. competition d. disease development Deliver 5Ec will you use?
13. The family where sedges belong a. 0.28 b. 1.28 c. 2.28 d. 1.04
a. Gramineae c. Capparidaceae 9. If you will apply 160 liters of spray solution/ha. how many tank loads will
b. Cyperaceae d. Compositae you apply if I tankload is equal to 16 liters?
14. Weeds that grow and complete their life cycle on wet or flooded soil a. 5 b. 10 c. 15 d. 20
a. terrestrial b. aerial c. aquatic d. cosmic 10. If you will use Sevin 70WP at the rate of 0.75 kg a.i./ha to control insect
15. A method of pest control which uses living organisms to suppress pest pests infesting tomatoes how many kilograms of this insecticide will you use to
population treat an area of 0.5 ha?
a. mechanical b. cultural c. physical d. biological a. 0.300 b. 0.436 c. 0.536 d. 0.636
16. Good land preparation, population density manipulation, flooding and 11. Furadan 3G is applied at the rate of 0.50 kg a.i/ha to control corn seedling
fertilizer management are examples of what method of weed control? maggots and corn borer. How many kilograms of this insecticide will you use
a. cultural b. mechanical c. physical d. biological for a 0.50 hectar area?
17. The number of times a female rat can potentially reproduce in a year a. 5.33 b. 6.33 c. 7.33 d. 8.33
a. 2 b. 4 c. 3 d. 1
18. The golden apple snail has an average lifecycle of… RATS AND THEIR CONTROL
a. 45 days b. 55 days c. 65 days d. 75 days 1. The scientific name of the Norway rat is
19. The component of a pesticide which is responsible for its phytotoxicity a, Rattus exulans b. Rattus argentiventer
a. active ingredient c. adjuvant c. Rattus norvegicus d. Rattus rattus mindanensis
b. surfactant d. inert ingredient 2. The Norway rat is also known as
20. The general term for chemicals used to control pests a. brown rat b. Hanover rat c. wharf rat d. all of these
a. nematicide b. avicide c. pesticide d. bactericide 3. The scientific name of the common Philippine field rat
a. Rattus exulans b. Rattus argentiventer
PESTICIDE CALCULATION c. Rattus norvegicus d. Rattus rattus mindanensis
1. Which of the following is an active ingredient of an insecticide? 4. Which of the following is Not a characteristic of the common Philippine field
a. Endosulfan b. Carbaryl c. xylene d. a and b rat.
2. Which of the following is an inert ingredient of an insecticide? a. adults medium size, about a75 grams
a. xylene b. methomyl c.Cartap hydrochloride d. BPMC b. bigger than the Norway rat
c. most destructive rat species in the Philippines

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 d. tail uniformly dark, longer than the head plus body b. maintain the quantity and quality of the harvested product until it reaches the
5. Which of the following is Not a characteristic of the Norway rat consumers
a. fur is course and usually brown or dark grey c. prevent deterioration of the product
b. a good climber of trees and buildings d. all of the above
c. body length is about 10 inches 3. Crop losses due to plant diseases can be expressed in terms of:
d. usually commensal with man a. yield reduction
6. Which of the following is Not true about rats b. deterioration of harvested products during transit and storage
a. rats have acute hearing b. rats have good eyesight c. reduction in the quality of the product
c. are guided by their vibrissae in the dark d. all of the above
d. keen sense of smell 4. As an art, Plant Pathology deals with:
7. The average age of female rats ready for reproduction a. diagnosis of plant diseases
a. 1 month b. 1.5 month c. 2 months d. 3 months b. disease assessment and forecasting
8. The average number of young produce per female rat per delivery c. recommendation of appropriate control
a. 4 b. 6 c. 8 d. 10 d. all of the above
9. The average gestation period of rat 5. Theory which consider the pathogen as an outgrowth of the infected plant
a. 21 days b. 25 days c. 30 days d. 35 days without an independent body or life of its own:
10. Which of the following is the most preferred food of rats a. germ theory b. big bang theory
a. rice b. corn c. sugarcane d. peanuts c. autogenetic theory d. soup theory
11. Which of the following is NOT an example of acute rat poison 6. Invented the compound microscope in 1590:
a. Sodium flouroacetate b. zinc phosphide a. Leeuwenhoek b. Hooke c. Jansen brothers d.Micheli
c. Racumin d. all of these 7. Wrote the first textbook in Plant Pathology:
12. Which of the following below is not true about an anticoagulant rat bait a. Louis Pasteur b. Julius Kuhn
a. death of affected rats occurs 2-6 days after intake of lethal dose c. Henrich Anton de Bary d. Persoon Fries
b. the toxin accumulates in the tissues of rats 8. One of the first diseases reported in the Philippines:
c. death of rats is observed within 12 hours after feeding a. downy mildew of corn b. coconut bud rot
d. does not cause bait shyness on rats c. cadang-cadang of coconut d. tungro
13. It is the most widely distributed and most destructive of the rat species in 9. The Dean of Filipino Plant Pathologists:
the Philippines. a. Davide b. Reinking c. Ocfemia d. Halos
a. Philippine field rat b. Asian rice field rat 10. Discovered Bordeaux Mixture which formed the foundation of chemical
c. Polynesian rat d. Norway rat control of plant diseases:
14. Used by rats in the dark at night to guide them a. Iwanoski b. Needham c. Milardet d. Pasteur
a. tail b. vibrissae c. guard hairs d. b and c only 11. A fungus used to control plant parasitic nematodes:
a. Fusarium oxysporum b. Paecilomyces lilacinus
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF PLANT PATHOLOGY c. Rhizopus stolonifer d. Helminthosporium turcicum
1. As a science, Plant Pathology deals with the study of: 12. Potato late blight which caused famine and death of more than 1M people in
a. nature of plant diseases Ireland in 1845 is caused by the fungus:
b. control of plant diseases a. Phytophthora infestans b. Phytophthora palmivora
c. characteristics/causes of plant diseases c. Phytophthora parasitica d. Phytophthora inca
d. all of the above 13. Produces aflatoxin:
2. The raison d‟etre and ultimate objective of Plant Pathology is to prevent or a. Aspergillus ochraceus b. Aspergillus flavus
minimize plant diseases in order to: c. Aspergillus niger d. Aspergillus nanus
a. increase food production 14. Wrote “Historia Plantarum” where several diseases of grains, trees and
vegetables were recorded:

