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APPENDIX C.1 Solutions of Differential Equations A17

C Differential Equations

C.1 Solutions of Differential Equations

Find general solutions of differential equations. • Find particular solutions of differential equations.

General Solution of a Differential Equation

A differential equation is an equation involving a differentiable function and
one or more of its derivatives. For instance,
y⬘ ⫹ 2y ⫽ 0 Differential equation

is a differential equation. A function y ⫽ f 共x兲 is a solution of a differential

equation if the equation is satisfied when y and its derivatives are replaced by f 共x兲
and its derivatives. For instance,
y ⫽ e⫺2x Solution of differential equation

is a solution of the differential equation shown above. To see this, substitute for y
and y⬘ ⫽ ⫺2e⫺2x in the original equation.
y⬘ ⫹ 2y ⫽ ⫺2e⫺2x ⫹ 2共e⫺2x兲 Substitute for y and y⬘.
⫽0
In the same way, you can show that y ⫽ 2e⫺2x, y ⫽ ⫺3e⫺2x, and y ⫽ 12e⫺2x are
also solutions of the differential equation. In fact, each function given by
y ⫽ Ce⫺2x General solution

where C is a real number, is a solution of the equation. This family of solutions

is called the general solution of the differential equation.

Example 1 Checking Solutions

Show that
a. y ⫽ Ce x and b. y ⫽ Ce⫺x
are solutions of the differential equation y⬙ ⫺ y ⫽ 0.
SOLUTION
a. Because y⬘ ⫽ Ce x and y⬙ ⫽ Ce x, it follows that
y⬙ ⫺ y ⫽ Ce x ⫺ Ce x
⫽ 0.
So, y ⫽ Ce x is a solution.
b. Because y⬘ ⫽ ⫺Ce⫺x and y⬙ ⫽ Ce⫺x, it follows that
y⬙ ⫺ y ⫽ Ce⫺x ⫺ Ce⫺x
⫽ 0.
So, y ⫽ Ce⫺x is also a solution.
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A18 APPENDIX C Differential Equations

Particular Solutions and Initial Conditions

A particular solution of a differential equation is any solution that is obtained
by assigning specific values to the constants in the general equation.*
Geometrically, the general solution of a differential equation is a family of
y y = Cx 2 graphs called solution curves. For instance, the general solution of the differen-
(1, 3) tial equation xy⬘ ⫺ 2y ⫽ 0 is
3 y ⫽ Cx 2. General solution

2 Figure A.7 shows several solution curves of this differential equation.

1
Particular solutions of a differential equation are obtained from initial
conditions placed on the unknown function and its derivatives. For instance,
x in Figure A.7, suppose you want to find the particular solution whose graph
−3 −2 2 3
passes through the point 共1, 3兲. This initial condition can be written as

−2
y⫽3 when x ⫽ 1. Initial condition

−3
Substituting these values into the general solution produces 3 ⫽ C共1兲2, which
implies that C ⫽ 3. So, the particular solution is
FIGURE A.7 y ⫽ 3x 2. Particular solution

Example 2 Finding a Particular Solution

Verify that
y ⫽ Cx3 General solution

is a solution of the differential equation xy⬘ ⫺ 3y ⫽ 0 for any value of C. Then

find the particular solution determined by the initial condition
y⫽2 when x ⫽ ⫺3. Initial condition

SOLUTION The derivative of y ⫽ Cx3 is y⬘ ⫽ 3Cx 2. Substituting into the

differential equation produces
xy⬘ ⫺ 3y ⫽ x共3Cx 2兲 ⫺ 3共Cx3兲
⫽ 0.
So, y ⫽ Cx3 is a solution for any value of C. To find the particular solution,
substitute x ⫽ ⫺3 and y ⫽ 2 into the general solution to obtain
2
2 ⫽ C共⫺3兲3 or C⫽⫺ .
27
This implies that the particular solution is
2 3
y⫽⫺ x. Particular solution
27

*Some differential equations have solutions other than those given by their general solutions. These
are called singular solutions. In this brief discussion of differential equations, singular solutions will
not be discussed.
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APPENDIX C.1 Solutions of Differential Equations A19

Example 3 Finding a Particular Solution

You are working in the marketing department of a company that is producing a

new cereal product to be sold nationally. You determine that a maximum of 10
million units of the product could be sold in a year. You hypothesize that the rate
of growth of the sales x (in millions of units) is proportional to the difference
between the maximum sales and the current sales. As a differential equation, this
hypothesis can be written as
dx
⫽ k 共10 ⫺ x兲, 0 ≤ x ≤ 10.
dt

Rate of is propor- the difference

change tional to between
of x 10 and x.

The general solution of this differential equation is

x ⫽ 10 ⫺ Ce⫺kt General solution

where t is the time in years. After 1 year, 250,000 units have been sold. Sketch
the graph of the sales function over a 10-year period.
SOLUTION Because the product is new, you can assume that x ⫽ 0 when t ⫽ 0.
So, you have two initial conditions.
x ⫽ 0 when t ⫽ 0 First initial condition
x ⫽ 0.25 when t ⫽ 1 Second initial condition

Substituting the first initial condition into the general solution produces
0 ⫽ 10 ⫺ Ce⫺k(0)
which implies that C ⫽ 10. Substituting the second initial condition into the
Sales Projection
x
general solution produces
x = 10 − 10e−0.0253t 0.25 ⫽ 10 ⫺ 10e⫺k(1)
Sales (in millions of units)

3
which implies that k ⫽ ln 40
39 ⬇ 0.0253. So, the particular solution is

2 x ⫽ 10 ⫺ 10e⫺0.0253t. Particular solution

The table shows the annual sales during the first 10 years, and the graph of the
1
solution is shown in Figure A.8.

t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (in years)
x 0.25 0.49 0.73 0.96 1.19 1.41 1.62 1.83 2.04 2.24
FIGURE A.8

In the first three examples in this section, each solution was given in explicit
form, such as y ⫽ f 共x兲. Sometimes you will encounter solutions for which it is
more convenient to write the solution in implicit form, as shown in Example 4.
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A20 APPENDIX C Differential Equations

Example 4 Sketching Graphs of Solutions

Verify that
2y 2 ⫺ x 2 ⫽ C General solution

is a solution of the differential equation

2yy⬘ ⫺ x ⫽ 0.
Then sketch the particular solutions represented by C ⫽ 0, C ⫽ ± 1, and C ⫽ ± 4.
SOLUTION To verify the given solution, differentiate each side with respect to x.
2y 2 ⫺ x 2 ⫽ C Given general solution
4yy⬘ ⫺ 2x ⫽ 0 Differentiate with respect to x.
2yy⬘ ⫺ x ⫽ 0 Divide each side by 2.

Because the third equation is the given differential equation, you can conclude
that
2y 2 ⫺ x 2 ⫽ C
is a solution. The particular solutions represented by C ⫽ 0, C ⫽ ± 1, and C ⫽ ± 4
are shown in Figure A.9.

y y

2
2

x x
2 2

C=1 C=4

y y y

2
2 1
x x x
3 2 3

C=0 C = −1 C = −4
FIGURE A.9 Graphs of Five Particular Solutions

CONCEPT CHECK
1. Complete the following: A ________ equation is an equation involving a
differentiable function and one or more of its derivatives.
2. Complete the following: Because each function given by y ⫽ Ce ⴚ2x is
a solution of y⬘ 1 2y ⴝ 0, y ⴝ Ce ⴚ2x is the ________ solution of
y⬘ 1 2y ⴝ 0.
3. Explain why y⬘ ⴚ 3y ⫽ 0 is a differential equation.
4. In general, describe in words a particular solution of a differential equation.
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APPENDIX C.1 Solutions of Differential Equations A21

The following warm-up exercises involve skills that were covered in earlier sections. You will
Skills Review C.1 use these skills in the exercise set for this section. For additional help, review Sections 2.6, 2.7,
and 4.4.

In Exercises 1– 4, find the first and second derivatives of the function.

1. y ⫽ 3x 2 ⫹ 2x ⫹ 1
2. y ⫽ ⫺2x3 ⫺ 8x ⫹ 4
3. y ⫽ ⫺3e2x
4. y ⫽ ⫺3e x
2

In Exercises 5 –8, use implicit differentiation to find dy/dx.

5. x 2 ⫹ y 2 ⫽ 2x
6. 2x ⫺ y 3 ⫽ 4y
7. xy 2 ⫽ 3
8. 3xy ⫹ x 2y 2 ⫽ 10

In Exercises 9 and 10, solve for k.

