Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1–12

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Liner wear in jaw crushers

M. Lindqvist *, C.M. Evertsson
Machine and Vehicle Systems, Chalmers University of Technology, Goteburg 412 96, Sweden
Received 15 June 2002; accepted 23 August 2002

Abstract
Wear in rock crushers causes great costs in the mining and aggregates industry. Change of the geometry of the crusher liners is a
major reason for these costs. Being able to predict the geometry of a worn crusher will help designing the crusher liners for improved
performance.
A model for prediction of sliding wear was suggested by Archard in 1953. Tests have been conducted to determine the wear
coefficient in ArchardÕs model. Using a small jaw crusher, the wear of the crusher liners has been studied for different settings of the
crusher. The experiments have been carried out using quartzite, known for being very abrasive. Crushing forces have been measured,
and the motion of the crusher has been tracked along with the wear on the crusher liners. The test results show that the wear
mechanisms are different for the fixed and moving liner. If there were no relative sliding distance between rock and liner, ArchardÕs
model would yield no wear. This is not true for rock crushing applications where wear is observed even though there is no mac-
roscopic sliding between the rock material and the liners. For this reason, ArchardÕs model has been modified to account for the
wear induced by the local sliding of particles being crushed. The predicted worn geometry is similar to the real crusher.
A cone crusher is a machine commonly used in the mining and aggregates industry. In a cone crusher, the geometry of the
crushing chamber is crucial for performance. The objective of this work, where wear was studied in a jaw crusher, is to implement a
model to predict the geometry of a worn cone crusher.
Ó 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Comminution; Crushing; Particle size; Modelling

1. Introduction has been studied, aiming to understand and prevent the

damaging effect of the inevitable wear in cone crushers.
Jaw and cone crushers are commonly used in the
mining and aggregates industry. Today, it is possible to 1.1. Rock crushers
predict the performance of a cone crusher, provided the
geometry, crusher settings and the characteristics of the The operating principles of cone and jaw crushers are
material fed into the crusher are known (Evertsson, described in Fig. 1.
2000). The geometry of the crusher will change because In a cone crusher, the shaft of the inner mantle is
of wear. Being able to predict the worn geometry will suspended in two bearings, one eccentric at the bottom
help optimising the design of the new crusher for im- and one concentric at the top. When the eccentric at the
proved performance throughout its lifetime. bottom is turned, a vertical cross section of the inner
Current research and knowledge in the field of wear is mantle will suffer an oscillating motion. The rock par-
very extensive. However, much of this research is con- ticles between the inner and concave will be squeezed,
ducted from a material science perspective on a micro- crushed, and fall down. When the material passes
scopic level. The objective is often to gain knowledge in through the crusher, it will be subjected to several
material selection situations, heat and surface treatment crushing actions. The properties and performance of the
and so forth. In this work, wear on a macroscopic level crusher are strongly dependent on the stroke and bed
thickness. Because of wear, these geometric quantities
will change during the life of the liners. In turn, when the
*
Corresponding author.
geometry of the liners changes, the performance of the
E-mail addresses: mats.lindqvist@me.chalmers.se (M. Lindqvist), crusher will change. With very few exceptions, this will
magnus.evertsson@me.chalmers.se (C.M. Evertsson). be a detrimental effect.
0892-6875/03/$ - see front matter Ó 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 8 9 2 - 6 8 7 5 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 7 9 - 6
2 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1–12

Fig. 1. Cone crusher (left) and jaw crusher in operation. Bed thickness and stroke are important properties for the crusher.