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 a. Pliny the Elder b. Homer c. Theophrastus d. Aristotle 31. Symptom characterized by sunken, necrotic area with cracked borders that
15. Claviceps purpurea which causes ergot of rye produces: may appear on leaves, fruits, stems and branches:
a. sclerotium b. conidia c. chlamydospores d. oospore a. scab b. canker c. phyllody d. callus
16. A festival in nonor of the rust gods Robigus and Robigo: 32. A symptom where there is shortening of internodes of shoots or crowding of
a. Robigusia b. Robigo Festival c. Robigalia d. Robig Festival foliage:
17. Credited for his “Autogenetic Theory of Disease” a. savoying b. resetting c. sarcody d. phyllody
a. Hooke b. Tillet c.Unger d. Micheli 33. The following are diseases classified according to affected plant organ
18. Father of Plant Pathology: except one:
a. Persoon b. Fries c. de Bary d. Kuhn a. root diseases b. anthracnose diseases
19. First crystallized a virus (TMV): c. foliar diseases d. floral diseases
a. Iwanoski b. Bawden c. Pasteur d. Stanley 34. The inherent ability of the plant to overcome the effects of the pathogen:
20. Mycoplasma-like organisms (MLO) are believed to be the cause of: a. tolerance b. resistance c. virulence d. none of the above
a. lethal yellowing of coconut b. potato witches broom 35. Signs of fungal pathogens
c. bunchy top of papaya d. all of the above a. spores b. sclerotia c. mycelium d. all of the above
21. First observed nematodes in 1743: 36. The following are abiotic causes of plant diseases except one:
a. Bawden b. Needham c. Wakker d. Burril a. very low temperature b. excess soil moisture
22. Published the book “The Lower Fungi of the Philippine Island” in 1914: c. oomycetes d. air pollutants
a. Reinking b. Baker c. Ocfemia d. Copeland 37. A disease caused by very low temperature (below 0 oC:
23. The Phytoplasmas and Spiroplasmas are also known as: a. heat necrosis b. scalding
a. flagellate protozoans b. helical viruses c. freezing injury d. chilling injury
c. Mollicutes d. Oomycetes 38. An air pollutant which is considered as an important plant hormone in
24. First to see plant cells in cork pith and illustrated in detail plant pathogenic proper concentration applied at the right time:
fungus in his “Micrographia”: a. nitrogen oxides b. ozone c. ethylene d. particulates
a. Leewenhoek b. Hooke c. Koch d. Tillet 39. A mineral deficiency where plants produced subnormal roots, erect leaves
25. Coffee rust is due to the fungus: which takeon reddish or purplish tints:
a. Puccinia coficola b. Puccinia citrate a. nitrogen deficiency b. sulfur deficiency
c. Puccinia sorghi d. Hemeilia vastatrix c. phosphorus deficiency d. none of the above
26. Described several genera of fungi and made illustrations of their fruiting 40. A condition when plants are exposed to little amount of sunlight:
bodies: a. scorching b. etiolation c. black heart d. none of the above
a. Hooke b. Micheli c. Targioni d. Koch 41. A condition commonly observed in water-logged and poorly aerated storage
27. Defined diseases as “dynamic interaction between the organism and its areas:
environment: a. black heart b. blotching c. scalding d. water-soaking
a. Merril b. Agrios c. Stakman and Harrar d. Whetzel 42. A nitrogen-deficient plant may exhibit:
28. Parasites that can only subsist in living tissues: a. poor seed production b. premature leaf fall
a. facultative parasites b. suscept c. chlorotic leaves d. all of the above
c. obligate parasites d. none of the above
29. Pathogenicity is: CONCEPT OF PLANT DISEASES/BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC
a. quantitative amount of disease that the pathogen can cause CAUSES/INOCULATION
b. disease development in plants 1. An acids that are secreted by red onions conferring resistance to
c. capacity of the pathogen to cause the disease onion smudge.
d. virulence expressed by the pathogen a. protocatechnic acid b. nucleic acid
30. Refers to the external manifestation of a “sick” plant: c. phenolics d. none of the above
a. virulence b. sign c. symptom d. aggressiveness 2. These are dead cells formed rapidly by the host as induced structural defense.

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 a. abscission layer b. cork layers c. gums d. tyloses 19. A type of disease cycle with several secondary cycles
3. This results in the confinement or even death of the pathogens as it becomes a. Monocylic b. Polycyclic c.. Hypercyclic d. All of the above
surrounded by dead cells 20. Symptoms of virus infected plants, except
a. immunity b. tyloses c. hypersensitivity d. tomatine a. mottling b. wilting c. vein clearing d. twisting
4. The chain of interrelated events of disease development 21. Cells of this pathogen multiply in the vascular system
a. infection b. pathogenicity c. colonization d. pathogenesis a. powdery mildew pathogen b. bacterial wilt pathogen
5. It begins at the moment the inoculum is taken from the source and deposited b. rust pathogen c. All of the above
in the infection court 22. These are cellular structures that are formed in response to pathogen
a. Incubation b. Infection c. Inoculation d. Colonization invasion
6. The various phases of continuous growth and development passed through by a. size of stomata b. presence of trichomes
a pathogen c. presence of wax d. gums
a. Life cycle b. Survival phase 23. the most common medium for fungal isolation is
c. Pathogenesis d. Saprogenesis a. CWA b. PDA c. NA d. SPSA
7. The antibiotics effective against mollicutes 24. The fusion of 2 nuclei from male and female gametes is termed as
a. amoxicillin b. tetracycline c. penicillin d. none a. karyogamy b. mitosis c. plasmogamy d. meiosis
8. A structure of a bacterial cell that facilitate conjugation process 25. The number of ascospores in one ascus.
a. chromosome b. plasmid c. pili d. flagella a. 2 b. 6 c. 4 d. 8
9. Symptoms of virus infected plants, except 26. A thick-walled structure that is located either terminal or intercalary.
a. mottling b. wilting c. vein clearing d. twisting a. chlamydospores b. aplanospores c. zoospores d. conidiospores
10. Trichoderma is an example of 27. This refers to the naked spores that are produced asexually by fungal
a. trap crop b. biological control agent pathogens.
c. antagonistic plant d. all a. asci b. sporangia c. pycnidia `d. conidia
11. A population of life forms that is identical in all inheritable traits 28. Group of fungal pathogens that do not produce either sexual or asexual
a. biotype b. pathovar c. pathogenic race d. special form spores.
12. A group that is made up of one or more biotypes with morphologically a. Basidiomycetes b. Imperfect Fungi
identical members c. Sterile Fungi d. Ascomycetes
a. biotype b. pathovar c. pathogenic race d. special form 29. A structure that supports the basidiospore.
13. The following are mechanisms of fungal variations except a. basidium b. sporangiophore
a. mutation b. parasexual process c. conidiophore d. none of the above
c. heterokaryosis d. Transformation 30. The following are examples of pseudofungi under Kingdom Chromista
14. Major mean of spreading air-borne pathogens such as fungal spores except
a. insects b. wind c. water d. man a. Pythium b. Phytophthora c. Rhizoctonia d. Peronosclerospora
15. The deposition of inoculum in an infection court 31. The following are examples of true fungi except
a. dissemination b. survival c. inoculation d. penetration a. white rusts b. powdery mildew c. smuts d. bread molds
16. Refers to the growth, reproduction and movement of the pathogen through 32. Group of fungal pathogens with no known sexual reproduction.
the host tissues a. Basidiomycetes b. Imperfect Fungi
a. dissemination b. colonization c. infection d. penetration c. Sterile Fungi d. Ascomycetes
17. Which of the following symptoms affect the photosynthetic capacity of the 33. The causal pathogen of bacterial blight of pepper.
plant? a. Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae
a. fruit spots b. damping-off c. galls d. chlorosis b. Xanthomonas vesicatoria pv. vesicatoria
18. An example of a pre-existing defense structure c. Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola
a. cork layers b. sheathing of hyphae d. Xanthomonas campestis pv.campestris
c. waxes d. gum formations 34. Genus of plant pathogenic bacteria

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 a. Clavibacter b. Arthrobacter c. adventitious roots formation d. all of the above
c. Rhodococcus d. all of the above 52. The infective part of a virus particle.
35. The resulting disease when hydrolytic enzymes degrade the middle lamellae a. capsid b. nucleic acid c. protein coat d. capsule
and cell wall of the host 53. A fungus which is antagonistic to plant parasitic nematodes.
a. dry rot b. canker c. soft rot d. wilting a. Trichoderma viride b. Aspergillus flavus
36. These fungi are placed in kingdom Chromista c. Penicillium italicum d. Paecilomyces lilacinus
a.watermolds b. downy mildews 54. Characteristic of plant pathogenic bacteria, except
c. white rust d. all of the above a. gram negative b. aerobic c. unicellular d. obligate
37. The root knot nematode is 55. The unit of reproduction among fungi
a. Meloidogyne sp. b. Heterodera sp. a. hyphae b. perithecia c. mycelia d. spores
c. Rhodococcus sp. d. Acidovorax sp.
38. The following are the characteristics of plant viruses except PLANT DISEASES/BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC
a. ultramicroscopic b. obligate 1. The compound in the colored scales of red onion makes them resistant
c. has NA and protein coat d. possess well-defined cells to smudge caused by Colletotrichum circinans.
39. These are cultural methods of controlling diseases, except a. Caffeic acid c. cutin
a. crop rotation b. use of chemicals b. Catechuic acid d. tannic acid
c. sanitation d. rouging 2. A steroid glycoalkaloid in tomato and other solanaceous plants found
40. These pathogen can survive as saprophytes, except toxic to microorganisms which are not pathogenic to tomato but rather
a. fungi b. bacteria c. virus d. none to other pathogens.
41. Mode of nematode dissemination a. Caffeic acid c. tomatine
a. soil b. fungi c. insects d. all of the above b. Catechuic acid d. tannic acid
42. The causal pathogen of potato late blight 3. Natural opening on the flowers that serves as an avenue for pathogen
a. Phytophthora parasitica b. Uromyces phaseoli penetration/entry.
c. Phytophthora cinamomi d. Phytophthora infestans a. Stomata c. hydathodes
43. Avenues through which the pathogen gain entry b. Lenticels d. nectaries
a.wounds b. natural cracks c. lenticels d. all of the above 4. Osmotic pressure of the plant cell that hinders resistance to
44. These are inoculum of nematodes penetration.
a. larvae b. juveniles c. eggs d. all of the above a. High osmotic pressure
45. Refers to an abnormality caused by insect infestation. b. Low osmotic pressure
a. disease b. damage c. injury d. none of the above c. Equal to the environment
46. These pathogens are vectored by insects d. Increased permeability
a. viroids b. bacteria c. virus d. all of the above 5. The cutin of citrus lime contains acids which are toxic inhibits the
47. A single polar flagellum attached on cell surface growth of :
a. atrichous b. amphitrichous c. peritrichous d. monotrichous a. Colletotrichum limetticola c.Colletotrichum circinans
48. Nematodes that feed on organic substrates b. Verticillium alboatrum d. Streptomyces scabies
a. predaceous b. saprophagous c. pathogenic d. all 6. A disease that is native or indigenous to a particular place only.
49. Pathogens that can be disseminated by rain splashes a. exotic b. epidemic c. endemic d. pandemic
a. bacteria b. Phytoplasma c. virus d. viroids 7. The increase in the amount of disease at any one time is dependent on:
50. These are diseases caused by bacteria, except a. initial amount of inoculum or disease and rate of disease increase
a. bacterial leaf blight of rice b. citrus caker b. rate of disease increase and duration or period of time involved
c. leaf streak d. all of the above c. duration or period of time involved in disease development and the amount
51. Hypoplastic symptoms includes of inoculum
a. galls b. mottling