9. 0.5 ⫽ 9 ⫺ 9e⫺k
10. 14.75 ⫽ 25 ⫺ 25e⫺2k

Exercises C.1 See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

In Exercises 1–10, verify that the function is a solution In Exercises 11–28, verify that the function is a solution
of the differential equation. of the differential equation for any value of C.
Solution Differential Equation Solution Differential Equation
1. y ⫽ x 3 ⫹ 5 y⬘ ⫽ 3x 2 1 dy 1
11. y ⫽ ⫹ C ⫽⫺ 2
2. y ⫽ 2x3 ⫺x⫹1 y⬘ ⫽ 6x 2 ⫺1 x dx x

3. y ⫽ e⫺2x y⬘ ⫹ 2y ⫽ 0 dy x
12. y ⫽ 冪4 ⫺ x 2 ⫹ C ⫽⫺
dx 冪4 ⫺ x 2
4. y ⫽ 3e x2 y⬘ ⫺ 2xy ⫽ 0
dy
3 13. y ⫽ Ce 4x ⫽ 4y
5. y ⫽ 2x3 y⬘ ⫺ y⫽0 dx
x
dy
2 14. y ⫽ Ce⫺4x ⫽ ⫺4y
6. y ⫽ 4x 2 y⬘ ⫺ y ⫽ 0 dx
x
dy
7. y ⫽ x 2 x 2y⬙ ⫺ 2y ⫽ 0 15. y ⫽ Ce⫺t兾3 ⫹ 7 3 ⫹y⫺7⫽0
dt
1
8. y ⫽ xy⬙ ⫹ 2y⬘ ⫽ 0 16. y ⫽ Ce⫺t ⫹ 10 y⬘ ⫹ y ⫺ 10 ⫽ 0
x
17. y ⫽ Cx 2 ⫺ 3x xy⬘ ⫺ 3x ⫺ 2y ⫽ 0
9. y ⫽ 2e 2x y⬙ ⫺ y⬘ ⫺ 2y ⫽ 0
y
10. y ⫽ e x
3
y⬙ ⫺ 3x 2y⬘ ⫺ 6xy ⫽ 0 18. y ⫽ x ln x 2 ⫹ 2x3兾2 ⫹ Cx y⬘ ⫺ ⫽ 2 ⫹ 冪x
x
C
19. y ⫽ x 2 ⫹ 2x ⫹ xy⬘ ⫹ y ⫽ x共3x ⫹ 4兲
x
20. y ⫽ C1 ⫹ C2e x y⬙ ⫺ y⬘ ⫽ 0
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A22 APPENDIX C Differential Equations

Solution Differential Equation 43. General solution: y ⫽ C1 ⫹ C2 ln x

21. y ⫽ C1e x兾2 ⫹ C2e⫺2x 2y⬙ ⫹ 3y⬘ ⫺ 2y ⫽ 0 Differential equation: xy⬙ ⫹ y⬘ ⫽ 0
Initial condition: y ⫽ 5 and y⬘ ⫽ 0.5 when x ⫽ 1
22. y ⫽ C1e4x ⫹ C2e⫺x y⬙ ⫺ 3y⬘ ⫺ 4y ⫽ 0
44. General solution: y ⫽ C1x ⫹ C2 x3
4
bx ay Differential equation: x 2y⬙ ⫺ 3xy⬘ ⫹ 3y ⫽ 0
23. y ⫽ ⫹ Cx a y⬘ ⫺ ⫽ bx3
4⫺a x Initial condition: y ⫽ 0 and y⬘ ⫽ 4 when x ⫽ 2
x3 45. General solution: y ⫽ C1e 4x ⫹ C2e⫺3x
24. y ⫽ ⫺ x ⫹ C冪x 2xy⬘ ⫺ y ⫽ x3 ⫺ x
5 Differential equation: y⬙ ⫺ y⬘ ⫺ 12y ⫽ 0
2 Initial condition: y ⫽ 5 and y⬘ ⫽ 6 when x ⫽ 0
25. y ⫽ y⬘ ⫹ 2xy ⫽ xy 2
1 ⫹ Ce x 2 46. General solution: y ⫽ Ce x⫺x
2

26. y ⫽ Ce x⫺x
2
y⬘ ⫹ 共2x ⫺ 1兲y ⫽ 0 Differential equation: y⬘ ⫹ 共2x ⫺ 1兲y ⫽ 0
Initial condition: y ⫽ 2 when x ⫽ 1
27. y ⫽ x ln x ⫹ Cx ⫹ 4 x共 y⬘ ⫺ 1兲 ⫺ 共 y ⫺ 4兲 ⫽ 0
47. General solution: y ⫽ e2x兾3共C1 ⫹ C2 x兲
28. y ⫽ x共ln x ⫹ C兲 x ⫹ y ⫺ xy⬘ ⫽ 0 Differential equation: 9y⬙ ⫺ 12y⬘ ⫹ 4y ⫽ 0
Initial condition: y ⫽ 4 when x ⫽ 0
In Exercises 29–32, use implicit differentiation to verify
y ⫽ 0 when x ⫽ 3
that the function is a solution of the differential
48. General solution: y ⫽ 共C1 ⫹ C2 x ⫹ 12 x 4兲e 2x
1
equation for any value of C.
Solution Differential Equation Differential equation: y⬙ ⫺ 4y⬘ ⫹ 4y ⫽ x 2e2x
Initial condition: y ⫽ 2 and y⬘ ⫽ 1 when x ⫽ 0
2xy
29. x 2 ⫹ y 2 ⫽ Cy y⬘ ⫽
x2 ⫺ y 2 In Exercises 49–52, the general solution of the differ-
30. y 2 ⫹ 2xy ⫺ x 2 ⫽ C 共x ⫹ y兲y⬘ ⫺ x ⫹ y ⫽ 0 ential equation is given. Use a graphing utility to
graph the particular solutions that correspond to the
31. x 2 ⫹ xy ⫽ C x 2y⬙ ⫺ 2共x ⫹ y兲 ⫽ 0
indicated values of C.
32. x 2 ⫺ y 2 ⫽ C y3y⬙ ⫹ x 2 ⫺ y 2 ⫽ 0
General Solution Differential Equation C-Values
In Exercises 33–36, determine whether the function is 49. y ⫽ Cx 2 xy⬘ ⫺ 2y ⫽ 0 1, 2, 4
a solution of the differential equation y 冇4冈 ⴚ 16y ⴝ 0.
50. 4y 2 ⫺ x2 ⫽C 4yy⬘ ⫺ x ⫽ 0 0, ± 1, ± 4
33. y ⫽ e⫺2x
51. y ⫽ C共x ⫹ 2兲 2
共x ⫹ 2兲y⬘ ⫺ 2y ⫽ 0 0, ± 1, ± 2
34. y ⫽ 5 ln x
52. y ⫽ Ce⫺x y⬘ ⫹ y ⫽ 0 0, ± 1, ± 2
4
35. y ⫽
x In Exercises 53–60, use integration to find the general
36. y ⫽ 4e2x solution of the differential equation.
dy
In Exercises 37– 40, determine whether the function is 53. ⫽ 3x 2
dx
a solution of the differential equation
dy 1
y ⬙⬘ ⴚ 3y⬘ 1 2y ⫽ 0. 54. ⫽
2
dx 1 ⫹ x
37. y ⫽ 9 xe⫺2x
dy x ⫹ 3
2
38. y ⫽ 4e x ⫹ 9 xe⫺2x 55. ⫽
dx x
39. y ⫽ xe x dy x ⫺ 2
56. ⫽
40. y ⫽ x ln x dx x
dy 1
In Exercises 41– 48, verify that the general solution 57. ⫽
dx x 2 ⫺ 1
satisfies the differential equation. Then find the
particular solution that satisfies the initial condition. dy x
58. ⫽
dx 1 ⫹ x2
41. General solution: y ⫽ Ce⫺2x
Differential equation: y⬘ ⫹ 2y ⫽ 0 dy
59. ⫽ x冪x ⫺ 3
Initial condition: y ⫽ 3 when x ⫽ 0 dx
42. General solution: 2x 2 ⫹ 3y 2 ⫽ C dy
60. ⫽ xe x
Differential equation: 2x ⫹ 3yy⬘ ⫽ 0 dx
Initial condition: y ⫽ 2 when x ⫽ 1
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APPENDIX C.1 Solutions of Differential Equations A23

