CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

- Each parent cell produces 2 daughter cells. These daughter cells themselves grow and divide
to give rise to large population of cells formed by growth and division of single parental cell
and its progeny.
Hence, one cell can form structures consisting of millions of cells.
- Cell cycle refers to the sequence of events by which cell duplicates its genome, synthesizes
cell constituents and gives rise to 2 daughter cells

__________________________________________________________________________________

PHASES OF CELL CYCLE

1) Metaphase:
a) It is the phase where actual cell division or mitosis occurs
b) It only lasts for an hour in 24- hour cell cycle
c) It begins with karyokinesis (division of nucleus and separation of daughter
chromosomes) and ends with cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm).
2) Interphase:
a) It represents the phase between 2 successive M phases.
b) It is also called resting phase and lasts for around 23 hours in 24- hour cell cycle.
(95% of time duration)
c) It refers to the time in which the cell prepares for division by undergoing cell growth
and DNA replication in an orderly manner.
d) It is divided into G1 (Gap 1), S (Synthesis), G2 (Gap 2) phases.
e) G1 phase:
- It is the gap between cell division and replication of DNA.
- Cell is metabolically active and undergoes cell growth but no DNA
replication.
f) S phase:
- It marks the period when DNA replication takes place.
- Amount of DNA increases but number of chromosomes stay the same.
Eg. DNA increases from 2C to 4C but chromosome remains 2n.
- In animal cells, DNA replicates in nucleus and centrioles replicate in
cytoplasm.
g) G2 phase:
- Cell growth continues.
- Proteins are synthesized.
h) Quiescent Stage (G0):
- Some cells either- do not divide (eg. Heart cells) or divide only to replace
dead or injured cells. (eg. Liver, lungs, kidney)
- Such cells exit G1 phase and directly enter G0 phase.
- Here, cell is metabolically active but does not proliferate unless needed.
 METAPHASE
 In animals, mitotic division is only in diploid somatic cells (exception: male honeybees)
In plants, mitotic division occurs in both haploid and diploid cells.
 Also called equational division as number of chromosomes in parent and daughter cells is
same.
 It involves reorganization of virtually all cell components.
 Karyokinesis (nucleus division) has 4 stages-
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

 Prophase:
1) Here, the intertwined and indistinct DNA untangles and condenses to form compact
mitotic chromosomes.
2) The duplicated centrosome begins to move towards opposite poles of the cell.
3) Each centrosome radiates out microtubules called asters. These 2 asters along with
spindle fibers forms mitotic apparatus.
4) Breakdown of golgi complex, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Nucleolus and Nuclear Envelope
occurs and cannot be seen in microscope.
 Metaphase:
1) Complete disintegration of nuclear envelope marks beginning of this phase.
2) Complete condensation of chromosomes occurs so their morphology is most easily
studied here.
3) Here, chromosome is made up of 2 sister chromatids joined by centromere.
Centromere has small disc- shaped structures on surface called Kinetochores which
serve as sites of attachment of spindle fibers.
4) All the chromosomes come to lie at the equator, with one sister chromatid attached by
kinetochore to spindle fiber of one pole and the other sister chromatid attached by
kinetochore to spindle fiber of other pole.
This plane of alignment of chromosomes at metaphase is metaphase plate.
 Anaphase:
1) Chromosomes are split simultaneously into two daughter chromatids.
2) Chromosomes migrate towards the poles with centromeres directed towards poles and
arms of chromosome trailing behind.
 Telophase:
1) Chromosome cluster at opposite poles and decondense lose individuality.
2) Nuclear envelope develops around both clusters to form 2 daughter nuclei.
3) Nucleolus, golgi and ER reform.

CYTOKINESIS
 In animal cell, cytokinesis occurs by appearance of furrow in plasma membrane.
This furrow deepens and ultimately joins in the middle to divide the cytoplasm.
 In plant cell, wall formation begins in the center and extends outwards to meet already
existing lateral walls.
 Cell wall formation begins with formation of cell plate which represents middle lamella
between the walls of two adjacent cells.
 Here, mitochondria and plastids are distributed.
 In some organisms, karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis. So it creates a multinucleate
condition which gives rise to syncytium.
Eg. Endosperm in coconut.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS
 Important for cell growth
Eg. Meristematic tissues- the apical and lateral cambium
 Cell repair
Eg. Cells in epidermis, gut lining, and blood cells

MEISOSIS
 The production of offspring by sexual reproduction includes fusion of 2 haploid gametes.
Gametes produced by specialized diploid cells.
 Meiosis is special cell division where chromosome number reduces by half in daughter cells;
hence called reductional division.
Eg. During gametogenesis in plants
 Meiosis has only one cycle of DNA but 2 sequential cycles of karyokinesis and cytokinesis.
 Meiosis 1 begins after parent chromosomes are replicated in S phase to produce identical
sister chromatids.
 Pairing of homologous chromosomes and recombination of non-sister chromatids occurs.
 Meiosis 2 results in 4 haploid cells.

MEIOSIS 1
 Prophase:
1) Leptotene:
a) Chromosomes becomes gradually visible.
b) Condensation of chromosomes
2) Zygotene:
a) Chromosomes start pairing together by process of Synapsis to create Homologous
chromosomes.
b) A pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes create a complex called
Synaptonemal Complex.
c) Pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes is Bivalent or Tetrad.
3) Pachytene:
a) Tetrads become more visible.
b) Sites of crossing over of non-sister chromatids called Recombination Nodules form.
c) Crossing over of non- sister chromatids occurs in presence of Recombinase to
exchange genetic information.
d) Crossing over is completed, leaving the chromosomes linked at sites of crossover.
4) Diplotene:
a) Synaptonemal Complex dissolves.
b) The bivalents tend to separate from one another except at sites of crossing over.
This creates X- shaped structures called Chiasmata.
c) In some oocytes of vertebrates, diplotene can last for some months or years.
5) Diakinesis:
a) Chiasmata are terminalized.
 b) Chromosomes are fully condensed.
c) Meiotic spindle is assembled to prepare homologous chromosomes for separation.
d) Nucleolous disappears and nuclear envelope breaks down.
 Metaphase 1:
1) Bivalent chromosomes align at equatorial plate.
2) Microtubules from spindles fibres in opposite poles attach to the kinetochores.
 Anaphase 1:
1) Homologous chromosomes separate.
2) Sister chromatids remain attached at centromeres.
 Telophase 1:
1) Nuclear membrane and nuclear envelope reappear.
2) Cytokinesis occurs.
3) Dyad of cells is formed.
 Interkinesis
1) Stage between 2 meiotic divisions
2) DNA replication does not occur.

MEIOSIS 2
 Prophase 2:
a) Occurs after cytokinesis.
b) Nuclear membrane disappears.
c) Chromosomes again condense.
 Metaphase 2:
a) Chromosomes align at equator.
b) Microtubules from opposites poles of spindle fibres get attached to kinetochores.
 Anaphase 2:
a) Centromere Splits
b) Chromatids travels towards poles and microtubules shorten.
 Telophase 2:
a) Both groups of chromosomes get enclosed by nuclear envelope.
b) Cytokinesis occurs.
c) Tetrad of cells is formed.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
1) Production of gametes
2) Conservation of specific chromosome number across generations of sexually producing
organisms
3) Increase in genetic variability.
4) Very importance for process of evolution.

_________________________________________X________________________________________