In order to design a crushing chamber it is desirable the relationship between wear, pressure and motion will
to be able to predict the geometry of the worn chamber. need to resemble the process in a real crusher, where
The objective of this study is to develop a model for this rock material is crushed, mixed and crushed again. After
purpose. With such a model, it will be possible to per- a large number of repeated crushing events, the worn
form simulations in order to design crusher chambers geometry will be measured. In order to predict the worn
that are less sensitive to wear. geometry the components in ArchardÕs wear model, the
pressure and relative motion must also be known.
1.2. Wear mechanisms
1.3. Test equipment
The research and literature on abrasive wear and
wear mechanisms is very extensive. A lot of different A few schematic testing devices for determining wear
wear situations have been described, but generally four coefficients were suggested by Hutchings (1992). For
types of fracture are described as being present in crushing applications, methods such as the ‘‘pin on disc’’
abrasive wear: fatigue, shearing of junctions, microcut- test have the drawback that the abrasive properties will
ting and impact (Vingsbo, 1979). There are also sec- change during crushing. This has also been proven by
ondary effects such as frictional heating and corrosion Yao et al. (2000), who have found that by appropriate
that affect the material/wear mechanism. Much of the control of pressure and shear force, a protective layer of
research is done on a microscopic level. In this work, no material can be formed near the surface. This means
further attention will be paid to such topics. that a testing device for determining wear coefficients
A model for predicting material removal due to wear needs to resemble the conditions in a real crusher, where
was suggested by Archard (1953). In this model, it is material is crushed, mixed and crushed again. It is also
assumed that wear is proportional to pressure and desirable to measure the crushing forces during crush-
sliding distance. Hence, in order to use ArchardÕs wear ing, to verify the pressure.
model, the local pressure and motion the crusher need to
be known in. One difficulty in determining the wear
resistance coefficient in ArchardÕs model is the fact that 2. Experiments
the abrasive particles are crushed during wear. Some
results have been achieved by (Yao and Page, 2001; Yao A small jaw crusher originally designed for testing the
et al. (2000)), who have studied wear during crushing of properties of rock material was modified (see Fig. 2).
silica sand. They have studied surface damage on a Rock material is fed into the top of the crusher. The
microscopic level after a single crushing event. To obtain rotating eccentric shaft and the link give the right liner
the wear resistance coefficients needed in ArchardÕs an oscillating motion that will crush the material. The
model, it is necessary to make the measurements after a left, stationary liner has three load cells. Two of them
repeated number of crushing events. Their research in- are horizontal, to measure normal forces, and one ver-
dicates, however, that a testing device for determining tical to measure the frictional force. The force cells have
 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1–12 3

Fig. 2. Small jaw crusher with three load cells.

been designed to be insensitive to bending and torsion. the eccentric angle of the main shaft. Wear of the liners
They only register compressive/tensile forces. The liner was measured on a 13 by 8 grid with 10 mm spacing on
material is manganese alloy steel, commonly used for each liner. The average wear on each level in the
crusher liners, with 1.2% C, 12.5% Mn, 0.6% Si and downward direction was computed.
1.5% Cr. Austenitic manganese steels are common in
abrasive wear applications; they are well known for their
excellent capacity for work hardening. Upon plastic 3. Modelling
deformation the austenite in this material transforms
into martensite and becomes harder. There are various 3.1. Modelling flow
explanations for this strain-induced hardening; but the
major mechanisms that drive the transformation are In order to predict the wear, the pressure and motion
twinning and slipping of dislocations (El Bitar and El of the crusher need to be determined. Previous work has
Banna, 2000). been carried out by Evertsson (1995, 1998, 1999) on flow
The small jaw crusher was used to study the wear as a and capacity modelling of cone crushers. A particle flow
function of force (i.e. pressure) and motion. The ex- model has been implemented for the jaw crusher. In the
periments were carried out using quartzite, since this particle flow model, three types of motion are defined:
material is known for being very abrasive. The size free fall, sliding and squeeze. Impact is modelled plas-
distribution of the feed material was 8–11 mm. The tically, which means that the normal component of the
closed side setting (the minimum distance across the velocity is annihilated and the tangential component is
crushing chamber) was set to 2, 3 and 5 mm. In com- preserved upon impact (Evertsson, 1999).
pressive crushing, two modes of breakage were identified Fig. 3 shows the path of a particle through the
by Evertsson (1998): inter-particle breakage and single crusher. This particle flow model overestimates the ca-
particle breakage. The reason for selecting size distri- pacity of the crusher. Due to dynamic filling effects, the
bution and crusher setting in this study was to ensure actual capacity will be reduced in comparison with the
inter-particle breakage. Inter-particle breakage occurs particle model (Evertsson, 1999).
when the size of the particles is smaller than the bed
height i.e. particles will be crushed against each other; as 3.2. Modelling pressure
opposed to single particle breakage when a single par-
ticle is crushed between the two steel liners. By crushing a bed of rock material in a cylindrical
The forces were registered and the motion of the container (see Fig. 4) it is possible to relate average
crusher was measured by recording a signal indicating pressure p to the compression ratio ðs=bÞ. Rock is
4 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1–12

dependency between ðs=bÞ and pressure has been used,

since the change in size distribution before and after the
crusher is not significant in terms of affecting the pres-
sure.