In Exercises 61– 64, some of the curves corresponding to 67. Marketing You are working in the marketing depart-
different values of C in the general solution of the ment of a computer software company. Your marketing
differential equation are given. Find the particular solu- team determines that a maximum of 30,000 units of a new
tion that passes through the point shown on the graph. product can be sold in a year. You hypothesize that the rate
61. y 2 ⫽ Cx 3 62. 2 x 2 ⫺ y 2 ⫽ C of growth of the sales x is proportional to the difference
between the maximum sales and the current sales. That is,
2xy⬘ ⫺ 3y ⫽ 0 yy⬘ ⫺ 2x ⫽ 0
dx
y y ⫽ k共30,000 ⫺ x兲.
dt
4 4 (3, 4)
3 3 The general solution of this differential equation is
2 2
1
(4, 4) x ⫽ 30,000 ⫺ Ce⫺kt
x x where t is the time in years. During the first year, 2000 units
−1 4 5 6 7 −3 3 4
−2
are sold. Complete the table showing the numbers of units
−3 −3 sold in subsequent years.
−4 −4
Year, t 2 4 6 8 10
63. y ⫽ Ce x 64. y 2 ⫽ 2Cx
Units, x
y⬘ ⫺ y ⫽ 0 2xy⬘ ⫺ y ⫽ 0
y y
(2, 1) 68. Marketing In Exercise 67, suppose that the maximum
6 2
annual sales are 50,000 units. How does this change the
5 sales shown in the table?
4 1
69. Safety Assume that the rate of change per hour in the
x
number of miles s of road cleared by a snowplow is
(0, 3) −1 inversely proportional to the depth h of the snow. This rate
x
−2 of change is described by the differential equation
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
ds k
⫽ .
dh h
65. Biology The limiting capacity of the habitat of a wildlife
herd is 750. The growth rate dN兾dt of the herd is propor- Show that
tional to the unutilized opportunity for growth, as described 13 h
by the differential equation s ⫽ 25 ⫺ ln
ln 3 2
dN is a solution of this differential equation.
⫽ k 共750 ⫺ N 兲.
dt
70. Show that y ⫽ a ⫹ Ce k 共1⫺b兲t is a solution of the differen-
The general solution of this differential equation is tial equation
N ⫽ 750 ⫺ Ce⫺kt.
When t ⫽ 0, the population of the herd is 100. After
y ⫽ a ⫹ b共 y ⫺ a兲 ⫹ 冢1k 冣 冢dydt冣
2 years, the population has grown to 160. where k is a constant.
(a) Write the population function N as a function of t. 71. The function y ⫽ Ce kx is a solution of the differential
(b) Use a graphing utility to graph the population function. equation
(c) What is the population of the herd after 4 years? dy
⫽ 0.07y.
66. Investment The rate of growth of an investment is dx
proportional to the amount in the investment at any time t. Is it possible to determine C or k from the information
That is, given? If so, find its value.
dA
⫽ kA. True or False? In Exercises 72 and 73, determine
dt
whether the statement is true or false. If it is false,
The initial investment is $1000, and after 10 years the explain why or give an example that shows it is false.
balance is $3320.12. The general solution is
72. A differential equation can have more than one solution.
A ⫽ Ce kt.
73. If y ⫽ f 共x兲 is a solution of a differential equation, then
What is the particular solution? y ⫽ f 共x兲 ⫹ C is also a solution.
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A24 APPENDIX C Differential Equations

C.2 Separation of Variables

Use separation of variables to solve differential equations. • Use differential equations to model and solve
real-life problems.
Separation of Variables
The simplest type of differential equation is one of the form y⬘ ⫽ f 共x兲. You know
that this type of equation can be solved by integration to obtain

y⫽ 冕 f 共x兲 dx.

TECHNOLOGY In this section, you will learn how to use integration to solve another important
family of differential equations—those in which the variables can be separated.
You can use a symbolic This technique is called separation of variables.
integration utility to solve
a separable variables differential
equation. Use a symbolic Separation of Variables
integration utility to solve the
If f and g are continuous functions, then the differential equation
differential equation
dy
x ⫽ f 共x兲g共 y兲
y⬘ ⫽ . dx
y2 ⫹ 1
has a general solution of

冕 1
g共 y兲
dy ⫽ 冕 f 共x兲 dx ⫹ C.

Essentially, the technique of separation of variables is just what its name

implies. For a differential equation involving x and y, you separate the x variables
to one side and the y variables to the other. After separating variables, integrate
each side to obtain the general solution. Here is an example.

Example 1 Solving a Differential Equation

Find the general solution of

dy x
⫽ 2 .
dx y ⫹ 1
SOLUTION Begin by separating variables, then integrate each side.
dy x
⫽ Differential equation
dx y 2 ⫹ 1
(y 2 ⫹ 1兲 dy ⫽ x dx Separate variables.

冕 共 y 2 ⫹ 1兲 dy ⫽ 冕x dx Integrate each side.

y3 x2
⫹y⫽ ⫹C General solution
3 2
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APPENDIX C.2 Separation of Variables A25

Example 2 Solving a Differential Equation

Find the general solution of

dy x
⫽ .
dx y
SOLUTION Begin by separating variables, then integrate each side.
dy x
⫽ Differential equation
dx y
y dy ⫽ x dx Separate variables.

冕 y dy ⫽ 冕 x dx Integrate each side.

y2 x2
⫽ ⫹ C1 Find antiderivatives.
2 2
y ⫽ x2 ⫹ C
2 Multiply each side by 2.

So, the general solution is ⫽ ⫹ C. Note that C1 is used as a temporary

y2 x2
constant of integration in anticipation of multiplying each side of the equation by
2 to produce the constant C.

STUDY TIP
After finding the general solution of a differential equation, you should
use the techniques demonstrated in Section C.1 to check the solution. For
instance, in Example 2 you can check the solution by differentiating the
equation y 2 ⫽ x 2 ⫹ C to obtain 2yy⬘ ⫽ 2x or y⬘ ⫽ x兾y.

Example 3 Solving a Differential Equation

dy
Find the general solution of e y ⫽ 2x. Use a graphing utility to graph several
dx
solutions.
SOLUTION Begin by separating variables, then integrate each side.
dy
ey ⫽ 2x Differential equation
dx
e y dy ⫽ 2x dx Separate variables.
5
C = 15 冕 e y dy ⫽ 冕 2x dx Integrate each side.

C=5 e y ⫽ x2 ⫹ C Find antiderivatives.

C = 10
−6 6
By taking the natural logarithm of each side, you can write the general solution as
C=0
y ⫽ ln共x2 ⫹ C兲. General solution

−5 The graphs of the particular solutions given by C ⫽ 0, C ⫽ 5, C ⫽ 10, and

FIGURE A.10 C ⫽ 15 are shown in Figure A.10.
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A26 APPENDIX C Differential Equations

Example 4 Finding a Particular Solution

Solve the differential equation

xe x ⫹ yy⬘ ⫽ 0
2

subject to the initial condition y ⫽ 1 when x ⫽ 0.

SOLUTION

xe x ⫹ yy⬘ ⫽ 0
2
Differential equation
dy
⫽ ⫺xe x
2
y Subtract xe x 2 from each side.
dx
y dy ⫽ ⫺xe x dx
2
Separate variables.

冕
y dy ⫽ 冕 ⫺xe x dx
2
Integrate each side.

y2 1 2
⫽ ⫺ e x ⫹ C1 Find antiderivatives.
2 2
y ⫽ ⫺e x ⫹ C
2 2
Multiply each side by 2.

To find the particular solution, substitute the initial condition values to obtain
共1兲2 ⫽ ⫺e共0兲2 ⫹ C.
This implies that 1 ⫽ ⫺1 ⫹ C, or C ⫽ 2. So, the particular solution that satisfies
the initial condition is
y 2 ⫽ ⫺e x ⫹ 2.
2
Particular solution

Example 5 Solving a Differential Equation

Example 3 in Section C.1 uses the differential equation

dx
⫽ k共10 ⫺ x兲
dt
to model the sales of a new product. Solve this differential equation.
SOLUTION
STUDY TIP
dx
In Example 5, the context of ⫽ k共10 ⫺ x兲 Differential equation
dt
the original model indicates
that 共10 ⫺ x兲 is positive. So, 1
dx ⫽ k dt Separate variables.
when you integrate 1兾共10 ⫺ x兲, 10 ⫺ x
you can write ⫺ln共10 ⫺ x兲,
ⱍ
rather than ⫺ln 10 ⫺ x .ⱍ 冕 1
10 ⫺ x
dx ⫽ k dt 冕 Integrate each side.

Also note in Example 5 ⫺ln共10 ⫺ x兲 ⫽ kt ⫹ C1 Find antiderivatives.

that the solution agrees with
ln共10 ⫺ x兲 ⫽ ⫺kt ⫺ C1 Multiply each side by ⫺1.
the one that was given in
Example 3 in Section C.1. 10 ⫺ x ⫽ e⫺kt⫺C1 Exponentiate each side.
x ⫽ 10 ⫺ Ce⫺kt Solve for x.
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APPENDIX C.2 Separation of Variables A27

Applications

Example 6 Modeling National Income

Let y represent the national income, let a represent the income spent on necessi-
ties, and let b represent the percent of the remaining income spent on luxuries. A
commonly used economic model that relates these three quantities is
dy
⫽ k共1 ⫺ b兲共 y ⫺ a兲
dt
where t is the time in years. Assume that b is 75%, and solve the resulting differ-
ential equation.
Corporate profits in the United States SOLUTION Because b is 75%, it follows that 共1 ⫺ b兲 is 0.25. So, you can solve
are closely monitored by New York the differential equation as shown.
City’s Wall Street executives. Corporate
dy
profits, however, represent only about ⫽ k共0.25兲共 y ⫺ a兲 Differential equation
12.4% of the national income. In 2005, dt
the national income was more than 1
$10.9 trillion. Of this, about 65.3% dy ⫽ 0.25k dt Separate variables.
y⫺a

冕 冕
was employee compensation.
1
dy ⫽ 0.25k dt Integrate each side.
y⫺a
ln共 y ⫺ a兲 ⫽ 0.25kt ⫹ C1 Find antiderivatives, given y ⫺ a > 0.
y ⫺ a ⫽ Ce0.25kt Exponentiate each side.
y ⫽ a ⫹ Ce0.25kt Add a to each side.