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d. initial inoculums, rate of disease increase and duration of disease a. victorin c. fusarin
development b. pyricularin d. pectolytic enzyme
8. Not as feature of a compound interest disease. 18. It is a rapid localized death of host cells around the pathogen that will result
a. readily spread from plant to plant during the disease cycle to the confinement or even death of the pathogen as it becomes surrounded by
b. repeating cycles dead cells.
c. several generations of pathogens a. Plant Immunization c. detoxification
d. single disease cycle b. hypersensitivity d. physical barrier
9. The principle of plant disease control applied when a barrier is placed in 19. Formation of gums, resins and other exudates provide a mechanical barrier
between the host and the pathogen. when they dry up into hard, solid masses is a form of:
a. Eradication c. Protection a. mechanical barrier c. Detoxification
b. Exclusion d. Immunization b. Hypersensitivity d. Plant Immunization
10. Not a feature of Eradicative measure of plant disease control. 20. The chemical that makes senescent potato roots to be more susceptible to
a. Elimination of pathogen Verticillium alboatrum than younger roots.
b. Inhibition of plant pathogen from establishment a. cutin b. chlorogenic acid c. cathecol
c. Killing of the pathogen d. catechuic acid probably because of the decreasing chlorogenic acid
d. Prohibition of pathogen for establishment content of the aging roots.
11. The toxin produced by Cochiobolus victoriae that are inactivated in 21. Unavailability of nutrients in the host and inadequate enzyme potential of
resistant oat cultivar. the pathogen is classified under what type of resistance.
a. victorin c. cutin a.Induced resistance c. Hypersensitivity
b. pyricularin d. pectolytic enzyme b.Detoxification d. Plant Immunization
12. The purpose of crop rotation as a method of plant disease control. 22. The lack of infection in a susceptible variety due to suscept‟s effect on
a. Provide an alternate host c. provide an alternative host something other than the pathogen, such as the vector.
b. Pathogen starvation d. pathogen elimination a. Escape c. Klenducity
13. Senescent potato roots are more susceptible to Verticillium alboatrum than b. Virulence d. Resistance
younger roots probably because; 23. The relative ability of the plant to overcome the effects of the pathogen
a. Decreasing caffeic acid content of the aging roots. a. Resistance c. virulence
b. Decreasing chlorogenic acid content of the aging roots. b. susceptibility d. aggressiveness
c. Decreasing toxic substances content of the aging roots. 24. A condition that describes disease development.
d. Decreasing phytoalexins content of the aging roots. a. susceptible host, virulent pathogen
14. Plants that resist pathogenic invasion by inactivating deleterious compounds b. susceptible host and favorable environment
produced during pathogenesis. c. susceptible host, virulent pathogen, favorable environmental
a. Hypersensitivity c. Plant Immunization condition
b. Detoxification d. Induced resistance d. virulent pathogen, favorable environment
15. Involves a change in response to stimulus which makes the plant more 25. A condition where some plants resist pathogenic invasion by inactivating
resistant to a given disease. deleterious compounds produced during pathogenesis
a. Induced resistance c. Hypersensitivity a. mechanical barrier c. Detoxification
b. Detoxification d. Plant Immunization b. Hypersensitivity d. Plant Immunization
16. Involves the production of antibodies that are expressed in transgenic 26. Not a characteristic of a vertical type of resistance.
plants. a. major gene resistance c. specific resistance
a. Induced resistance c. Hypersensitivity b. oligogenic resistance d. polygenic resistance
b. Detoxification d. Plant Immunization 27. An exception from the characteristics of horizontal resistance
17. The toxin produced by Magnaporthe grisea can be detoxified by some a. specific resistance
resistant cultivars. b. polygenic resistance

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 c. non-specific resistance, generalized field resistance c. infection and inoculum dissemination
d. generalized field resistance d. host resistance
28. A measure at which the degree of pathogenicity is expressed. 40. A principle of plant disease control when quarantine laws and measures are
a. virulence b.aggressiveness c. resistance d. susceptibility applied.
29. Involves the incorporation of several resistance genes in one host variety so a. Eradication b. Immunization c. Protection d. Exclusion
that it would take the pathogen a long time to be able to overcome the 41. The ability of the pathogen to cause infection.
resistance. a. pathogenecity c. aggressiveness
a. Gene or Variety deployment c. Selection b. virulence d. pathogenesis
b. Multiline Varieties d. Gene Pyrimiding 42. The increase in the amount of disease at any one time is dependent on the
30. Utilization of living organisms to suppress other organisms. following except:
a. Physical Control c. Biological control a. initial amount of inoculum or disease
b. Chemical Control d. Radiation b. rate of disease increase
31. Enactment of laws that regulate, restrict or prohibit the entry or movement c. duration or period of time involved
of diseased plant materials into or within the area. d. virulence of the pathogen
a. Immunization c. Protection 43. Involves the system concept where every stage in the life cycle of the
b. Eradication d. Exclusion pathogen is modeled taking into considerations the effects of the environment.
32. As a mixture of several lines with similar agronomic characteristics but a. Van der Plant Analyses c. Empirical Method
each with a different gene for resistance. b. Computer Simulation d. Experimentation
a. Gene Pyramiding c. Selection 44. The basic consideration for the computation of the rate of disease increase
b. Multiline Variety d. Gene Deployment except for:.
33. Protection of a plant by a mild virus strain against infection of another strain a. amount of disease
of that same virus that causes more severe symptom. b. initial amount of inoculum
a. Interference c. antagonism c. base of natural log, 2.718
b. Cross Protection d. Use of Bacteriophage d. cumulative amount of inocula
34. The plant does not have the relative ability to overcome the effects of the 45. Are those diseases which readily spread from plant to plant during the
pathogen. disease cycle and with repeating cycles with several generations of pathogens
a. Klenducity b. Susceptibility c. Resistance d. Virulence a. Compound interest disease
35. A type of forecasting based on data gathered for several years based on field b. Simple interest disease
observations and experiences. c. disease without repeating cycles
a. VAN DER PLANK analyses c. Empirical Forecasting d. one generation of pathogen
b. Computer Simulation d. Experimentation 46. They are plants where the pathogen exerts its pathogenecity and causes
36. The description of Van der Pank of disease development. disease.
a. straight horizontal line c. straight vertical line a. primary host c. alternative host
b. sigmoidal curve d. straight and vertical line b. alternate host d. secondary host
37. Appraisal on the amount of disease present and relate these to yield loss. 47. Characteristics of horizontal resistance except for:
a. Disease Assessment c. Disease Forecasting a. minor gene resistance, c. non-specific resistance
b. Yield Loss Assessment d. Disease Severity b. polygenic resistance d. specific resistance
38. A disease that occurs at irregular intervals. 48. The stage in disease development where the amount of inoculums is equal
a. pandemic disease c. endemic disease to the infectible plant part.
b. sporadic disease d. exotic disease a. Lag phase c. Log Phase
39. Factor that does not affect disease development. b. Stationary phase d. Phase of Decline
a. susceptible plants at their susceptible stage are exposed to viable inoculum 49. A widespread explosive disease outbreak.
b. a virulent pathogen during favorable conditions for pathogen multiplication,