3.3. Modelling forces

Using the simulated pressure distribution, it is pos-

sible to compute the forces corresponding to the mea-
sured forces on the test crusher. It is assumed here that
the normal force on the moving liner is equal to the
normal force on the stationary liner. In Fig. 6, a prin-
ciple image of the crusher is shown.
Equilibrium around point A in Fig. 6 yields the fol-
lowing equations:
 Z 
Fig. 3. Path of particle in jaw crusher at eccentric speed 40 rpm. 1
F2 ¼ c py dy  F3 h ð1Þ
d
Z
crushed in a cylindrical container. By measuring force F3 ¼ C lp dy ð2Þ
along with compression ðs=bÞ it becomes possible to fit a Z
polynomial to the measured data. This function is de- F1 ¼ F2  c p dy ð3Þ
pendent on grain size distribution. This work has been
done elsewhere (Evertsson, 2002). where d is the distance between the horizontal force
The nominal compression ratio ðs=bÞnom is deter- cells, c is the width of the plate and h is the distance
mined by the geometry of the crusher (horizontal stroke between the liner surface and the vertical force cell. This
divided by horizontal chamber size). Due to dynamic calculation is performed for each time step.
effects, the effective compression ratio ðs=bÞeff is less than
the nominal. In addition, filling effects further reduces 3.4. Modelling motion
the effective compression. The compression ratio utilized
is denoted ðs=bÞu : ðs=bÞnom > ðs=bÞeff > ðs=bÞu (Everts- The geometry and motion of the crusher can easily be
son, 1999). By computing the effective compression from computed. During each time step, every point on the
the particle flow model and using the correlation be- moving liner in squeeze will have a motion relative to the
tween pressure and compression obtained in the can test, bed of rock material (see Fig. 7).
it is possible to compute the pressure on the crusher It is possible to compute the sliding and squeezing
liners (see Fig. 5). The pressure is also dependent on size distance from the velocities in the tangential and normal
distribution. In these simulations, however, an average direction, as shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 4. The can test.

 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1–12 5

Fig. 5. Pressure distribution on one crusher liner plate, as a function of time and position. Since the crushing chamber becomes narrower further
down, the pressure will increase here. Note that no losses of any kind have been taken into account here. The effective compression ratio ðs=bÞeff has
been used to predict the pressure.

Fig. 7. Relative motion between rock and liner. Sliding distance V and
Fig. 6. Simulated pressure distribution and forces corresponding to squeezing distance S is computed for each time step using the average
the measured forces in the test crusher. tangential and normal velocities.

Z
V ¼ vt dt ð4Þ wear, p pressure, V sliding distance. The coefficients W1
Z and W2 are wear resistance coefficients and will be de-
S¼ vn dt ð5Þ termined by experiment. ArchardÕs original wear model
only included the first term pv=W1 . The term p=W2 ac-
count for the local sliding of particles during crushing.
3.5. Modelling wear This component of the wear is thus considered as an
event independent of time or velocity; only pressure
The liners will be worn during crushing, even if there causes this squeezing wear. During one stroke, the wear
is no sliding motion between the liner and bed of ma- will be
terial. ArchardÕs wear law will not yield any wear for this Z t
1 p
case. For this reason, ArchardÕs model needs to be Dw ¼ pv dt þ ð6Þ
modified to account for the local sliding that occurs W1 0 W2
when particles are crushed (see Eqs. (6) and (7)): w is the For N strokes the total wear will be computed as
6 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1–12

w ¼ N Dw ð7Þ
This means wear resistance coefficients W1 and W2 can be
computed from the wear w observed in experiments.

4. Results

4.1. Force measurements

The signals from the three load cells shown in Fig. 3 Fig. 9. Average measured force during one crushing cycle, computed
were recorded when the crusher was in operation. The from a large number of cycles.
main eccentric shaft was run clockwise as viewed in Fig.
3. During squeezing, the moving liner moves upward,
which explains why the vertical force is negative (tensile) dividing the vertical frictional force by the sum of the
(see Fig. 8). As expected, the lower force cell is subjected horizontal forces. It is not meaningful to compute the
to the highest force, since the compression and, conse- coefficient of friction for times where crushing forces are
quently, the pressure, is higher at the bottom of the close to zero. Coefficient of friction l is about 0.3. A
crusher. similar test (Yao et al., 2000) found that l is about 0.4–
A signal indicating the eccentric angle was recorded 0.5 when silica sand is being crushed. The result is
together with the three forces. In this way, it is possible shown in Fig. 10.
to identify a unique starting point for each crushing The effective compression ratio ðs=bÞeff was used to
cycle. By adding the signals from a large number of compute the pressure and the resulting forces are shown
cycles it is possible to compute the average force during in Fig. 11.
one cycle (see Fig. 9). Apparently this procedure greatly overestimates the
It can be seen in Fig. 9 that the maximum force does compression and pressure. The simulated force was
not occur in the two horizontal force cells simulta- found to be approximately 10 times higher than the
neously. The reason for this is that the moving liner actual measured force.
starts to close earlier at the top than it does at the According to Evertsson (1999), the utilized com-
bottom. The coefficient of friction can be estimated by pression ratio, ðs=bÞu , is smaller than the effective ratio

