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The Role of Women in Leadership Positions Across Ancient Empires of Egypt and

Rome.

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Introduction

Most research on ancient empires tends to downplay the contributions of women

while emphasizing the importance of men in ancient civilizations. Furthermore, there is a

shortage of studies on the contributions of women in ancient civilizations. This paper aims to

show how women had leadership positions in ancient Rome and Egypt. Additionally, this

paper investigates how women in the ancient Egyptian Empire accessed political power and

how women in ancient Rome played significant leadership roles in Roman Religious beliefs.

It is evident from uncommon ancient history that women, just like men, had the capability of

being competent leaders who worked in the best interest of their societies

The Access of Women to Political Influence in Early Egypt

Many people are captivated by ancient Egyptian culture and society because of their

knowledge of mathematics and science and their spiritual and political systems of

administration. However, it is clear from the studies that both genders played a vital

supervisory role in the administration of the Ancient Egyptian Empire. Furthermore,

historians have also suggested that Ancient Egyptian women had greater

political influence than women in Ancient Greece and current nations like America (Gilbert

and Reynolds, 2004). Therefore, ancient Egypt evolved more regarding equity between

women and men than other nations.

In contrast to Europe, which solely had patriarchal communities, Africa had

matriarchal societies. In order to provide a cultural bridge between Ancient Egypt and other

African communities, Diop (1989) emphasized matriarchy as the primary common culture.

Since it is a distinctively African attribute, matriarchy likewise represents the power and

glory of Egyptian women. However, matriarchy does not mean that women rule over men;

rather, it refers to a balance of power between the sexes, which is made possible by the

crucial function that each gender plays in the advancement of society.

In ancient Egyptian society, women from royal families held higher societal positions

than other average women. Furthermore, individuals holding higher societal ranks, including

men and women, had more privileges than the other common citizens. Due to the centralized

system of the ancient Egyptian government, individuals who did not belong to the royal

families had little to no say in political decisions. As a result, women belonging to royal

families had more political power and influence than other men and women from ordinary

classes.

The influence of women who held titles like the "king's mother" or "principal wife"

outweighed that of any other minor queens in the kingdom. Furthermore, women could also

occupy thrones and reign alone. Even though it was uncommon for women to rule as

Pharaohs, it is known that a few female kings did so (Abram, 2007). The historical accounts

that have survived do not clearly show the full extent of these women's political influence,

but what has been discovered suggests that their influence did, in fact, have a big impact on

how the kingdom functioned.

Queens

In ancient Egypt, the role of a queen was one of the highest, most powerful positions a

woman could hold. Through their influence on their sons and husbands, royal ladies gained

access to political power. Some women served their young son's regents or as joint regents

alongside their husbands, but the majority served as the king's devoted mothers and wives.

Backing the monarch did not necessarily imply submission on the part of the queen; instead,

it included whatever essential measures she took to further the interests of the kingdom.

Additionally, the title of queen brought with it a great deal of authority and prestige both

within and beyond Ancient Egypt.

Once the 13th dynasty ended, Ancient Egypt went through a period of unrest. For

about a century, the Hyksos colonized the eastern delta region of Kemet; it was only due to
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the royal family's tenacity that Kemet was able to take control away from these invaders.

With the help of his spouse and his family, King Seqenenre Taio I started the fight to drive

out the invaders. Seqenenre Taio II succeeded his father, King Seqenenre Taio I, who was

killed fighting the invaders. Since Seqenenre Taio II was still young to rule, Queen Tetisheri

ruled as her son's legal guardian until he reached adulthood (Hawass, 2000). She lived long

enough to provide guidance to her grandsons throughout their regimes.

Queen Ahhotep

Until her son Ahmose reached adulthood, Queen Ahhotep ruled as regent. In his

reign, Ahmose reclaimed Egyptian land from the Hyksos invaders; however, it is important to

remember that Queen Ahhotep, Ahmose's mother, also served as the impetus toward retaking

Kemet from foreign invasions. In order for her family to reclaim authority and unify the

territories under the administration of their legitimate owners, Queen Ahhotep requested that

the conflict continue (Lesko, 1996). During his rule, King Ahmose mandated that tribute be

paid to his mother for her contribution to inspiring the populace to fight.

The title "Mistress of the Two Lands" was bestowed upon Queen Ahhotep,

underscoring her contribution to the unification of the kingdoms. Graves-Brown (2010)

asserted that this kind of title was equivalent to that possessed by monarchs. The evidence

suggests that she was a crucial player in the operations of the kingdom and its quest to

achieve independence throughout her reign as queen. Her initiatives contributed to Egypt's

achievement in regaining its independence. It goes without saying that Queen Ahhotep's

guidance for her nation was priceless.