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 a. epidemic b. pandemic c. exotic d. endemic 8. Annual weeds complete their life cycle in a year or less and mainly
50.The principle of plant disease control applied when you alter the physiology reproduce by seeds. Which of the following is NOT an annual weed?
of the plant for it to resist infection. a. Sphenoclea zeylanica or gooseweed
a. Eradication b. Immunization c. Exclusion d. Protection b. Ageratum conyzoides or tropic ageratum
c. Mimosa pudica or makahiya
WEED SCIENCE d. Euphorbia hirta or gatas-gatas
1. Chromolaena odorata and Cyperus rotundus grow both in the wild and in 9. Which of the following species is INCORRECTLY classified?
cultivated habitats. They are: a. Cynodon dactylon – Poaceae
a. Facultative weeds c.Noxious weeds b. Fimbristylis miliaceae – Cyperaceae
b. Obligate weeds d.Common weeds c. Pistia stratiotes – Araceae
2. The main goal of weed science is: d. Ageratum conyzoides – Pontederiaceae
a. To eradicate or eliminate weeds to increase profit. 10. Sedges, distinguished from their triangular stems, are member of what
b. To formulate the most effective, economical and satisfactory methods of family?
controlling weeds. a. Cyperaceae b. Pontederiaceae c. Mimosaceae d. Asteracea
c. To increase yield and income. 11. Which of the following species is not from the family cyperaceae?
d. All of the above a. Cyperus b. Scirpus c. Eichinocloa d. Fimbristylis
3. Which of the following is UNTRUE about weeds? 12. Which is INCORRECT about grassy weeds from the family Graminea of
a. They have rapid vegetative growth. Poaceae?
b. They have the ability to survive and adapt to adverse conditions. a. Their culms are well defined with nodes and internodes.
c. They are less adapted to crop competition. b. Their leaves are usually narrow with netted venation.
d. They are prolific and produce abundant seeds. c. Their leaves arise alternately in two from the nodes.
4. Which of the following weed species can cause diarrhea and death of d. They have ligules.
animals? 13. Cyperus rotundus is perennial upland sedge known as the world‟s worst
a. Lantana camara b. Chromolaena odorata weed. This is locally known as:
c. Calopogonium muconoides d. a & b a. busikad b. payong-payong c. mutha d. baho-baho
5. The primary reason why weed is considered as a pest in crop production is: 14. Ageratum conyzoides (tropic ageratum) and Vernonia cinerea (little iron
a. It can significantly reduce the quantity and quality of products. weed) belong to the largest family of flowering plants which is:
b. It is propagated through seeds and vegetative propagules. a. Asteraceae or compositae b. Amaranthaceae
c. It causes allergy and death to animals and human. c. Araceae d. Euphorbiaceae
d. all of the above 15. Simple perennial weeds are those that live for more than one season for
6. Perennial weeds are those that live for more than one season for several years several years reproducing by seeds only. Which of the following is not a simple
reproducing vegetatively and by seeds. Which of the following is a perennial perennial weed?
upland weed? a. Sida acuta (sida) c. Chromolaena odorata (devil weed)
a. Eleusine indica or goose grass b. Mimosa pudica (makahiya) d. d. Eichornia crassipes (water hyacinth)
b. Brachiaria mutica or paragrass 16. Cynodon dactylon is a perennial turf grass introduced to Southeast Asia but
c. Rottboellia cochinchinensis or aguingay is now growing luxuriantly as noxious weed. Which of the following is an
d. Arachis pintoi or pintoi peanut incorrect classification of the specie?
7. Broadleaf weeds are those with expanded leaf blades that include the a. It is an upland annual grass. c. It is an upland perennial broadleaf.
following EXCEPT: b. It is lowland perennial sedge. d. It is an upland perennial grass.
a. Mikania cordata or Mile-a-minute 17. This refers to the seedbank where weed seeds are deposited:
b. Monochoria vaginalis or Pickerel weed a. soil b. water c. field d. all of the above
c. Eichinocloa colona or Jungle rice 18. What is the average number of weed seeds present in the seedbank per
d. Amaranthus spinosus or kulitis hectare?

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 a. 3 to 3.5 B b. 4 to 4.5 B c. 10 B d. 12 to 15 B 30. It is the length of time wherein the crop is very sensitive to weed
19. Majority of the seeds entering the seed bank came from: competition.
a. annual weeds b. biennial weeds a. Critical Period of Competition b. Critical Threshold Level
c. perennial weeds d. all of the above c. Critical Economic Threshold d. a & b
20. In weed seed germination, the period of rapid metabolic activity is best 31. The most competitive stage of the weed plant is:
characterized by: a. mature stage b. juvenile stage
a. rapid reproduction rate b. faster rate of senescence c. seedling stage d. declining stage
c. faster photosynthetic activity d. faster cell division and elongation 32. Significant yield reduction in crop-weed competition would occur if:
21. Of the following statements below, which does NOT best describe the a. weed and crop density are equal
seedling stage of weeds? b. crop density is higher
a. It is the most competitive stage in most species. c. weed population has reached the critical threshold level
b. It is most sensitive to environmental influences. d. weed population is below the critical threshold level
c. It is the most tolerant stage to herbicide action. 33. The critical period of competition is generally about
d. It is the most vulnerable and the most practical stage for control. a. 1/5 of the crop life cycle
22. Pistia stratiotes or kiapo serve as host of mosquitoes that carry the parasites b. 1/3 to ½ of the crop life cycle
responsible for rural fillariasis and encephalomyelitis. Which of the following is c. ¼ of the crop life cycle
INCORRECT about pistia? d. all throughout the crop life cycle
a. It is a free-floating, wetland, stoloniferous weed. 34. Allelopathy in crop-weed association means:
b. It is a monocotyledonous perennial weed with long feathery roots. a. Weeds secrete substances that may stimulate or retard the growth of the
c. It is propagated vegetatively by offshoots and by seed. associated crop.
d. It has ligule and has distinct nodes and internodes. b. Weeds grow taller than the crop hence competing for source of light.
23. The underground vegetative propagule that can be used for weed c. Weeds harbors insects that in turn destroy the associated crop
propagation is/are: d. Weeds as alternate host to pathogens
a. runner b. tuber c. rhizome d. b & c 35. Transplanted rice competes with the weed better than direct seeded rice
24. It is a measure of the adaptive potential of a weed that enables it to grow in because:
environment disturbed by man. a. transplanted rice has wider spacing.
a. competition b. persistence c. adaptability d. allelopathy b. transplanted rice has given a headstart to grow.
25. Explosive mechanism of weed dispersal is shown by weeds belonging to c. transplanted rice has better water management.
what family? d. transplanted rice utilizes fertilizer and water efficiently than broadcasted rice.
a. Asteraceae b. Leguminoceae c. Amaranthaceae d. a &b 36. Which factor is important for weed germination to soften the seed coat and
26. Which of the following is NOT a propagating material of Cyperus to activate the enzymes?
rotundus? a. Oxygen b.temperature c.water d.light
a. basal bulb b. tuber c. rhizome d. corm 37. Which of the following species does not predominate in lowland
27. The competition for the resource of individuals of the same species/kind is: transplanted rice?
a. inter specific competition b. intraspecific competition a. Pickerel weed or Monochoria vaginalis
c. both a & b d. none of the above b. Bulrush or scirpus maritimus
28. Generally, weeds compete with crop plants for c. Gooseweed or Sphenoclea zeylanica
a. air and sunlight b.soil nutrients , water, and sunlight d.Crowfoot grass or Dactyloctenium aegyptium
c. space and sunlight d.solar radiation and space 38. The following weed species are predominant in sugarcane crop production
29. The type of competition existing between corn and itchgrass is: area except:
a. inter specific competition b. intraspecific competition a. purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus)
c. ultraspecific d. extraspecific b. itchgrass (R. cochinchinensis)
c. goosegrass ( Eleusine indica)