Fig. 8. Measured crushing forces on the three load cells at CSS ¼ 5 mm.
 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1–12 7

Fig. 12. A bed of initial thickness beff is compressed.

s Seff  ð1  gv Þbeff

¼ ð9Þ
b u beff gv
Before any crushing can take place, particles will be
rearranged, and only a portion sutilized of the effective
Fig. 10. Coefficient of friction for 2, 3 and 5 mm closed side setting of stroke seff is utilized (see Fig. 12 and Eqs. (8) and (9)).
the crusher. Insufficient filling has a dramatic impact on the utilized
compression ratio. For example at the top of the
crusher, seff ¼ 7 mm, beff ¼ 55 mm. Then ðs=bÞeff ¼ 0:12.
Assuming that gv ¼ 0:9 yields ðs=bÞu ¼ 0:03, in other
due to the fact that at the beginning of the stroke, words, a 10% reduction of filling reduces compression
particles are not confined. A rearrangement of particles by 75%.
is necessary before any crushing can take place. This It is difficult to accurately model or simulate the
reduces compression significantly compared to the utilized compression since it is so sensitive to changes in
nominal or effective compression ratio. A volumetric filling ratio. It is necessary to measure the forces by
filling ratio gv < 1 was introduced to account for this some means in order to verify the pressure distribution.
filling effect. Reducing compression ðs=bÞeff by a factor of 0.3 gives a
s Seff better correlation between measurements and model.
¼ ð8Þ Using this value and Eqs. (8) and (9) yields a volumetric
b eff beff
filling ratio of 0.9. This is a typical value for cone

Fig. 11. Simulated and measured forces on lower, upper and vertical force cell respectively (CSS 5 mm).
8 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1–12

Fig. 13. Simulated and measured forces on lower, upper and vertical force cells with loss in compression taken into account (CSS ¼ 5 mm).

crushers and this reduction in compression, gives a

better correlation for all settings of the crusher (see Fig.
13). Losses due to wall friction are included in this
factor. In a similar test, wall friction was about 7% of
applied pressure (Yao et al., 2000).

4.2. Wear results

During the test, the crusher was run under choke feed
conditions. The wear of both liners, stationary and
moving, was measured. The measurements were made
on a 13 by 8 grid with 10 mm spacing with 10 min in-
tervals and the average wear on the different levels was
computed.
It can be seen from Fig. 14 that in the upper section
of the crusher, the wear is very small or material is even
added. This is because the radius of the measuring probe Fig. 14. Material removal from fixed liner. Closed side setting 3 mm.
Wear data between the dashed lines are suitable for determining the
is much bigger than the size of the surface asperities wear coefficients.
formed during the test; the probe detects the peaks of
the craters. For this reason, the wear data from this
region is not suitable for determining the wear resistance
coefficients in ArchardÕs model. The last 20 mm of the overestimated and the force on the upper cell is under-
liner the wear profile also deviates from what can be estimated. Wear data from this region should also be
expected from the simulated pressure. Since the particles ignored when calculating wear coefficients.
near the bottom are not properly confined, the pressure The wear mechanisms are different for the fixed and
will be reduced here; rock material shatters during the moving liner. The graph in Fig. 15 shows the dif-
compression and falls out of the crusher. This is also ference. The wear rate is 4–9 times higher on the sta-
understood by looking at the forces in Fig. 13. The peak tionary liner compared to the moving one. If the worn
force on the lower force cell of the crusher is slightly surfaces are studied, one can clearly see the ploughing
 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1–12 9

Fig. 15. Wear rate on fixed and moving liner. 3 mm closed side setting,
after 40 min of crushing.
Fig. 17. Stationary liner with ploughing grooves.