Female Kings

Around 285 B.C., a law was passed in the Egyptian Empire that proclaimed "women

can wield the kingly position" in the ancient Egyptian Empire. Despite the fact that it is legal

for women to rule, history demonstrates that this was hardly the case as "just 4 out of 200 to
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300 monarchs were female" (Robins, 1993). King Tausret and King Hapshesut of the New

Kingdom, King Sobekneferu of the Middle Kingdom, and King Nitokerty of the Old

Kingdom are the four women known to have ruled Egypt (Fletcher, 2004). Even if not many

are on the list, it would be a mistake to write them off as unimportant. Looking into the

pathways that allow a woman to hold the nation's top political office is worthwhile.

King Hatshepsut

Hatshepsut is, without a doubt, the most infamous female Egyptian king to have ever

existed. Her path to kingship was both unconventional and amazing! Imitating the footsteps

of her ancestresses, Queen Ahhotep and Queen Ahmose-Nefertari, Hatshepsut demonstrated

to be a productive monarch and shrewd co-regent (Graves-Brown, 2010). Hatshepsut was

awarded the title of "God's Wife of Amun" as queen, something she favored using above

other designations like "King's Wife" or "King's Daughter."

It is possible that King Thutmose II, Hatshepsut's husband, found it challenging to

reign because of his illness since he was a sickly man. It is thought that Hatshepsut served

alongside him throughout his 13-year tenure years (Redd, 2006). Hatshepsut would have had

to take action to help her husband, considering his health, much as queens are required to act

as co-rulers whenever a son is immature to reign alone. Upon the death of King Thutmose II,

Hatshepsut took the mantle of a co-regent until Thutmose III, Thutmose's II son, was of

appropriate age. Additionally, the Egyptian populace supported Hatshepsut's co-regency

Although there are many interpretations, it is unclear what drove Hatshepsut to

undertake the abrupt transition from regency to being a pharaoh. Hawass (2000) contends that

she might have had "ambitious goals that were impossible to be contained" and that she

might have possessed excess power to relinquish. It seems possible that Hatshepsut wanted to

take a stand on politics, even though no explanation could be confirmed. By the seventh year

of Thutmose III's regency, she was transformed from a queen to a king (Roehrig et al., 2005).
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While retaining her gender as a woman, she also adopted the male-dominated Kingship

insignia.

Additionally, the subject of Hatshepsut's spouse Thutmose II was also avoided since it

may have cast doubt on her claim to have been born of a god. Hatshepsut had to rally the

populace's support by demonstrating her special connection with Amen since Kemetic

society, like all African societies, was very spiritual, and the citizens displayed a deep bond

with their maker (Roehrig et al., 2005). Hatshepsut made up a tale about her supernatural

birth to defend her throne despite the challenges her gender provided.

Through her many political positions, Hatshepsut amassed a plethora of titles.

Nevertheless, she refrained from adopting the male moniker "Mighty Bull of Maat," which

symbolized men's strength (Redd, 2006). Undoubtedly, Hatshepsut's road to monarchy was a

difficult one. She required a great deal of assistance, notably from the Empire's

predominately male bureaucracy. She was successful in putting together a group of capable

men who supported her and looked out for her best interests, such as Nihisi, the chief

treasurer.

Hatshepsut was a unique king. She oversaw a remarkable construction campaign that

distinguished her from rulers. Hatshepsut was capable of manipulating a spiritual, political

system that had existed for a long time in order to ascend to the topmost office in the land,

something she held for twenty-two years. She oversaw a group of capable male counsellors

who all played instrumental roles in her rule. She was a superb warrior and the defender of

her kingdom, organizing the first voyage to Punt.

King Tausret

Tausret, a female king, wielded authority after first serving as the reigning pharaoh's

queen, much like Hatshepsut. Following the demise of her husband's successor, King Tausret

ruled during the New Kingdom's 19th dynasty. Tausret acquired many titles as a result of
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holding the three separate positions of King, Queen, and Regent (Callender, 2012). Callender

(2012) asserts that the term may allude to foreign invaders, or even some border struggle in

the Near East, despite the scant evidence. The fact that Tauset is the only individual to have

had the title "The Powerful One" suggests that whatever she claimed to have done actually

happened.