The graph of this solution is shown in Figure A.11. In the figure, note that the
national income is spent in three ways.
共National income兲 ⫽ 共necessities兲 ⫹ 共luxuries兲 ⫹ 共capital investment兲

Modeling National Income

y

Capital investment Income consumed on

Consumed on luxuries necessities and luxuries
Consumed on necessities y = a + 0.75Ce 0.25kt

National income
y = a + Ce 0.25kt

a
t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Time (in years)

FIGURE A.11
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A28 APPENDIX C Differential Equations

Example 7 Using Graphical Information

Find the equation of the graph that has the characteristics listed below.
1. At each point 共x, y兲 on the graph, the slope is ⫺x兾2y.
2. The graph passes through the point 共2, 1兲.
SOLUTION Using the information about the slope of the graph, you can write the
differential equation
dy x
⫽⫺ .
dx 2y
Using the point on the graph, you can determine the initial condition y ⫽ 1 when
x ⫽ 2.
dy x
⫽⫺ Differential equation
dx 2y
2y dy ⫽ ⫺x dx Separate variables.

冕
2y dy ⫽ 冕 ⫺x dx Integrate each side.

x2
y2 ⫽ ⫺ ⫹ C1 Find antiderivatives.
2
2y 2 ⫽ ⫺x 2 ⫹ C Multiply each side by 2.
x 2 ⫹ 2y 2 ⫽ C Simplify.
2
Applying the initial condition yields
共2兲2 ⫹ 2共1兲2 ⫽ C
−3 3 which implies that C ⫽ 6. So, the equation that satisfies the two given conditions
is
x 2 ⫹ 2y 2 ⫽ 6. Particular solution
−2
As shown in Figure A.12, the graph of this equation is an ellipse.
FIGURE A.12

CONCEPT CHECK
1. Complete the following: If f and g are continuous functions, then the
differential equation dy/dx ⴝ f 冇x冈g冇y冈 has a general solution of

冕 1
g 冇 y冈
dy ⴝ ________ 1 C.
dy 3x
2. True or false: The differential equation ⴝ can be written in
dx y
separated variables form.
dy 3x
3. True or false: The differential equation ⴝ 1 1 can be written in
dx y
separated variables form.

4. In your own words, describe how to solve differential equations that can
be solved by separation of variables.
1021623_App_C02.qxp 10/3/07 1:20 PM Page A29

APPENDIX C.2 Separation of Variables A29

The following warm-up exercises involve skills that were covered in earlier sections. You will
Skills Review C.2 use these skills in the exercise set for this section. For additional help, review Sections 4.4, 5.2,
and 5.3.

In Exercises 1– 6, find the indefinite integral and check your result by

differentiating.

1. 冕 x 3兾2 dx

2. 冕 共t 3 ⫺ t 1兾3兲 dt

3. 冕 2
x⫺5
dx

4. 冕 y
2y 2 ⫹ 1
dy

5. 冕 e2y dy

6. 冕 xe1⫺x dx
2

In Exercises 7–10, solve the equation for C or k.

7. 共3兲2 ⫺ 6共3兲 ⫽ 1 ⫹ C 8. 共⫺1兲2 ⫹ 共⫺2兲2 ⫽ C
9. 10 ⫽ 2e2k 10. 共6兲2 ⫺ 3共6兲 ⫽ e⫺k

Exercises C.2 See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

In Exercises 1–6, decide whether the variables in the

differential equation can be separated. 17.
dy
dx
⫽ 冪1 ⫺ y 18.
dy
dx
⫽ 冪xy
dy x dy x ⫹ 1
1. ⫽ 2. ⫽ 19. 共2 ⫹ x兲y⬘ ⫽ 2y 20. y⬘ ⫽ 共2x ⫺ 1兲共 y ⫹ 3兲
dx y ⫹ 3 dx x
dy 1 dy x 21. xy⬘ ⫽ y 22. y⬘ ⫺ y共x ⫹ 1兲 ⫽ 0
3. ⫽ ⫹1 4. ⫽
dx x dx x ⫹ y
x x dy x 2 ⫹ 2
dy dy 1 23. y⬘ ⫽ ⫺ 24. ⫽
5. ⫽x⫺y 6. x ⫽ y 1⫹y dx 3y 2
dx dx y
25. e x共 y⬘ ⫹ 1兲 ⫽ 1 26. yy⬘ ⫺ 2xe x ⫽ 0
In Exercises 7–26, use separation of variables to find
the general solution of the differential equation. In Exercises 27–32, use the initial condition to find the
particular solution of the differential equation.
dy dy 1
7. ⫽ 2x 8. ⫽ Differential Equation Initial Condition
dx dx x
dy dy 27. yy⬘ ⫺ ex ⫽0 y ⫽ 4 when x ⫽ 0
9. 3y 2 ⫽1 10. ⫽ x 2y
dx dx 28. 冪x ⫹ 冪y y⬘ ⫽ 0 y ⫽ 4 when x ⫽ 1
dy dy 29. x共 y ⫹ 4兲 ⫹ y⬘ ⫽ 0 y ⫽ ⫺5 when x ⫽ 0
11. 共 y ⫹ 1兲 ⫽ 2x 12. 共1 ⫹ y兲 ⫺ 4x ⫽ 0
dx dx dy
30. ⫽ x 2共1 ⫹ y兲 y ⫽ 3 when x ⫽ 0
13. y⬘ ⫺ xy ⫽ 0 14. y⬘ ⫺ y ⫽ 5 dx
dy et dy 31. dP ⫺ 6P dt ⫽ 0 P ⫽ 5 when t ⫽ 0
15. ⫽ 16. e y ⫽ 3t2 ⫹ 1
dt 4y dt 32. dT ⫹ k共T ⫺ 70兲 dt ⫽ 0 T ⫽ 140 when t ⫽ 0
1021623_App_C02.qxp 10/3/07 1:20 PM Page A30

A30 APPENDIX C Differential Equations

In Exercises 33 and 34, find an equation for the graph 41. Learning Theory The management of a factory has
that passes through the point and has the specified found that a worker can produce at most 30 units per
slope. Then graph the equation. day. The number of units N per day produced by a
33. Point: 共⫺1, 1兲 new employee will increase at a rate proportional to the
difference between 30 and N. This is described by the
6x differential equation
Slope: y⬘ ⫽
5y
dN
34. Point: 共8, 2兲 ⫽ k共30 ⫺ N兲
dt
2y where t is the time in days. Solve this differential equation.
Slope: y⬘ ⫽
3x
42. Sales The rate of increase in sales S (in thousands of
Velocity In Exercises 35 and 36, solve the differential units) of a product is proportional to the current level of
equation to find velocity v as a function of time t if sales and inversely proportional to the square of the time t.
v ⴝ 0 when t ⴝ 0. The differential equation models This is described by the differential equation
the motion of two people on a toboggan after dS kS
⫽ 2
consideration of the force of gravity, friction, and air dt t
resistance.
where t is the time in years. The saturation point for the
dv market is 50,000 units. That is, the limit of S as t → ⬁ is
35. 12.5 ⫽ 43.2 ⫺ 1.25v
dt 50. After 1 year, 10,000 units have been sold. Find S as a
dv function of the time t.
36. 12.5 ⫽ 43.2 ⫺ 1.75v
dt 43. Economics: Pareto’s Law According to the economist
Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923), the rate of decrease of the
Chemistry: Newton’s Law of Cooling In Exercises number of people y in a stable economy having an income
37–39, use Newton’s Law of Cooling, which states that of at least x dollars is directly proportional to the number of
the rate of change in the temperature T of an object such people and inversely proportional to their income x.
is proportional to the difference between the This is modeled by the differential equation
temperature T of the object and the temperature T0 of
dy y
the surrounding environment. This is described by the ⫽ ⫺k .
dx x
differential equation dT/dt ⴝ k冇T ⴚ T0 冈.
Solve this differential equation.
37. A steel ingot whose temperature is 1500⬚F is placed in a
room whose temperature is a constant 90⬚F. One hour later, 44. Economics: Pareto’s Law In 2005, 19.9 million
the temperature of the ingot is 1120⬚F. What is the ingot’s people in the United States earned at least $75,000 and
temperature 5 hours after it is placed in the room? 101.7 million people earned at least $25,000 (see figure).
Assume that Pareto’s Law holds and use the result of
38. A room is kept at a constant temperature of 70⬚F. An object
Exercise 43 to determine the number of people (in
placed in the room cools from 350⬚F to 150⬚F in 45 minutes.
millions) who earned (a) at least $20,000 and (b) at least
How long will it take for the object to cool to a temperature
$100,000. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau)
of 80⬚F?
39. Food at a temperature of 70⬚F is placed in a freezer that is Pareto’s Law
set at 0⬚F. After 1 hour, the temperature of the food is 48⬚F. y
Number of people (in millions)

(a) Find the temperature of the food after it has been in the
200
freezer 6 hours.
(b) How long will it take the food to cool to a temperature 150
of 10⬚F?
40. Biology: Cell Growth The rate of growth of a 100 (25,000, 101.7)
spherical cell with volume V is proportional to its surface
area S. For a sphere, the surface area and volume are 50
(75,000, 19.9)
related by S ⫽ kV 2兾3. So, a model for the cell’s growth is
x
dV
⫽ kV 2兾3. 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000
dt Earnings (in dollars)
Solve this differential equation.
1021623_App_C03.qxp 10/3/07 1:20 PM Page A31

APPENDIX C.3 First-Order Linear Differential Equations A31

C.3 First-Order Linear Differential Equations

Solve first-order linear differential equations. • Use first-order linear differential equations to model and solve
real-life problems.
First-Order Linear Differential Equations

Definition of a First-Order Linear Differential Equation

A first-order linear differential equation is an equation of the form
y⬘ ⫹ P共x兲 y ⫽ Q共x兲
where P and Q are functions of x. An equation that is written in this form
is said to be in standard form.

