IGCSE CHEMISTRY [F.A.

E]

BONDING: Structure of Matter

Why Atoms Join Together

 Noble gases: the noble gases do not form compounds. For this reason their atoms are
described as unreactive or stable.

 Only the noble gas atoms have full outer shells. The atoms of all other elements have
incomplete outer shells. That is why they react.
 By reacting with each other, atoms can obtain full outer shells and so become stable.
 When atoms react, they lose or gain or share electrons to form full shells. These
electrons are called valence electrons.
 The valency of an element tells you the number of electrons its atom loses or gain or
share.

Losing or gaining electrons

  The atoms of some elements can obtain full shells by losing or gaining electrons, when
they react with other atoms:

Losing electrons: the sodium atom has just one electron in its outer shell. It can obtain a full
outer shell by losing this electron to another atom. The result is a sodium ion.

 The sodium ion has 11 protons but only 10 electrons, so it has a charge of +1.
Symbolically the sodium ion is written as Na+. Na+ is a positive ion.

Gaining electrons: a chlorine atom has 7 electrons in its outer shell. It can reach a full shell by
accepting just 1 electron from another atom. It becomes a chloride ion.
  The chloride ion has a charge of -1, so it is a negative ion. Its symbol is Cl-.

 An ion is a charged particle. It is charged because it contains an unequal number of

protons and electrons.

The ionic bond

 Ionic bond is formed from the electrostatic force of attraction between a positively
charged ion and a negatively charged ion.
 Ionic bonding is one way of joining atoms together. It usually involves the combining of
a metal atom with a non-metal atom.
 As we saw earlier, a sodium atom has one more electron than the noble gas neon.
 A chlorine atom has one less electron than the noble gas argon.
 Sodium atom can lose one electron and a chlorine atom can gain one electron, to obtain
full outer shells.
 So, when a sodium atom and a chlorine atom react together, the sodium atom loses one
electron and forms a sodium ion, Na+, with an electron arrangement of 2, 8.
 The chlorine atom gains one electron and forms a chloride ion, Cl-, with an electron
arrangement of 2, 8, 8.
  The two ions have opposite charges, so they attract each other.
 The sodium and chloride ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces called
ionic bond or electrovalent bond

How solid sodium chloride is formed

 When sodium reacts with chlorine, billions of sodium and chloride ions form and are
attracted to each other. But the ions do not stay in pairs.
 Instead, they cluster together, so that each ion is surrounded by six ions of opposite
charge. They are held together by strong ionic bonds. [Each ion forms six bonds].
 The pattern grows until a giant structure of ions is formed. It contains equal numbers of
sodium and chloride ions.
 This giant structure is the compound sodium chloride, or salt.

 Because sodium chloride is made of ions, it is called an ionic compound. It contains

one Na+ ion for each Cl- ion, so its formula is NaCl.
 The charges in the structure add up to zero. The compound therefore has no overall
charge.

 Another example of ionic bonding is magnesium oxide.

 The electron arrangements of magnesium and oxygen are: Mg = 2, 8, 2 and O = 2, 6
 Magnesium burns in oxygen during the reaction; each magnesium atom loses its 2 outer
electrons to an oxygen atom. Magnesium ions and oxide ions are formed.
 Both magnesium ion and oxide ions have the same electron arrangement as neon, i.e.
2, 8 (with full outer electron shells).
 The ions attract each other because of their opposite charges. Strong electrostatic
forces hold the ions together. The resulting compound is called magnesium oxide.
 Magnesium oxide contains one Mg2+ ion for each O2- ion, so its formula is MgO.

 Another example of ionic bonding is magnesium chloride.

 The electron arrangements of magnesium and chlorine are Mg = 2, 8, 2 and Cl = 2, 8, 7
 To obtain full outer shells, a magnesium atom must lose 2 electrons and a chlorine atom
must gain 1 electron.
 So when magnesium burns in chlorine, each magnesium atom reacts with two chlorine
atoms to form magnesium chloride.
  The ions form a giant ionic structure, with two chloride ions for each magnesium ion.
 The formula of magnesium chloride is therefore MgCl2
 The compound has no overall charge.