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 d. gooseweed (Sphenoclea zeylanica) a. Imperata cylindrica b. Rottboellia cochinchinensis
39. Azolla pinnata and Pistia stratiotes are lowland weeds classified as: c. Amaranthus spinosus d. Portulaca oleraceae
a. floating b. emergent c. submegent d. both b and c 50. Calopogonium muconoides and Centrosema pubescens are considered as
40. This type of dormancy is developing when non dormant seed becomes naturalized forage legumes. They belong to what family?
dormant after exposure to such specific environmental conditions. a. Mimosaceae b. Caesaplinaceae c. papillonaceae d. Asteraceae
a. induced b. enforced c. innate d. primary dormancy 51. The first organic herbicide that revolutionized chemical weed control
41. It refers to all types of positive and negative interactions between species a. butachlor b. gramoxone c. 2,4-D d. glyphosate
a. competition b. allelopathy 52. When was the first organic and selective herbicide developed?
c. interference d. allelochemicals a. 1930s b. 1940s c. 1950s d. 1960s
42. The allelopathic substance produced from the rhizome if Imperata 53. The first organic herbicide belongs to what chemical family of herbicides?
cylindrica that can inhibit the growth of tomato and cucumber is: a. phenoxys b. diphenyl ethers c. phenols d. triazines
a. phytoncide b. koline c. marasmin d. antibiotic 54. Which among the following does not describe what weeds are?
43. Most weeds derived their competitive power from their rapid development a. unwanted b. harmful c. important d. out-of-place
manifested by the following except: 55. Which among the following is not true about the characteristics of weeds?
a. rapid root growth and development a. rapid vegetative growth
b. rapid leaf production and multiple shoot development b. not adapted to competition
c. formation of toxins c. reproduce efficiently
d. formation of shorter plants d. cause damage even at low densities
44. It is a measure of the adaptive potential of a weed that enables it to grow in 56. Weeds that originate from other areas and are introduced to the area where
environment disturbed by man. they are found
a. competition b. persistence c. adaptability d. none of the above a. endemic b. exotic c. native d. local
45. Lowland weeds complete their life cycle in a wetland or submerge 57. Weeds that grow and complete their life cycle under dry or wet condition of
condition. Which of the following is not a lowland weed? the soil
a. Cyperus iria b. Eichornia crassipes a. lowland b. aquatic c. floating d. upland
c. Scirpus maritimus d. Cyperus kyllingia 58. Lowland weeds with their roots attached to the soil but the shoots are
46. The critical period of competition for many crops include the following aerial/above-water
except: a. submerged b. emerged c. floating d. aquatic
a. beginning of the tillering stage 59. Weeds that reproduce mainly through seeds, and grow within a year
b. at the end of the crop establishment a. annuals b. simple perennials
c. two weeks before harvesting c. creeping perennials d. biennials
d. beginning of the fruiting period 60. Weeds which are members of Family Gramineae
47. Perennial weeds are more difficult to control than annuals because a. sedges b. broadleaves c. grasses d. annuals
a. they have deeper root penetration 61. Weeds that belong to Family Cyperaceae
b. they produce more shoots a. sedges b. broadleaves c. grasses d. annuals
c. they have numerous underground vegetative propagules that may exhibit 62. Weeds with rounded hollow stems and fibrous root system
dormancy a. sedges b. broadleaves c. grasses d. annuals
d. they produce allelochemicals 63. Weeds with triangular stems and parallel leaf venation
48. A monocotyledonous broadleaf introduced as ornamental during the a. sedges b. broadleaves c. grasses d. annuals
Spanish regime but is now growing luxuriantly as noxious weed in submerge 64. Weeds having expanded leaves with netted venation
areas. a. sedges b. broadleaves c. grasses d. annuals
a. Echinocloa crusgali b. Eichornia crassipes 65. The following are vegetative propagules except…
c. Cynodon dactylon d. Rottboellia cochinchinensis a. a. seeds b. tubers c. rhizomes d. off-shoots
49. Which of the following can reduce soil erosion in hilly areas? 66. Most weed seeds in the soil are found within the…

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 a. upper 50 inches b. upper 40 inches 80. The study of weeds and their control
c. upper 15 inches d. upper 30 inches a. weed evaluation c. weed control
67. The phenomenon when weed seeds fail to germinate even under favorable b. weed science d. population management
conditions 81. Chemicals that are used to kill weeds
a. quiescence b. dormancy c. viability d. longevity a. weedicides b. insecticides c. herbicides d. fungicides
68. The following are physical causes of weed seed dormancy except.. 82. The general term used to describe any chemical used to control pests
a. presence of inhibitors c. thick hull a. herbicide b. pesticide c. fungicide d. viricide
b. impermeable seedcoat d. hard seedcoat 83. The inherent property of a herbicide to kill some plants but not other plants
69. The mechanism which controls sprouting of Cyperus rotundus tubers that a. resistance b. toxicity c. sensitivity d. selectivity
are attached to the mother plant 84. The ability of some plants to survive a herbicide treatment that would
a. dormancy b. quiescence c. apical dominance d. longevity normally kill other plants
70. The stage of growth when the weed is most affected by weed control a. resistance b. toxicity c. sensitivity d. selectivity
measures 85. The innate property of a chemical to produce harm
a. seed stage b. seedling stage a. toxicity b. hazard c. selectivity d. resistance
c. vegetative stage d. reproductive stage 86. The risk of likelihood of an adverse effect due to exposure to a harmful
71. The following are means by which weeds are dispersed from one area to chemical
another, except.. a. toxicity b. hazard c. selectivity d. resistance
a. wind b. water c. fire d. animals 87. The component of a pesticide which is responsible for its toxic effect
72. Which among the following is not a weed dispersal unit? a. acid equivalent b. active ingredient
a. leaves b. seeds c. tubers d. stem cuttings c. inert ingredient d. surfactant
73. The is described as the struggle between two or more plants for a limited 88. The component of a pesticide that act as surface active agents
resource a. acid equivalent b. active ingredient
a. allelopathy b. dispersal c. interference d. competition c. inert ingredient d. surfactant
74. The effects of one plant on another plant due to the chemicals that it 89. The presidential decree number which created the Fertilizer and Pesticide
releases Authority
a. allelopathy b. dispersal c. interference d. competition a. 1144 b. 3256 c. 1433 d. 6454
75. The term that collectively describes the effects of both competition and 90. The year when the FPA was promulgated
allelopathy a. 1975 b. 1976 c. 1977 d. 1978
a. interference b. harmful c. dispersal d. critical 91. The DA Special Order number which embodies the provisions on Integrated
76. The duration during the life cycle of a crop when it most affected by Pest Management
competition by weeds a. 492 b. 493 c. 494 d. 495
a. critical period of competition c. critical threshold level 92. The year when the DA Special Order on IPM was signed…
b. crop-weed competitive threshold d. density effect a. 1996 b. 1997 c. 1998 d. 1999
77. The weed density, higher than which significant yield losses will be 93. The color code of the most toxic pesticides
observed a. yellow b. blue c. green d. red
a. critical period of competition c. critical threshold level 94. The color code of the least toxic pesticides
b. crop-weed competitive threshold d. density effect a. yellow b. blue c. green d. red
78. The weed density and duration when the crop is most affected 95. Herbicides with the blue band belong to what category?
a. critical period of competition c. critical threshold level a. 5 b. 3 c. 2 d. 6
b. crop-weed competitive threshold d. density effect 96. How many categories of pesticides are there based on toxicity?
79. The process of decreasing weed population to minimize competition a. 4 b. 5 c. 6 d. 7
a. weed evaluation c. weed control 97. The word „CAUTION‟ is the signal word for what category of pesticides?
b. weed science d. population management a. 3 b. 4 c. 5 d. 6