To solve a linear differential equation, write it in standard form to identify the

STUDY TIP
functions P共x兲 and Q共x兲. Then integrate P共x兲 and form the expression
The term “first-order” refers to
the fact that the highest-order u共x兲 ⫽ e 兰P共x兲 dx Integrating factor
derivative of y in the equation which is called an integrating factor. The general solution of the equation is

冕
is the first derivative.
1
y⫽ Q共x兲 u共x兲 dx. General solution
u共x兲

Example 1 Solving a Linear Differential Equation

Find the general solution of

y⬘ ⫹ y ⫽ e x.
SOLUTION For this equation, P共x兲 ⫽ 1 and Q共x兲 ⫽ e x. So, the integrating factor is
u共x兲 ⫽ e兰dx Integrating factor
⫽ e x.
This implies that the general solution is

y⫽
ex 冕
1 x x
e 共e 兲 dx

冢
1
⫽ e⫺x e2x ⫹ C
2 冣
1
⫽ e x ⫹ Ce⫺x. General solution
2

In Example 1, the differential equation was given in standard form. For

equations that are not written in standard form, you should first convert to
standard form so that you can identify the functions P共x兲 and Q共x兲.
1021623_App_C03.qxp 10/3/07 1:20 PM Page A32

A32 APPENDIX C Differential Equations

D I S C O V E RY Example 2 Solving a Linear Differential Equation

Solve for y⬘ in the differential Find the general solution of
equation in Example 2. Use this
equation for y⬘ to determine the xy⬘ ⫺ 2y ⫽ x 2.
slopes of y at the points 共1, 0兲 Assume x > 0.
and 共e⫺1兾2, ⫺1兾2e兲. Now
graph the particular solution SOLUTION Begin by writing the equation in standard form.
y ⫽ x 2 ln x and estimate the
slopes at x ⫽ 1 and x ⫽ e⫺1兾2.
y⬘ ⫺ 冢2x 冣y ⫽ x Standard form, y⬘ ⫹ P共x兲 y ⫽ Q共x兲

What happens to the slope of

In this form, you can see that P共x兲 ⫽ ⫺2兾x and Q共x兲 ⫽ x. So,
y as x approaches zero?

冕 P共x兲 dx ⫽ ⫺
2
x 冕
dx

⫽ ⫺2 ln x
⫽ ⫺ln x2
which implies that the integrating factor is

TECHNOLOGY u共x兲 ⫽ e兰P共x兲 dx

⫽ e⫺ln x
2

From Example 2, you can

1
see that it can be difficult ⫽ 2. Integrating factor
to solve a linear differential x
equation. Fortunately, the This implies that the general solution is

冕
task is greatly simplified by
1
symbolic integration utilities. y⫽ Q共x兲u共x兲 dx Form of general solution
Use a symbolic integration u共x兲
utility to find the particular
solution of the differential
⫽
1
1兾x 2 冕冢x
1
x2 冣
dx Substitute.

equation in Example 2, given

the initial condition y ⫽ 1
when x ⫽ 1.
⫽ x2 冕 1
x
dx Simplify.

⫽ x 2共ln x ⫹ C兲. General solution

Guidelines for Solving a Linear Differential Equation

1. Write the equation in standard form
y⬘ ⫹ P共x兲y ⫽ Q共x兲.
2. Find the integrating factor
u共x兲 ⫽ e兰P共x兲 dx.
3. Evaluate the integral below to find the general solution.

y⫽
1
u共x兲 冕
Q共x兲u共x兲 dx
1021623_App_C03.qxp 10/3/07 1:20 PM Page A33

APPENDIX C.3 First-Order Linear Differential Equations A33

Application

Example 3 Finding a Balance

You are setting up a “continuous annuity” trust fund. For 20 years, money is
continuously transferred from your checking account to the trust fund at the rate
of $1000 per year (about $2.74 per day). The account earns 8% interest,
compounded continuously. What is the balance in the account after 20 years?
SOLUTION Let A represent the balance after t years. The balance increases in
two ways: with interest and with additional deposits. The rate at which the
balance is changing can be modeled by
dA
⫽ 0.08A ⫹ 1000.
dt
Interest Deposits

In standard form, this linear differential equation is

dA
⫺ 0.08A ⫽ 1000 Standard form
dt
which implies that P共t兲 ⫽ ⫺0.08 and Q共t兲 ⫽ 1000. The general solution is
A ⫽ ⫺12,500 ⫹ Ce0.08t. General solution

Because A ⫽ 0 when t ⫽ 0, you can determine that C ⫽ 12,500. So, the revenue
after 20 years is
A ⫽ ⫺12,500 ⫹ 12,500e0.08共20兲
⬇ ⫺12,500 ⫹ 61,912.91
⫽ $49,412.91.

CONCEPT CHECK
1. Given a first-order linear differential equation, what does the term
“first-order” refer to?
1
2. True or false: y⬘ 1 y ⴝ x 1 1 is a first-order linear differential equation.
x
3. Give the standard form of a first-order linear differential equation. What
is its integrating factor?
4. Give the guidelines for solving a first-order linear differential equation.
1021623_App_C03.qxp 10/3/07 1:20 PM Page A34

A34 APPENDIX C Differential Equations

The following warm-up exercises involve skills that were covered in earlier sections. You will
Skills Review C.3 use these skills in the exercise set for this section. For additional help, review Sections 4.1, 4.4,
5.2, and 5.3.

In Exercises 1–4, simplify the expression.

1 ⫺x
1. e⫺x共e 2x ⫹ e x兲 2. 共e ⫹ e 2x兲
e⫺x
3. e⫺ln x
3
4. e 2 ln x⫹x

In Exercises 5–10, find the indefinite integral.

5. 冕 4e2x dx

6. 冕 xe3x dx
2

7. 冕 1
2x ⫹ 5
dx

8. 冕 x⫹1
x 2 ⫹ 2x ⫹ 3
dx

9. 冕 共4x ⫺ 3兲2 dx

10. 冕 x共1 ⫺ x 2兲2 dx

Exercises C.3 See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

In Exercises 1–6, write the linear differential equation In Exercises 23–26, match the differential equation
in standard form. with its solution.
1. x3 ⫺ 2x 2y⬘ ⫹ 3y ⫽ 0 2. y⬘ ⫺ 5共2x ⫺ y兲 ⫽ 0 Differential Equation Solution
3. xy⬘ ⫹ y ⫽ xe x 4. xy⬘ ⫹ y ⫽ x3y 23. y⬘ ⫺ 2x ⫽ 0 (a) y ⫽ Ce x
2

5. y ⫹ 1 ⫽ 共x ⫺ 1兲y⬘ 6. x ⫽ x 2共 y⬘ ⫹ y兲 1
24. y⬘ ⫺ 2y ⫽ 0 (b) y ⫽ ⫺ 2 ⫹ Ce x
2

25. y⬘ ⫺ 2xy ⫽ 0 (c) y ⫽ x2 ⫹ C

In Exercises 7–18, solve the differential equation.
26. y⬘ ⫺ 2xy ⫽ x (d) y ⫽ Ce2x
dy dy
7. ⫹ 3y ⫽ 6 8. ⫹ 5y ⫽ 15
dx dx In Exercises 27–34, find the particular solution that
dy dy satisfies the initial condition.
9. ⫹ y ⫽ e⫺x 10. ⫹ 3y ⫽ e⫺3x
dx dx Differential Equation Initial Condition
dy y dy 2y 27. y⬘ ⫹ y ⫽ 6e x
y ⫽ 3 when x ⫽ 0
11. ⫹ ⫽ 3x ⫹ 4 12. ⫹ ⫽ 3x ⫹ 1
dx x dx x
28. y⬘ ⫹ 2y ⫽ e ⫺2x y ⫽ 4 when x ⫽ 1
13. y⬘ ⫹ 5xy ⫽ x 14. y⬘ ⫹ 5y ⫽ e5x
29. xy⬘ ⫹ y ⫽ 0 y ⫽ 2 when x ⫽ 2
15. 共x ⫺ 1兲y⬘ ⫹ y ⫽ x 2 ⫺ 1 16. xy⬘ ⫹ y ⫽ x 2 ⫹ 1
30. y⬘ ⫹ y ⫽ x y ⫽ 4 when x ⫽ 0
17. x3y⬘ ⫹ 2y ⫽ e1兾x 18. xy⬘ ⫹ y ⫽ x 2 ln x
2