Although they did not frequently wield the kingship office, women were trusted to

be co-rulers when an heir was young to rule. In certain situations, the female in question was

in charge of making every choice and so carrying out all the responsibilities of a King. Given

that women had to assume the king's role in the Old Kingdom temporarily, it is possible to

conclude that the order allowing females to have authority was designed to give Queens the

power to co-regent or co-rule. Hatshepsut's reign, however, stands out as unusual since she

attained the throne in unconventional ways.

Even though Tausret and Hatshepsut achieved political power in distinct ways, there

are some similarities between the routes they followed to get there. Firstly, both of

them served as Queens, or perhaps more precisely, as the king's principal wives. As a result,

both women had a link nation's most powerful individual. Secondly, they both co-ruled

alongside a young male heir who was unable to do so alone. As a result, both ladies had the

time and opportunity to get ready to rule as kings. Thirdly, both women achieved global

fame, demonstrating their active involvement in international matters.

Furthermore, it appears that the state made some, if not all, successful efforts to

obliterate cultural memories of their time as kings. It is claimed that female monarchs

effectively contradicted the Kemetic ideology. However, it was acceptable for a woman to act

as a co-regent to the young king. As a result, it could be inferred that ladies were regarded as

competent leaders; nonetheless, it was despised if their authority threatened the divine

political order.
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Roman Women in Religious Life

Even though women in ancient Rome were not involved in political decisions, they

had an important leadership role in the Roman Empire's religious system. Furthermore,

ecstasy is frequently used by those who are politically oppressed as a short-term substitute for

the power they might well be lacking. In support of this claim, this paper observes from

several historical writings and historical findings that Roman women played crucial roles in

the Empire's religious life. Given the significance of the Roman religious celebration of

Saturnalia, this essay offers a brief overview.

Roman festivals and cults have one of the most important roles for women in Roman

mythology. Many of these cults were restricted to women and further used to seek heavenly

assistance and created to promote norms of feminine behavior. According to Lefkowitz and

Fant (2016), Fortuna-related cults and celebrations significantly influenced females' religious

responsibilities and lives. This illustrates how women interacted with religious practices, as

worshipping these deities assured the safety of women who would later bear the state's

offspring.

Furthermore, the praising of relatives to the divine forces included the participation of

women. For instance, only respectable ladies attended Matralia's commendation of nephews

and nieces. Women had a key part in the adoration of goddesses, which served the state's

interests (Lefkowitz &Fant, 2016). One example is the devotion of the goddess Verticordia,

who was linked to household peace, morality, and sexual purity. In the best interests of the

state, Augustus frequently promoted such cults involving women. Juvenal, on the contrary

hand, denounced a lot of such sects and activities and painted a more skewed picture based

on the idea that women ignored the cults that were created just for them.

In addition to being affiliated with a variety of non-Roman rituals that were

assimilated into the corpus of important Roman religious practices, women's roles were only
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restricted to Roman cults. According to Lefkowitz and Fant (2016), one of these cults, known

as Isis, spread across the Roman Empire and was particularly alluring despite being in

frequently stark contradiction to a number of other traditional cults. This appeal was brought

on by the fact that anybody could identify with Isis, especially women, who played a

significant role in maintaining it.

Several women were associated with the Isis cult, as shown by archaeological and

textual evidence from Pompeii, including a woman by the name of Julia, who served as the

cult's public priestess in Pompei. As Julia controlled several enterprises, she had control over

her own lands and money and was a well-known societal figure in addition to possessing the

title of Isis's Priestess. This particular woman also demonstrates that such women held power

in their communities (Lefkowitz &Fant, 2016). This claims that people whose lives were

devoid of certain rights had a place to turn to in religion.

In addition to the priestesses, both aristocratic and common women also played

significant roles in Roman religious life. Cicero illustrates that women had a strong

conviction of duty and engagement with respect to religion, although frequently overstating

the connection between religion and women (Lefkowitz &Fant, 2016). This may be observed

in the reports of howTerentia, his wife, would identify with religion and participate in

various religious rituals and rites out of duty to the gods and the Empire.

Conclusion

This paper demonstrates that even in ancient male-dominated societies, women still

played significant leadership roles. In the ancient Egyptian Empire, women commonly

accessed power by acting as co-rulers or regents to the throne. On the other hand, in ancient

Roman society, women did not participate in politics; therefore, it was extremely difficult for

them to access political power. However, women in the ancient Roman Empire compensated
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for their lack of political involvement by participating in ritualistic roles, where they were

adored and held high positions in the churches.

References

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