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98. The world‟s worst weed based on distribution 10. A chrysomelid beetle used as predator of Lantana camara in Mindanao in
a. Rottboellia cochinchinensis c. Amaranthus spinosus 1985.
b. Cyperus rotundus d. Echinochloa crusgalli a. Uroplata girardi b. Cactoblastis cactorum
99. These genera of weeds resemble rice at its seedling stage c. Cyrtobagous salviniae d. Pareuchates pseudoinsulata
a. Cyperus b. Eleusine c. Monochoria d. Echinochloa 11. A lepidopteran which came from Argentina and was used as predator
100. The chemical family to which 2,4-D belongs against the pricklypear cactus, Opuntia stricta, in Australia.
a. phenoxy b. dinitroanilines c. ureas d. bipyridiliums a. Uroplata girardi b. Cactoblastis cactorum
c. Cyrtobagous salviniae d.Pareuchates pseudoinsulata
WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL 12. It refers to the use of existing and locally occurring natural enemies against
1. Reasons why weeds must be removed from the field weeds
a. Weeds reduce crop yield a. augmentative approach b. classical approach
b. weeds reduce market value of the crop c. inoculative approach d. native approach
c. Harbor insect pests and diseases 13. The other term for fungal pathogens which are used as biological control
d. all of these agents against weeds
2. The main purpose of weed control is a. biological herbicides b. bioherbicides
a. total eradication of weeds from the field c. mycoherbicides d. all of these
b. reduce weed population to levels that will not significantly reduce 14. The first fungal pathogen which is a liquid formulation of Phytophthora
crop yield palmivora and was commercially made available in the US in 1981 to control
c. allow weed population to reach the economic injury level the strangler vine, Morrenia odorata.
d. a and c a. De Vine b. Collego c. B. thuringiensis d. B. bassiana
3. Which of the following is an example of cultural control of weeds? 15. Another fungal pathogen which is dry powder formulation of
a. use of insecticides Colletotrichum gloeosporoides sp. aeschynoneme and was available in the US
b. use of botanical plant extracts in 1982 to control the Aeschynomene virginica.
c. use of high quality, disease- and weed-free crop seeds a. De Vine b. Collego c. B. thuringiensis d. B. bassiana
d. use of biological control agents 16. Improper use of herbicides may result to
4. Which of the following is NOT a manual method of controlling weeds? a. crop injury b. poor weed control
a. hand weeding/slashing b. inter-row cultivation c. herbicide residue problems d. all of these
c. mulching d. water management 17. Type of herbicide that is applied after land preparation but before the crop is
5. The other term for spatial type of multiple cropping is planted
a. crop rotation b. intercropping c. mulching d. indigenous a. post-emergence herbicides b. pre-emergence herbicides
6. The other term for temporal type of multiple cropping is c. pre-plant herbicides d. no answer
a. crop rotation b. intercropping c. mulching d. indigenous 18. Type of herbicide that is applied after the crop is planted but before the
7. it refers to the deliberate use of weed‟s natural enemies to reduce weed emergence of weeds or crop.
population a. post-emergence herbicides b. pre-emergence herbicides
a. crop rotation b. intercropping c. pre-plant herbicides d. no answer
c. biological control d. multiple cropping 19. Type of herbicide whose phytotoxic effects are manifested at the sites on
8. It refers to the use of imported living organisms to control or suppress weeds the plants where the spray droplets are deposited
a. classical approach b. augmentative approach a. Pre-emergence herbicides b. contact herbicides
c. natural control d. indigenous control c. translocated herbicides d. systemic herbicides
9. A curculionid beetle which was successfully used against the floating fern, 20. Type of herbicide whose phytotoxic effects are manifested at and away
Salvinia molesta in Passi, Iloilo in 1989. from the sites on the plants where the spray droplets are deposited.
a. Uroplata girardi b. Cactoblastis cactorum a. Pre-emergence herbicides b. contact herbicides
c. Cyrtobagous salviniae d.Pareuchates pseudoinsulata c. translocated herbicides d. post-emergence herbicides

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21. Are herbicides which have a broad spectrum activity against weed species? c. Sterile Fungi d. Ascomycetes
a. non-selective b. selective c. systemic d. contact 9. Pathogens that can be disseminated by rain splashes
22. Which of the following control practices will Not control Cyperus a. bacteria b. Phytoplasma c. virus d. viroids
rotundus? 10. These are diseases caused by bacteria, except
a. planting of crops which will produce canopy faster. a. bacterial leaf blight of rice b. citrus caker
b. regular hand weeding c. leaf streak d. all of the above
c. use of contact herbicides 11. Hypoplastic symptoms includes
d. b and c a. galls b. mottling
23. Which of the following weed species will be eliminated from an irrigated c. adventitious roots formation d. all of the above
ricefield if the area will be transformed into an upland condition? 12. An organized study to obtain knowledge of all phases of insect life and to
a. Echinochloa crus-galli b. Pistia stratiotes understand
c. Scirpus maritimus d. all of these insects‟ roles in nature is
24. Which of the following weed species will not be controlled by water a. Insect Ecology b. Insect Taxonomy
management? c. Economic Entomology d. Entomology
a. Echinochloa crus-galli b. Pistia stratiotes 13. Which of the following fields of Entomology deals on insects‟ importance
c. Scirpus maritimus d. Cyperus iria in relation to our present day problems, especially on the knowledge of
beneficial and destructive insects including their biology and ecology?
PRE-BOARD: CROP PROTECTION a. Molecular Entom b. Economic Entom
1. An acids that are secreted by red onions conferring resistance to onion c. Forensic Entom d. Forest Entom
smudge. 14. The “father” of Zoology as well as the founder of General Entomology was
a. protocatechuic acid b. nucleic acid a. Uichanco b. Fabricius c. Aristotle d. Baltazar
c. phenolics d. none of the above 15. The “father” of American Entomology was.
2. These are dead cells formed rapidly by the host as induced structural defense. a. Say b. Peck c. Harris d. Fitch
a. abscission layer b. cork layers c. gums d. tyloses 16. In the Philippines, the first written record of a Philippine insect was made
3. This results in the confinement or even death of the pathogens as it becomes by
surrounded by dead cells a. Semper b. Cuming c. Pigafetta d. Sedeno
a. immunity b. tyloses c. hypersensitivity d. tomatine 17. Sericulture (silk production from silkworms) was introduced in the
4. Group of fungal pathogens that do not produce either sexual or asexual Philippines by a Spanish priest, Padre Antonio Sedeno in this year
spores. a. 1521 b. 1569 c. 1593 d. 1858
a. Basidiomycetes b. Imperfect Fungi 18. In 1902, this institution was organized which involved the control of
c. Sterile Fungi d. Ascomycetes migratory locust
5. A structure that supports the basidiospore. a. Bureau of Agric. b. Dept. of Agric.
a. basidium b. sporangiophore c. Ministry of Agric. d. Pest Control Center
c. conidiophore d. none of the above 19. The first government entomologist in the Philippines was
6. The following are examples of pseudofungi under Kingdom Chromista a. Semper b. Sanchez c. Cuming d. Banks
except 20. This person contributed to the knowledge of Philippine fauna more than any
a. Pythium b. Phytophthora other individual in his time (early 1900‟s). He published 400 papers on
c. Rhizoctonia d. Peronosclerospora Philippine insects.
7. The following are examples of true fungi except a. Ledyard b. Uichanco c. Mackie d. Baker
a. white rusts b. powdery mildew 21. Which of these groups of insect orders are purely endopterygotes
c. smuts d. bread molds (holometabolous)?
8. Group of fungal pathogens with no known sexual reproduction. a. Odonata, Hemiptera, Siphonaptera, Anoplura
a. Basidiomycetes b. Imperfect Fungi b. Trichoptera, Orthoptera, Isoptera, Thysanura