31. y⬘ ⫹ 3x 2y ⫽ 3x 2 y ⫽ 6 when x ⫽ 0
In Exercises 19–22, solve for y in two ways. 32. y⬘ ⫹ 共2x ⫺ 1兲y ⫽ 0 y ⫽ 2 when x ⫽ 1
19. y⬘ ⫹ y ⫽ 4 20. y⬘ ⫹ 10y ⫽ 5 33. xy⬘ ⫺ 2y ⫽ ⫺x 2 y ⫽ 5 when x ⫽ 1
21. y⬘ ⫺ 2xy ⫽ 2x 22. y⬘ ⫹ 4xy ⫽ x 34. x 2y⬘ ⫺ 4xy ⫽ 10 y ⫽ 10 when x ⫽ 1
1021623_App_C03.qxp 10/3/07 1:20 PM Page A35

APPENDIX C.3 First-Order Linear Differential Equations A35

35. Sales The rate of change (in thousands of units) in sales (b) Find the total investment A after 10 years given that
S is modeled by P ⫽ $500,000 and r ⫽ 9%.
dS 42. Investment Let A共t兲 be the amount in a fund earning
⫽ 0.2共100 ⫺ S 兲 ⫹ 0.2t
dt interest at the annual rate of r, compounded continuously.
If a continuous cash flow of P dollars per year is withdrawn
where t is the time in years. Solve this differential equation
from the fund, then the rate of decrease of A is given by the
and use the result to complete the table.
differential equation
t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 dA
⫽ rA ⫺ P
dt
S
where A ⫽ A0 when t ⫽ 0.
(a) Solve this equation for A as a function of t.
36. Sales The rate of change in sales S is modeled by
(b) Use the result of part (a) to find A when A0 ⫽
dS
⫽ k1共L ⫺ S兲 ⫹ k2t $2,000,000, r ⫽ 7%, P ⫽ $250,000, and t ⫽ 5 years.
dt
(c) Find A0 if a retired person wants a continuous cash flow
where t is the time in years and S ⫽ 0 when t ⫽ 0. Solve
of $40,000 per year for 20 years. Assume that
this differential equation for S as a function of t.
the person’s investment will earn 8%, compounded
continuously.
Elasticity of Demand In Exercises 37 and 38, find the
demand function p ⴝ f 冇x冈. Recall from Section 3.5 that 43. Velocity A booster rocket carrying an observation
the price elasticity of demand was defined as satellite is launched into space. The rocket and satellite
␩ ⴝ 冇p/x冈/冇dp/dx冈. have mass m and are subject to air resistance proportional
to the velocity v at any time t. A differential equation that
400
37. ␩ ⫽ 1 ⫺ , p ⫽ 340 when x ⫽ 20 models the velocity of the rocket and satellite is
3x
dv
500 m ⫽ ⫺mg ⫺ kv
38. ␩ ⫽ 1 ⫺ , p ⫽ 2 when x ⫽ 100 dt
3x
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Solve the
Supply and Demand In Exercises 39 and 40, use the differential equation for v as a function of t.
demand and supply functions to find the price p as a 44. Health An infectious disease spreads through a large
function of time t. Begin by setting D冇t冈 equal to S冇t冈 population according to the model
and solving the resulting differential equation. Find
the general solution, and then use the initial condition dy 1 ⫺ y
⫽
to find the particular solution. dt 4

39. D共t兲 ⫽ 480 ⫹ 5p共t兲 ⫺ 2p⬘共t兲 Demand function where y is the percent of the population exposed to the
disease, and t is the time in years.
S共t兲 ⫽ 300 ⫹ 8p共t兲 ⫹ p⬘共t兲 Supply function
(a) Solve this differential equation, assuming y共0兲 ⫽ 0.
p共0兲 ⫽ $75.00 Initial condition
(b) Find the number of years it takes for half of the popu-
40. D共t兲 ⫽ 4000 ⫹ 5p共t兲 ⫺ 4p⬘共t兲 Demand function lation to have been exposed to the disease.
S共t兲 ⫽ 2800 ⫹ 7p共t兲 ⫹ 2p⬘共t兲 Supply function (c) Find the percent of the population that has been
p共0兲 ⫽ $1000.00 Initial condition exposed to the disease after 4 years.
45. Research Project Use your school’s library, the
41. Investment A brokerage firm opens a new real estate
Internet, or some other reference source to find an article in
investment plan for which the earnings are equivalent to
a scientific or business journal that uses a differential
continuous compounding at the rate of r. The firm estimates
equation to model a real-life situation. Write a short paper
that deposits from investors will create a net cash flow of
describing the situation. If possible, describe the solution of
Pt dollars, where t is the time in years. The rate of change
the differential equation.
in the total investment A is modeled by
dA
⫽ rA ⫹ Pt.
dt
(a) Solve the differential equation and find the total
investment A as a function of t. Assume that A ⫽ 0
when t ⫽ 0.
1021623_App_C04.qxp 10/3/07 1:21 PM Page A36

A36 APPENDIX C Differential Equations

C.4 Applications of Differential Equations

Use differential equations to model and solve real-life problems.

Example 1 Modeling Advertising Awareness

The new cereal product from Example 3 in Section C.1 is introduced through an
advertising campaign to a population of 1 million potential customers. The rate at
which the population hears about the product is assumed to be proportional to the
number of people who are not yet aware of the product. By the end of 1 year, half
of the population has heard of the product. How many will have heard of it by the
end of 2 years?
SOLUTION Let y be the number (in millions) of people at time t who have heard
of the product. This means that 共1 ⫺ y兲 is the number of people who have not
heard of it, and dy兾dt is the rate at which the population hears about the product.
From the given assumption, you can write the differential equation as shown.
dy
⫽ k共1 ⫺ y兲
dt

Rate of is propor- the difference

change tional to between 1
of y and y.

Using separation of variables or a symbolic integration utility, you can find the
general solution to be
y ⫽ 1 ⫺ Ce⫺kt. General solution
Advertising Awareness
y To solve for the constants C and k, use the initial conditions. That is, because
Potential customers (in millions)

y ⫽ 0 when t ⫽ 0, you can determine that C ⫽ 1. Similarly, because y ⫽ 0.5

1.25 y = 1 − e −0.693t when t ⫽ 1, it follows that 0.5 ⫽ 1 ⫺ e⫺k, which implies that
1.00
(2, 0.75) k ⫽ ln 2 ⬇ 0.693.
0.75
So, the particular solution is
0.50
(1, 0.50) y ⫽ 1 ⫺ e⫺0.693t. Particular solution
0.25
(0, 0) This model is shown graphically in Figure A.13. Using the model, you can deter-
t
1 2 3 4 5 mine that the number of people who have heard of the product after 2 years is
Time (in years)
y ⫽ 1 ⫺ e⫺0.693共2兲
FIGURE A.13 ⬇ 0.75 or 750,000 people.
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APPENDIX C.4 Applications of Differential Equations A37

Example 2 Modeling a Chemical Reaction

During a chemical reaction, substance A is converted into substance B at a rate

that is proportional to the square of the amount of A. When t ⫽ 0, 60 grams of A
is present, and after 1 hour 共t ⫽ 1兲, only 10 grams of A remains unconverted.
How much of A is present after 2 hours?
SOLUTION Let y be the amount of unconverted substance A at any time t. From
the given assumption about the conversion rate, you can write the differential
equation as shown.
dy
⫽ ky2
dt
Rate of is propor- the square
change tional to of y.
of y

Using separation of variables or a symbolic integration utility, you can find the
general solution to be
⫺1 .
y⫽ General solution
kt ⫹ C
To solve for the constants C and k, use the initial conditions. That is, because
1
y ⫽ 60 when t ⫽ 0, you can determine that C ⫽ ⫺ 60 . Similarly, because y ⫽ 10
when t ⫽ 1, it follows that
⫺1
10 ⫽
k ⫺ 共1兾60兲
1
which implies that k ⫽ ⫺ 12 . So, the particular solution is
⫺1
Chemical Reaction y⫽ Substitute for k and C.
y
共⫺1兾12兲t ⫺ 共1兾60兲
60 .
60 ⫽ Particular solution
(0, 60) 5t ⫹ 1
Amount (in grams)

50
40 Using the model, you can determine that the amount of unconverted substance A
y=
60 after 2 hours is
30
5t + 1
20 60
(1, 10) y⫽
10 (2, 5.45) 5共2兲 ⫹ 1
t ⬇ 5.45 grams.
1 2 3
Time (in hours) In Figure A.14, note that the chemical conversion is occurring rapidly during the
first hour. Then, as more and more of substance A is converted, the conversion
FIGURE A.14 rate slows down.

STUDY TIP
In Example 2, the rate of conversion was assumed to be proportional to the
square of the amount of unconverted substance A. How would the result
change if the rate of conversion were assumed to be proportional to the
amount of unconverted substance A?
1021623_App_C04.qxp 10/3/07 1:21 PM Page A38

A38 APPENDIX C Differential Equations

Earlier in the text, you studied two models for population growth:
exponential growth, which assumes that the rate of change of y is proportional to
y, and logistic growth, which assumes that the rate of change of y is proportional
to y and 1 ⫺ y兾L, where L is the population limit.
The next example describes a third type of growth model called a Gompertz
growth model. This model assumes that the rate of change of y is proportional to
y and the natural log of L兾y, where L is the population limit.