Properties of ionic compounds (ionic solids)

1. They have high melting and boiling points.
2. At room temperature, they are usually crystalline solids.
3. They are brittle.
4. They do not conduct electricity when solid but do conduct when molten or in aqueous
solution.
5. They are usually soluble in water, but insoluble in other solvents such as
tetrachloromethane and petrol (organic solvents)
Ions of the first twenty elements
 Not every element forms ions during reactions. Out of the first twenty elements in the
Periodic Table, only twelve easily form ions.
 Lithium (Li+) ; Sodium (Na+) ; Potassium (K+) ; Beryllium (Be2+) ; Magnesium (Mg2+) ;
Calcium (Ca2+) ; Aluminium (Al3+) ; Nitride (N3-) ; Oxide (O2-) ; Sulphide (S2-) ; Fluoride (F-) ;
Chloride (Cl-)

Naming ionic compounds

 To name an ionic compound, you just put the names of the ions together, with the
positive one first:

Ions in compound Name of compound

 K+ and F- Potassium fluoride

 Ca2+ and S2- Calcium sulphide

Transition metal ions

 Some transition metals form only one type of ion:
i. Silver forms only Ag+ ions
ii. Zinc forms only Zn2+ ions
 But most transition metals can form more than one type of ion. For example, copper
and iron can each form two:
Ion Name Example of compound
Cu + Copper (I) ion Copper (I) oxide ; Cu2O
Cu 2+ Copper (II) ion Copper (II) oxide ; CuO
Fe 2+ Iron (II) ion Iron (II) chloride ; FeCl2
Fe3+ Iron (II) ion Iron (III) chloride ; FeCl3

Compound ions
These are ions formed from groups of joined atoms. E.g. Ammonium ion ( NH4+ ) ; hydroxide ion
(OH-) ; Nitrate ion (NO3-) ; Sulphate ion (SO42-) ; carbonate ion (CO32-) ; hydrogen carbonate ion
(HCO3-)

The Covalent Bond

 Covalent bonding is a way of joining atoms together which involves the sharing of
electrons between two atoms.
  When two non-metal atoms react together, both of them need to gain electrons to
reach full shells. They can manage this only by sharing electrons between them.
 For example, a hydrogen atom has only one electron. Its shell can hold two electrons,
so is not full.
 When two hydrogen atoms get close enough, their shells overlap and then they can
share electrons.

 The electrons are shared so as to give each atom a full outer shell. Because the atoms
share electrons, there is a strong force of attraction between them, holding them
together.
 This force is called a covalent bond. The bonded atoms form a molecule.
 A molecule is a small group of atoms which are held together by covalent bonds.
 The electron pair is usually represented as a single line. H – H

 Another example of covalent bonding is a chlorine molecule, where two chlorine atoms
are bonded together by a single covalent bond.
 A chlorine atom needs a share in one more electron, to obtain a full shell.

 There are now eight electrons associated with each chlorine atom. Cl – Cl

Covalent compounds
 In a molecular compound, atoms of different elements share electrons with each.
 These compounds are often called covalent compounds because of the covalent bonds
in them.
 An example of a covalent compound is CH4, methane.
 Each carbon atom in methane shares electrons with four hydrogen atoms and they all
obtain full shells.

 In each bond one electron comes from the carbon atom and one from the hydrogen
atom. The pair of electrons is then shared.

 Another example of a covalent compound is water, H2O.

 Each oxygen shares electrons with two hydrogen atoms and they all reach full shells.

 Another example of a covalent compound is hydrogen chloride, HCl. A chlorine atom

shares electrons with a hydrogen atom and they all reach full shells.
  A single covalent bond is formed. H – Cl

Multiple covalent bonds

 An example of multiple covalent bonds is N2. Each nitrogen atom has 5 electrons in the
outer shell; not full. Each nitrogen atom needs a share in 3 more electrons, to obtain a
full shell.