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 c. Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Dermaptera b. insects & parasitoids d. insects & temperature
d. Siphonaptera, Trichoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera 35. To many, insect pest control denotes
22. These insects have short wings, hence the abdomen is exposed. They are a. chemical control b. biological control
predatory in habit and have the characteristics forceps-like cerci at the tip of c. mechanical control d. cultural control
the abdomen 36. The principles of insect control can be grouped into two, these are?
a. termites b. earwigs c. leaf insects d. wasps a. pest population reduction & decelerate their rate of increase
23. The largest order of insects b. pesticide application & population reduction
a. Lepidoptera b. Hymenoptera c. Coleoptera d. Odonata c. deceleration of rate of increase & pesticide application
24. Which one of these rice diseases is vectored or transmitted by green d. pesticide application and cultural control
leafhopper? 37. Pheromones are compounds that operate their effects
a. grassy stunt b. ragged stunt c. orange leaf d. tungro a. intraspecifically (same species)
25. The green leafhoppers (GLH) cause this type of direct damage b. interspecifically (different species)
a. whitehead b. dead heart c. hopper burn d. bug burn c. non-specifically
26. Balance of nature is synonymous to d. specifically
a. equilibrium position b. natural control 38. Allelochemicals (alomones and kairomones) are compounds that operate
c. a and b d. none of the answers their effects
27. Which group of insecticides is known as third generation chemicals? a. specifically b. interspecifically (different species)
a. arsenicals b. organophosphorus c. non-specifically d. intraspecifically (same species)
c. insect growth regulators d. pyrethroids 39. Insect hormones, pheromones, attractants, repellents, deterrents, alomones
28. These group of insecticides kill insect by contact with treated surfaces such and kairomones are collectively referred to as
as plant foliage a. synomones b. allelochemicals
a. systemic poisons b. contact poisons c. stimulants d. behavior modifying chemicals
c. stomach poisons d. fumigants 40. In IPM, all management practices
29.Which one of these insecticides is used in banana against corm weevils, (a. do have b. do not have c. always have d. none have) to function at
nematodes, trunk borers, aphids, and other insect pests? the same time.
a. Furadan b. Lorsban 41. Insect pest management is
c. treated polyethylene bags d. Cypermethrin a. a new system b. an ever changing system
30. Which one of these chemicals is most safe to humans, animals and wildlife c. static system d. none of the answers
in controlling lepidopterous insect pests in crucifers? 42. As a science, Plant Pathology deals with the study of:
a. Cypermethrin b. Marshal a. nature of plant diseases b. causes of plant diseases
c. Furadan d. insect growth regulators c. plant pathogen interaction d. all of the above
31. Which one is considered as the first strategy against major insect pests of 43. Crop losses due to plant diseases are expressed in terms of:
rice? a. yield reduction
a. pest resistant and high yielding varieties b. insecticides b. deterioration of harvested products
c. molluscicide d. Trichogramma spp. c. reduction in the quality of the produce
32. Insects are animals that have d. all of the above
a. 2 pairs of legs b. 1 pair of legs 44. Wrote “Historia Plantarum” where several diseases of gains, trees and
c. 4 pairs of legs d. 3 pairs of legs vegetables were recorded
33. Insecticides kill a. Pliny the Elder b. Homer c. Theoprastus d. Arostotle
a. insects only c. golden apple snails (kuhol) 45. Credited for his Autogenic Theory of Diseases:
b. insects and other organisms d. insects & kuhol a. Hooke b. Unger c. Tillet d. Micheli
34. An agro-ecosystem allows interactions between 46. Discovered Bordeaux Mixture, a fungicide which formed the foundation of
a. insects & predators c. insects & other insects chemical control of plant diseases:

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 a. Biejerinck b. Bawden c. Needham d.Millardet 60. Which of the following stored product insect pests leaves a prominent odor
47. First crystallized a virus (TMV) to warn other stored pests that the stored commodity was already colonized?
A. Iwanoski b. Bawden c. Pasteur d. Stanl a. rice weevil b. red flour beetle c. Cadelle d. all of these
48. Mycoplasm like organisms (MLO) are believed to be the cause of: 61. Which among these stored product insect pests is known as “scourge” to
a. lethal yellowing of coconut b. potato witches broom warehouse owners
c. bunchy top of papaya d. rice yellow dwarf a. rice weevil b. red flour beetle c. Cadelle d. no answer
49. One of the first diseases reported in the Phils. 62. The red flour beetle can be distinguished from the confused flour beetle
a. coconut bud rot b. downy mildew of corn because its antenna is
c. bacterial wilt of tomato d. Sigatoka of banana a. longer b. shorter
50. Bio-control agents plant parasitic nematodes developed by Davide and co- c. last 3 segments of the antenna form a club d. absent
workers 63. Which of the following is not a characteristic of the lesser grain borer
a. Fusarium oxysporum b. Paecilomyces lilacinus a. seldom fly b. infest dirty grains
c. Dactylaria sp. d. Metarhizium sp. c. a strong flyer d. a primary pest
51. Coffee rust is due to the fungus: 64. Which of the following is not a primary insect pest of stored products
a. Puccinia coficola b. Hemelia vastatrix a. rice weevil b. lesser grain borer
c. Uromyces phaseoli d. Puccinia citrate c. cadelle d. red flour beetle
52. Described general genera of fungi and made illustration of their fruiting 65. Which of the following seldom fly
bodies: a. rice weevil b Khapra beetle
a. Hooke b. Micheli c. Tarsioni d. Koch c. flat grain beetle d. cowpea weevil
53. Which of the following stored product insect pests has 6 saw-like 66. Which of following stored product pests cause damage only during their
projections on each side of the thorax larval stage
a. saw-toothed grain beetle b. lesser grain borer a. Angoumois grain moth b. Khapra beetle
c. rice weevil d. Khapra beetle c. Rice moth d. all of them
54. A stored product pest which begins infesting grains in the field 67. Which of the following characteristics distinguishes Oryzaephilus mercator
a. saw-toothed grain beetle b. Angoumois grain moth from O. surinamensis.
c. Khapra beetle d. Cadelle a. can not tolerate low temperatures
55. An introduced stored product pest in the Philippines which can survive b.with 6 tooth-like projections on each side of the thorax
without food for several months. c. infest dried fruits and chocolates
a. Angoumois grain moth b. Cadelle d. larvae yellow to brown in color
c. Khapra beetle d. no answer 68. The cowpea bean weevil lays eggs on
56. A stored product pest which specifically infests dried fruits and chocolates a. leaves of the plant b. bean pods
a. merchant grain beetle b. cacao podborer c. seeds of legumes d. b & c only
c. cowpea weevil d. Cadelle 69. The scientific name of the golden apple snail is
57. Which of the following is not a stored product insect pest a. Pomacea reticulata b. Pomacea canaliculata
a. cacao podborer b. Cadelle c.Pomacea caliculata d. Pomacea oryzae
c. Khapra beetle d. rice weevil 70. The golden apple snail was introduced into the Philippines
58. Which of the following does not attack stored corn a. between 1980 and1982 b. between 1982 and 1984
a. rice weevil b. Cadelle c. between 1986 and 1988 d. in 1980
c. Angoumois grain moth d. lesser grain borer 71. The golden apple snail originated from
59. Which of the following stored product insect pests has the cannibalistic a. Malaysia b. Vietnam c. Thailand d. South America
characteristic? 72. The purpose of the importation of the golden apple snail into the Philippines
a. rice weevil b. red flour beetle c. Cadelle d. no answer a. as food for human beings b. as predators of insect pests
c. as decoration in ponds d. to get rid of the native snails

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73. The most destructive stage of the golden apple snail is when its size is d. use of biological control agents
a. 60-80 mm b. 90-100 mm c. 10-40 mm d. 100-120 mm 83. Which of the following is NOT a manual method of controlling weeds
74. The most vulnerable stage of rice to golden apple snail a. hand weeding/slashing b. inter-row cultivation
a. newly transplanted seedlings up to 15 days after transplanting c. mulching d. water management
b. 4 days to 30 days after sowing for direct-seeded rice 84. The other term for spatial type of multiple cropping is
c. both a and b d. no answer a. crop rotation b. intercropping c. mulching d. indigenous
75. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the golden apple snail 85. The other term for temporal type of multiple cropping is
a. lay eggs at night on vegetation above water surface a. crop rotation b. intercropping c. mulching d. indigenous
b. immature stage are voracious and grow faster 86. A lepidopteran which came from Argentina and was used as predator
c. hermaphrodite against the prickly pear cactus, Opuntia stricta, in Australia.
d. can survive under polluted condition a. Uroplata girardi b. Cactoblastis cactorum
76. Which of the following is/are food of the golden apple snail c. Cyrtobagous salviniae d. Pareuchates pseudoinsulata
a. rice seedlings b. algae and azolla 87. It refers to the use of existing and locally occurring natural enemies against
c. decomposing organic matter d. all of these weeds
77. Which of the following is/are naturally occurring biological control agents a. augmentative approach b. classical approach
of snails c. inoculative approach d. native approach
a. red ants b. ducks c. field rats d. all of these 88. The other term for fungal pathogens which are used as biological control
78. Which of the following can not control the golden apple snail agents against weeds
a. deep water irrigation a. biological herbicides b. bioherbicides
b. use of botanical plants like neem tree and sambong leaves c. mycoherbicides d. all of these
c. use of attractants like gabi and banana plants 89. The first fungal pathogen which is a liquid formulation of Phytophthora
d. construction of small canals along the edges of rice paddies. palmivora and was commercially made available in the US in 1981 to control
79. Which of the following new informations about the golden apple snail is the strangler vine, Morrenia odorata.
NOT true a. De Vine b. Collego c. B. thuringiensis d. B. bassiana
a. rice varieties like PSB Rc36, Rc 38, Rc 40 and Rc 68 are least preferred by 90. Type of herbicide whose phytotoxic effects are manifested at the sites on
the golden apple snail the plants where the spray droplets are deposited
b. sterile male technique can control the golden apple snail a. Pre-emergence herbicides b. contact herbicides
c. basal application of complete fertilizer and urea at recommended dosage c. translocated herbicides d. systemic herbicides
during the last harrowing can reduce population of golden apple snail 91. Which of the following is an active ingredient of an insecticide?
d. niclosamide are more effective against native snails than metaldehyde a. Endosulfan b. Carbaryl c. xylene d. a and b
formulations 92. Which of the following is an inert ingredient of an insecticide?
80.Reasons why weeds must be removed from the field a. xylene b. methomyl c. Cartap hydrochloride d. BPMC
a. Weeds reduce crop yield 93. Which of the following pesticides are banned/restricted from being sold in
b. weeds reduce market value of the crop the market?
c. Harbor insect pests and diseases d. all of these a. Endosulfan b. DDT c. organophosphates d. a and b
81. The main purpose of weed control is 94. It refers to the innate capacity of a compound to produce harm/injury
a. total eradication of weeds from the field a. hazard b. toxicity c. toxicology d. no answer
b. reduce weed population to levels that will not significantly reduce crop yield 95. It refers to the risk or likelihood of an adverse effect in using the product
c. allow weed population to reach the economic injury level a. hazard b. toxicity c. toxicology d. no answer
d. a and c 96. Chromolaena odorata and Cyperus rotundus grow both in the wild and in
82. Which of the following is an example of cultural control of weeds cultivated habitats. They are:
a. use of insecticides b. use of botanical plant extracts a. Facultative weeds b. Obligate weeds
c. use of high quality, disease- and weed-free crop seeds c. Noxious weeds d. Common weeds