Example 3 Modeling Population Growth

A population of 20 wolves has been introduced into a national park. The forest
service estimates that the maximum population the park can sustain is 200
wolves. After 3 years, the population is estimated to be 40 wolves. If the
population follows a Gompertz growth model, how many wolves will there be
10 years after their introduction?
SOLUTION Let y be the number of wolves at any time t. From the given
assumption about the rate of growth of the population, you can write the
differential equation as shown.
dy 200
⫽ ky ln
dt y
Rate of is propor- the product the log of
change tional to of y and the ratio of
of y 200 and y.

Using separation of variables or a symbolic integration utility, you can find the
general solution to be
y ⫽ 200e⫺Ce .
⫺k t
General solution

To solve for the constants C and k, use the initial conditions. That is, because
y ⫽ 20 when t ⫽ 0, you can determine that
C ⫽ ln 10
⬇ 2.3026.
Population Growth Similarly, because y ⫽ 40 when t ⫽ 3, it follows that
y
⫺3k
200
40 ⫽ 200e⫺2.3026e
180 − 0.1194t
y = 200e −2.3026e which implies that k ⬇ 0.1194. So, the particular solution is
Number of wolves

160
140 ⫺0.1194t
120 y ⫽ 200e⫺2.3026e . Particular solution
100
(10, 100)
80 Using the model, you can estimate the wolf population after 10 years to be
60 ⫺0.1194共10兲
40 (3, 40) y ⫽ 200e⫺2.3026e
20 (0, 20)
t ⬇ 100 wolves.
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (in years) In Figure A.15, note that after 10 years the population has reached about half of
the estimated maximum population. Try checking the growth model to see that it
FIGURE A.15 yields y ⫽ 20 when t ⫽ 0 and y ⫽ 40 when t ⫽ 3.
1021623_App_C04.qxp 10/3/07 1:21 PM Page A39

APPENDIX C.4 Applications of Differential Equations A39

In genetics, a commonly used hybrid selection model is based on the

differential equation
dy
⫽ ky共1 ⫺ y兲共a ⫺ by兲.
dt
In this model, y represents the portion of the population that has a certain charac-
teristic and t represents the time (measured in generations). The numbers a, b, and
k are constants that depend on the genetic characteristic that is being studied.

Example 4 Modeling Hybrid Selection

You are studying a population of beetles to determine how quickly characteristic

D will pass from one generation to the next. At the beginning of your study
共t ⫽ 0兲, you find that half the population has characteristic D. After four
generations 共t ⫽ 4兲, you find that 80% of the population has characteristic D. Use
the hybrid selection model above with a ⫽ 2 and b ⫽ 1 to find the percent of the
population that will have characteristic D after 10 generations.
SOLUTION Using a ⫽ 2 and b ⫽ 1, the differential equation for the hybrid
selection model is
dy
⫽ ky共1 ⫺ y兲共2 ⫺ y兲.
dt
Using separation of variables or a symbolic integration utility, you can find the
general solution to be
y共2 ⫺ y兲
⫽ Ce2kt. General solution
共1 ⫺ y兲2
To solve for the constants C and k, use the initial conditions. That is, because
y ⫽ 0.5 when t ⫽ 0, you can determine that C ⫽ 3. Similarly, because y ⫽ 0.8
when t ⫽ 4, it follows that
0.8共1.2兲
⫽ 3e8k
共0.2兲2
which implies that
1
Hybrid Selection k⫽ ln 8 ⬇ 0.2599.
y 8
1.0 So, the particular solution is
0.9
Percent of population

0.8
(4, 0.8) y共2 ⫺ y兲
0.7 ⫽ 3e0.5199t. Particular solution
0.6 共1 ⫺ y兲2
0.5
(0, 0.5) y(2 − y) Using the model, you can estimate the percent of the population that will have
0.4 = 3e0.5199t
0.3 (1 − y)2 characteristic D after 10 generations to be given by
0.2
0.1 y共2 ⫺ y兲
t ⫽ 3e0.5199共10兲.
2 4 6 8 10 12 共1 ⫺ y兲2
Time (in generations)
Using a symbolic algebra utility, you can solve this equation for y to obtain
FIGURE A.16 y ⬇ 0.96. The graph of the model is shown in Figure A.16.
1021623_App_C04.qxp 10/3/07 1:21 PM Page A40

A40 APPENDIX C Differential Equations

Example 5 Modeling a Chemical Mixture

4 gal/min A tank contains 40 gallons of a solution composed of 90% water and 10% alcohol.
A second solution containing half water and half alcohol is added to the tank at
the rate of 4 gallons per minute. At the same time, the tank is being drained at the
rate of 4 gallons per minute, as shown in Figure A.17. Assuming that the solution
is stirred constantly, how much alcohol will be in the tank after 10 minutes?
4 gal/min SOLUTION Let y be the number of gallons of alcohol in the tank at any time t.
The percent of alcohol in the 40-gallon tank at any time is y兾40. Moreover,
because 4 gallons of solution is being drained each minute, the rate of change of
y is
FIGURE A.17
dy
dt
⫽ ⫺4 冢 冣
y
40
⫹2

Rate of is equal to the plus the amount

change amount of alcohol of alcohol
of y draining out entering.

where 2 represents the number of gallons of alcohol entering each minute in the
50% solution. In standard form, this linear differential equation is
1
y⬘ ⫹ y ⫽ 2. Standard form
10
Using an integrating factor or a symbolic integration utility, you can find the gen-
eral solution to be
y ⫽ 20 ⫹ Ce⫺t兾10. General solution

Because y ⫽ 4 when t ⫽ 0, you can conclude that C ⫽ ⫺16. So, the particular
solution is
y ⫽ 20 ⫺ 16e⫺t兾10. Particular solution

Using this model, you can determine that the amount of alcohol in the tank when
t ⫽ 10 is
y ⫽ 20 ⫺ 16e⫺共10兲兾10
⬇ 14.1 gallons.

CONCEPT CHECK
1. What does the exponential growth model assume about the rate of
change of y?
2. What does the logistic growth model assume about the rate of change
of y?
3. What does the Gompertz growth model assume about the rate of change
of y?
4. In the logistic and Gompertz growth models, what does L represent?
1021623_App_C04.qxp 10/3/07 1:21 PM Page A41

APPENDIX C.4 Applications of Differential Equations A41

The following warm-up exercises involve skills that were covered in earlier sections. You will
Skills Review C.4 use these skills in the exercise set for this section. For additional help, review Sections 2.3, C.2,
and C.3.

In Exercises 1– 4, use separation of variables to find the general solution of

the differential equation.
dy
1. ⫽ 3x
dx
dy
2. 2y ⫽3
dx
dy
3. ⫽ 2 xy
dx
dy x ⫺ 4
4. ⫽
dx 4y 3

In Exercises 5–8, use an integrating factor to solve the first-order linear

differential equation.
5. y⬘ ⫹ 2y ⫽ 4 6. y⬘ ⫹ 2y ⫽ e⫺2x
7. y⬘ ⫹ xy ⫽ x 8. xy⬘ ⫹ 2y ⫽ x 2

In Exercises 9 and 10, write the equation that models the statement.
9. The rate of change of y with respect to x is proportional to the square of x.
10. The rate of change of x with respect to t is proportional to the difference of x and t.

Exercises C.4 See www.CalcChat.com for worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

In Exercises 1–6, assume that the rate of change of y is 9. Sales Growth The rate of change in sales S (in thou-
proportional to y. Solve the resulting differential sands of units) of a new product is proportional to the
equation dy/dx ⴝ ky and find the particular solution difference between L and S (in thousands of units) at any
that passes through the points. time t. When t ⫽ 0, S ⫽ 0. Write and solve the differential
1. 共0, 1兲, 共3, 2兲 equation for this sales model.