 There are now eight electrons associated with each nitrogen atom.
 The bond between the N atoms in N2 is a triple covalent bond. 𝐍 ≡ 𝐍

Question
Describe the electron arrangement in C2H4; CO2 and CH3OH
Properties of covalent compounds (molecular solids)
1. They have low melting points and boiling points. (strong covalent bonds between atoms
in each molecule but weak forces of attraction between them).
2. They are insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents such as tetrachloromethane
and petrol.
3. They do not conduct electricity because they do not contain ions (they are not charged).
4. They are brittle (they shatter when hit with a hammer).
Allotropy
 Allotropy is the existence of two or more forms of an element in the same physical
state. These different forms are called allotropes.

Allotropy of Carbon
 The two most common allotropes of carbon are diamond and graphite.
 Another allotrope of carbon is fullerene which is a crystalline form of carbon made of
clusters of carbon atoms.

 Allotropes of sulphur are rhombic and monoclinic.

Giant covalent substances (Macromolecules)

 Carbon in the form of diamond and graphite are examples of macromolecules.
  These structures are formed from a large number of atoms that are held together by
strong covalent bonds.
 This means that these compounds have high melting and boiling points and are solid at
room temperature.
 They do not conduct electricity (except graphite) nor do they dissolve in water.

Diamond
 In the diamond structure, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms by
strong covalent bonds. A large giant structure is built up.
 All bonds between carbon atoms are the same length.
 It is the strength and uniformity of the bonding which make diamond very hard, non-
volatile and resistant to chemical attack.
 The carbon atoms form a lattice.

Graphite
 Graphite has a layer structure. Each atom forms strong covalent bonds with three other
Carbon atoms in the same layer.
 The bonds within the same layers are very strong. The bonds between the layers
however are very weak, which enables layers to slide over one another.
 This makes the graphite soft and flaky.
 The electrons in the weak bonds between the layers allow graphite to conduct
electricity.

Structure of silicon (IV) oxide [silicon dioxide]

 Silicon dioxide, also called silica has the formula SiO2. This formula gives the simplest
ratio of the atoms concerned.
 Silica is a giant covalent solid with a structure similar to that of diamond. Because of its
structure (i.e. strong covalent bonds, no ions and no free electrons), silica is hard, has a
high melting point, does not dissolve in water and does not conduct electricity.
Comparing the properties of diamond and graphite
Diamond
i. It is the hardest substance known, with a very high melting point (3550 oC) – this
because the bonds in it are very strong.
ii. It does not conduct electricity – this is because there are no ions or free electrons to
carry charge.
iii. It sparkles when cut – this is because it has a regular structure.
iv. Transparent, clourless crystals.

Uses
 Use in making drilling and cutting tools due to properties (i) and (ii)
 Use for jewellery due to property (iii)

Graphite
i. Soft and slippery. This is because the layers can slide over each other.
ii. Conducts electricity (the only non-metal that does!). This is because each atom has four
outer electrons, but forms only three bonds. The fourth electron can move through the
graphite, carrying charge.
iii. It is a black, opaque, shiny solid.
Uses
 It is used as a lubricant for locks (and in some car engines) and as ‘lead’ in pencils due to
property (i)
 It is used for electrodes and as connecting ‘brushes’ in dynamos and motors due to
property (ii)
Metallic Bonding
 Metallic bonds are formed from the attraction between mobile/delocalized electrons
and fixed, positively charged metallic ions.
 Metallic bonding is found only in metals. In a metal, the atoms are packed tightly
together in a regular pattern.
 Their outer electrons get separated from the atoms. The result is a lattice of positive
ions in a “sea” of electrons.
 A metal consists of a close-packed regular arrangement of positive ions, which are
surrounded by a ‘sea’ of electrons that bind the ions together.

 Metals generally have high densities because the ions are closely packed in the lattice.
 Because of the strong bonds between the ions caused by the free electrons, the melting
points of most metals are high.
 Because the layers of atoms can slide over each other without the metallic bonds
breaking, most metals can be bent or hammered into shape – they are malleable – or
drawn into wires – they are ductile. The bonds just rearrange.
 The free electrons carrying charge can move through the lattice making metals good
conductors of electricity.
 The free electrons take in heat energy, which they spread through the lattice because
they move faster due to the heat energy. This makes metals good conductors of heat.