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97. The main goal of weed science is: INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR CROPS
a. To eradicate or eliminate weeds to increase profit. 1 D 11 A 21 B 31 C
b. To formulate the most effective, economical and satisfactory methods of
controlling weeds. 2 C 12 A 22 C 32 B
c. To increase yield and income. 3 C 13 C 23 D 33 D
d. All of the above
98. Which of the following is UNTRUE about weeds? 4 C 14 A 24 A 34 C
a. They have rapid vegetative growth. 5 C 15 B 25 C 35 D
b. They have the ability to survive and adapt to adverse conditions.
c. They are less adapted to crop competition. 6 B 16 C 26 B 36 D
d. They are prolific and produce abundant seeds.
7 A 17 B 27 A 37 B
99. Which of the following weed species can cause diarrhea and death of
animals? 8 B 18 A 28 C 38 A
a. Lantana camara b. Chromolaena odorata
9 C 19 C 29 A 39 D
c. Calopogonium muconoides d. a & b
100. The primary reason why weed is considered as a pest in crop production 10 B 20 D 30 D 40 A
is: METHODS OF INSECT PEST CONTROL
a. It can significantly reduce the quantity and quality of products.
b. It is propagated through seeds and vegetative propagules. 1 D 11 D 21 A 31 A 41 B
c. It causes allergy and death to animals and human. 2 B 12 B 22 A 32 B 42 A
d. all of the above
3 D 13 D 23 B 33 C 43 D
ANSWER KEY 4 A 14 C 24 D
HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION AND 34 A 44 C
IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS 5 A 15 D 25 C 35 A 45 D
1 D 11 A 21 C 31 A 41 D 6 D 16 B 26 D 36 B 46 A
2 B 12 D 22 C 32 B 42 D 7 C 17 A 27 B 37 B 47 B
3 C 13 D 23 B 33 D 43 A 8 B 18 C 28 C 38 B
4 A 14 D 24 C 34 C 44 D 9 A 19 A 29 B 39 C
5 C 15 A 25 A 35 A 45 B 10 C 20 C 30 B 40 D
6 D 16 B 26 B 36 D 46 C GOLDEN SNAIL
1 B 7 C
7 B 17 A 27 D 37 B 47 A
2 B 8 D
8 C 18 C 28 C 38 D 48 D
3 D 9 D
9 B 19 B 29 D 39 D 49 B 4 A 10 A
10 C 20 C 30 A 40 B 50 C 5 C 11 B
6 C

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 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) CONCEPT OF PLANT DISEASES/BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC
1. C 6. B 11. A 16. A CAUSES/INOCULATION
2. D 7. C 12. D 17. B 1 A 11 A 21 B 31 A 41 A 51 B
3. B 8. A 13. B 18. C
4. D 9. D 14. C 19. A 2 B 12 C 22 C 32 B 42 D 52 B
5. A 10. B 15. D 20. C 3 C 13 D 23 B 33 B 43 D 53 D
PESTICIDE CALCULATION
4 D 14 B 24 A 34 D 44 D 54 D
1 B 7 D
2 A 8 B 5 C 15 C 25 D 35 C 45 B 55 D
3 D 9 B 6 A 16 B 26 A 36 D 46 D
4 B 10 C
7 B 17 D 27 D 37 A 47 D
5 A 11 D
8 C 18 C 28 C 38 D 48 B
6 B
RATS AND THEIR CONTROL 9 B 19 B 29 A 39 B 49 A
1 C 7 B 13 A
10 B 20 B 30 C 40 C 50 D
2 D 8 C 14 D
PLANT DISEASES/BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC
3 D 9 A
1 B 11 A 21 A 31 D 41 A
4 B 10 A
5 B 11 C 2 C 12 B 22 C 32 B 42 D
6 B 12 C 3 D 13 B 23 A 33 B 43 B
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF PLANT PATHOLOGY
4 B 14 B 24 C 34 B 44 D
1 D 11 B 21 B 31 B 41 A
2 D 12 A 22 B 32 B 42 D 5 A 15 A 25 C 35 B 45 A

3 D 13 B 23 C 33 B 6 C 16 D 26 C 36 B 46 A
4 D 14 C 24 B 34 D 7 D 17 B 27 A 37 A 47 D
5 C 15 A 25 D 35 C 8 D 18 B 28 B 38 B 48 B
6 D 16 C 26 B 36 C 9 19 29 39 49
C A D D C
7 B 17 C 27 A 37 C
10 D 20 B 30 C 40 D 50 B
8 B 18 D 28 C 38 C WEED SCIENCE
9 C 19 D 29 C 39 C 1 A 21 C 41 C 61 A 81 C
10 C 20 D 30 C 40 B 2 B 22 D 42 B 62 C 82 B

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 3 C 23 D 43 D 63 A 83 D PRE-BOARD: CROP PROTECTION

4 D 24 B 44 B 64 B 84 A 1 A 21 D 41 B 61 C 81 B

5 A 25 B 45 D 65 A 85 A 2 B 22 B 42 D 62 B 82 C
6 D 26 D 46 B 66 C 86 B 3 C 23 C 43 D 63 A 83 D
7 C 27 B 47 C 67 B 87 B
4 C 24 D 44 C 64 D 84 B
8 C 28 B 48 A 68 A 88 D
9 D 29 A 49 A 69 C 89 A 5 A 25 C 45 B 65 C 85 A

10 A 30 C 50 C 70 B 90 C 6 C 26 C 46 D 66 D 86 B
11 C 31 C 51 C 71 C 91 D 7 A 27 C 47 D 67 A 87 A
12 B 32 C 52 B 72 A 92 B
8 B 28 B 48 D 68 D 88 D
13 C 33 B 53 A 73 D 93 D
14 A 34 A 54 C 74 A 94 C 9 A 29 A 49 A 69 B 89 A
15 D 35 B 55 B 75 A 95 B 10 D 30 D 50 B 70 B 90 B
16 D 36 C 56 B 76 A 96 A
11 B 31 A 51 B 71 A 91 D
17 A 37 D 57 D 77 C 97 A
18 A 38 D 58 B 78 B 98 B 12 D 32 D 52 B 72 A 92 D

19 A 39 A 59 A 79 C 99 D 13 B 33 B 53 A 73 C 93 A
20 D 40 A 60 C 80 B 100 A 14 C 34 D 54 B 74 C 94 B
WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL
1 D 11 B 21 A 15 A 35 A 55 C 75 C 95 A
2 B 12 A 22 D 16 C 36 A 56 A 76 D 96 A
3 C 13 D 23 D
17 C 37 A 57 A 77 D 97 B
4 D 14 A 24 B
5 B 15 B 18 A 38 B 58 B 78 A 98 C
6 A 16 D 19 39 59 79 99
D D B B D
7 C 17 C
8 A 18 B 20 D 40 B 60 B 80 D 100 A
9 C 19 B
10 A 20 C

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