2. 共0, 4兲, 共1, 6兲 10. Sales Growth Use the result of Exercise 9 to write S
as a function of t if (a) L ⫽ 100, S ⫽ 25 when t ⫽ 2, and
3. 共0, 4兲, 共4, 1兲 (b) L ⫽ 500, S ⫽ 50 when t ⫽ 1.
4. 共0, 60兲, 共5, 30兲
In Exercises 11–14, the rate of change of y is propor-
5. 共2, 2兲, 共3, 4兲
tional to the product of y and the difference of L and
6. 共1, 4兲, 共2, 1兲 y. Solve the resulting differential equation
dy/dx ⴝ ky冇L ⴚ y冈 and find the particular solution that
7. Investment The rate of growth of an investment is passes through the points for the given value of L.
proportional to the amount A of the investment at any time t.
11. L ⫽ 20; 共0, 1兲, 共5, 10兲
An investment of $2000 increases to a value of $2983.65 in
5 years. Find its value after 10 years. 12. L ⫽ 100; 共0, 10兲, 共5, 30兲
8. Population Growth The rate of change of the 13. L ⫽ 5000; 共0, 250兲, 共25, 2000兲
population of a city is proportional to the population P at any 14. L ⫽ 1000; 共0, 100兲, 共4, 750兲
time t. In 1998, the population was 400,000, and the constant
of proportionality was 0.015. Estimate the population of the
city in the year 2005.
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A42 APPENDIX C Differential Equations

15. Biology At any time t, the rate of growth of the popula- Biology In Exercises 25 and 26, use the hybrid
tion N of deer in a state park is proportional to the product selection model in Example 4 to find the percent of
of N and L ⫺ N, where L ⫽ 500 is the maximum number the population that has the indicated characteristic.
of deer the park can maintain. When t ⫽ 0, N ⫽ 100, and 25. You are studying a population of mayflies to determine how
when t ⫽ 4, N ⫽ 200. Write N as a function of t. quickly characteristic A will pass from one generation to the
16. Sales Growth The rate of change in sales S (in next. At the start of the study, half the population has charac-
thousands of units) of a new product is proportional to the teristic A. After four generations, 75% of the population has
product of S and L ⫺ S. L (in thousands of units) is the characteristic A. Find the percent of the population that will
estimated maximum level of sales, and S ⫽ 10 when t ⫽ 0. have characteristic A after 10 generations. (Assume a ⫽ 2
Write and solve the differential equation for this sales and b ⫽ 1.)
model. 26. A research team is studying a population of snails to
determine how quickly characteristic B will pass from one
Learning Theory In Exercises 17 and 18, assume that
generation to the next. At the start of the study, 40% of the
the rate of change in the proportion P of correct
snails have characteristic B. After five generations, 80% of
responses after n trials is proportional to the product
the population has characteristic B. Find the percent of
of P and L ⴚ P, where L is the limiting proportion of
the population that will have characteristic B after eight
correct responses.
generations. (Assume a ⫽ 2 and b ⫽ 1.)
17. Write and solve the differential equation for this learning
27. Chemical Reaction In a chemical reaction, a compound
theory model.
changes into another compound at a rate proportional to the
18. Use the solution of Exercise 17 to write P as a function of unchanged amount, according to the model
n, and then use a graphing utility to graph the solution.
dy
(a) L ⫽ 1.00 (b) L ⫽ 0.80 ⫽ ky.
dt
P ⫽ 0.50 when n ⫽ 0 P ⫽ 0.25 when n ⫽ 0 (a) Solve the differential equation.
P ⫽ 0.85 when n ⫽ 4 P ⫽ 0.60 when n ⫽ 10 (b) If the initial amount of the original compound is
20 grams, and the amount remaining after 1 hour is
Chemical Reaction In Exercises 19 and 20, use the 16 grams, when will 75% of the compound have been
chemical reaction model in Example 2 to find the changed?
amount y as a function of t, and use a graphing utility
to graph the function. 28. Chemical Mixture A 100-gallon tank is full of a
solution containing 25 pounds of a concentrate. Starting at
19. y ⫽ 45 grams when t ⫽ 0; y ⫽ 4 grams when t ⫽ 2 time t ⫽ 0, distilled water is admitted to the tank at the rate
of 5 gallons per minute, and the well-stirred solution is
20. y ⫽ 75 grams when t ⫽ 0; y ⫽ 12 grams when t ⫽ 1 withdrawn at the same rate.
In Exercises 21 and 22, use the Gompertz growth (a) Find the amount Q of the concentrate in the solution as
model described in Example 3 to find the growth a function of t. (Hint: Q⬘ ⫹ Q兾20 ⫽ 0)
function, and sketch its graph. (b) Find the time when the amount of concentrate in the
21. L ⫽ 500; y ⫽ 100 when t ⫽ 0; y ⫽ 150 when t ⫽ 2 tank reaches 15 pounds.
22. L ⫽ 5000; y ⫽ 500 when t ⫽ 0; y ⫽ 625 when t ⫽ 1 29. Chemical Mixture A 200-gallon tank is half full of
distilled water. At time t ⫽ 0, a solution containing 0.5
23. Biology A population of eight beavers has been pound of concentrate per gallon enters the tank at the rate
introduced into a new wetlands area. Biologists estimate of 5 gallons per minute, and the well-stirred mixture is
that the maximum population the wetlands can sustain is 60 withdrawn at the same rate. Find the amount Q of
beavers. After 3 years, the population is 15 beavers. If the concentrate in the tank after 30 minutes. 共 Hint:
population follows a Gompertz growth model, how many Q⬘ ⫹ Q兾20 ⫽ 52 兲
beavers will be in the wetlands after 10 years? 30. Safety Assume that the rate of change per hour in the
24. Biology A population of 30 rabbits has been introduced number of miles s of road cleared by a snowplow is
into a new region. It is estimated that the maximum inversely proportional to the depth h of snow. That is,
population the region can sustain is 400 rabbits. After ds k
1 year, the population is estimated to be 90 rabbits. If the ⫽ .
dh h
population follows a Gompertz growth model, how many
rabbits will be present after 3 years? Find s as a function of h if s ⫽ 25 miles when h ⫽ 2 inches
and s ⫽ 12 miles when h ⫽ 6 inches 共2 ≤ h ≤ 15兲.
1021623_App_C04.qxp 10/3/07 1:21 PM Page A43

APPENDIX C.4 Applications of Differential Equations A43

31. Chemistry A wet towel hung from a clothesline to dry 38. Find t if the corporation needs $800,000 and it can invest
loses moisture through evaporation at a rate proportional to $75,000 per year in a fund earning 13% interest
its moisture content. If after 1 hour the towel has lost 40% compounded continuously.
of its original moisture content, after how long will it have
lost 80%? Medical Science In Exercises 39–41, a medical
researcher wants to determine the concentration C (in
32. Biology Let x and y be the sizes of two internal organs
moles per liter) of a tracer drug injected into a moving
of a particular mammal at time t. Empirical data indicate
fluid. Solve this problem by considering a single-
that the relative growth rates of these two organs are equal,
compartment dilution model (see figure). Assume that
and can be modeled by
the fluid is continuously mixed and that the volume of
1 dx 1 dy fluid in the compartment is constant.
⫽ .
x dt y dt
Use this differential equation to write y as a function of x. Tracer
injected
33. Population Growth When predicting population
growth, demographers must consider birth and death rates
as well as the net change caused by the difference between Flow R (pure)
the rates of immigration and emigration. Let P be the Volume V
population at time t and let N be the net increase per unit
time due to the difference between immigration and emi-
gration. So, the rate of growth of the population is given by
Flow R
dP
⫽ kP ⫹ N, N is constant. (concentration C)
dt
Solve this differential equation to find P as a function of Figure for 39– 41
time.
39. If the tracer is injected instantaneously at time t ⫽ 0, then
34. Meteorology The barometric pressure y (in inches of the concentration of the fluid in the compartment begins
mercury) at an altitude of x miles above sea level decreases diluting according to the differential equation
at a rate proportional to the current pressure according to
the model
dC
dt
R
冢 冣
⫽ ⫺ C, C ⫽ C0 when t ⫽ 0.
V
dy
⫽ ⫺0.2y (a) Solve this differential equation to find the concentra-
dx
tion as a function of time.
where y ⫽ 29.92 inches when x ⫽ 0. Find the barometric
(b) Find the limit of C as t → ⬁.
pressure (a) at the top of Mt. St. Helens (8364 feet) and
(b) at the top of Mt. McKinley (20,320 feet). 40. Use the solution of the differential equation in Exercise 39
to find the concentration as a function of time, and use a
35. Investment A large corporation starts at time t ⫽ 0 to
graphing utility to graph the function.
invest part of its receipts at a rate of P dollars per year in a
fund for future corporate expansion. Assume that the fund (a) V ⫽ 2 liters, R ⫽ 0.5 L兾min, and C0 ⫽ 0.6 mol兾L
earns r percent interest per year compounded continuously. (b) V ⫽ 2 liters, R ⫽ 1.5 L兾min, and C0 ⫽ 0.6 mol兾L
So, the rate of growth of the amount A in the fund is given
by 41. In Exercises 39 and 40, it was assumed that there was a
single initial injection of the tracer drug into the
dA compartment. Now consider the case in which the tracer is
⫽ rA ⫹ P
dt continuously injected (beginning at t ⫽ 0) at the rate of Q
where A ⫽ 0 when t ⫽ 0. Solve this differential equation mol/min. Considering Q to be negligible compared with R,
for A as a function of t. use the differential equation

Investment In Exercises 36–38, use the result of

dC Q
dt
⫽ ⫺
V
R
V 冢冣
C, C ⫽ 0 when t ⫽ 0.
Exercise 35.
(a) Solve this differential equation to find the concentra-
36. Find A for each situation. tion as a function of time.
(a) P ⫽ $100,000, r ⫽ 12%, and t ⫽ 5 years (b) Find the limit of C as t → ⬁.
(b) P ⫽ $250,000, r ⫽ 15%, and t ⫽ 10 years
37. Find P if the corporation needs $120,000,000 in 8 years and
the fund earns 1614 % interest compounded continuously.