grooves on the fixed liner, but on the moving liner there

are no such grooves (see Figs. 16 and 17).
This difference in relative motion between the bed and
the two liners is governed by the angle of the liner, and
the direction of motion. This is understood if the bed of
rock material is regarded as a wedge (see Fig. 18).
Equilibrium for the wedge of rock material will re-
quire
!: N1 sin a þ F1 cos a  F2 ¼ 0
": N2  N1 cos a þ F1 sin a ¼ 0
The ratio between normal forces N1 , N2 and frictional
forces F1 , F2 is denoted f1 and f2 respectively. If the
friction is fully developed at the left surface (f1 ¼ l) then
the coefficient of friction at the right surface will be Fig. 18. Wedge of rock material between two liners.
tan a þ l
f2 ¼
1  l tan a
which is greater than the coefficient of friction l, and fully developed at the right surface (f2 ¼ l) then the
this is not possible. On the other hand, if the friction is utilized friction at the left surface will be
l  tan a
f1 ¼
1 þ l tan a
and this is less than the coefficient of friction. This
means that slip will begin at the right surface.
The length of the longest observable ploughing
groove on the fixed liner is about 5 mm. The total sliding
length during squeeze is about 14 mm. This indicates
that the pressure is high enough to cause ploughing
grooves during roughly a third of the stroke. Because of
the difference in wear mechanisms, two different models
are used depending on whether there is or is not any
relative sliding motion between steel surface and bed.
Eq. (10) is the model used when there is both sliding and
squeezing wear, and Eq. (11) is used for pure squeezing
wear.
Z t
1 p
Fig. 16. Photo of the surface of the moving liner. Indentation marks Dw ¼ pv dt þ ð10Þ
are clearly observed whilst no ploughing grooves can be seen. W1 0 W2
10 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1–12

p
Dw ¼ ð11Þ
W2
In the model used here, sliding distance V and pres-
sure are computed for each time increment. Wear re-
sistance coefficients W1 and W2 can be computed by
applying the method of least squares. When these co-
efficients are obtained it is possible to compute the
simulated worn geometry. The graphs in Figs. 19 and 20
shows measured worn profile and corresponding simu-
lated profile.
Note that the order of magnitude of the wear on the
moving liner (pure squeezing wear) is much smaller than
for the fixed liner (sliding wear). The wear coefficients
obtained are (note that the units for sliding and
squeezing wear are different): Fig. 21. Maximum wear on each plate and for each test.

W1 ¼ 208 kN=mm2 for sliding wear:

W2 ¼ 274 kN=mm3 for squeezing wear:
In Fig. 21, maximum wear on each plate and for each
test is plotted against time. The wear is proportional to
time (i.e. sliding distance or number of strokes). This is
in agreement with ArchardÕs wear model. In Fig. 20, it
can be seen that for the moving liner on the upper sec-
tion, it appears as if material has been added, which of
course is not possible. The explanation for this is that
the size of the surface asperities is of the same order of
magnitude as the wear itself. After 30 min of crushing at
CSS 2 mm, the maximum surface deviation Rz is 92 lm
on the fixed liner at the location of maximum wear.

Fig. 19. Measured profile (x;  and þ marks) and corresponding

simulated profile (solid line) on fixed plate. Closed side setting 5, 3 and 5. Discussion
2 mm, feed: quartzite 8–11 mm, 40 min crushing.
According to P~ odra, 1997, the predicted life can de-
viate by more than 90% when the linear wear equation is
used. This is in agreement with Yao et al. (2000), who
found a change in wear mechanism as pressure increased
during crushing of silica sand. Hutchings (1992), made a
distinction between wear caused by brittle fracture and
plastic deformation. Based on simple theory, Hutchings
suggests a linear wear model identical to ArchardÕs for
plastic deformation wear. For wear caused by brittle
fracture, several non-linear models are suggested. In the
non-linear methods quoted by Hutchings, wear is pro-
portional to pressure raised to an exponent of between
1.125 and 1.5. The pressure used in the wear prediction
here has been calibrated by measuring the forces that
occur during crushing. It has been possible to calculate
the average pressure on the crusher liners from the
measured forces and the geometry and motion of the
Fig. 20. Measured profile (x;  and þ marks) and corresponding crusher.
simulated profile (solid line) on moving plate. Closed side setting 5, 3 The feed material, quartzite of size distribution 8–11
and 2 mm, feed: quartzite 8–11 mm, 40 min crushing. mm, was selected since it is known for being very
 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1–12 11

abrasive and to ensure inter-particle breakage. The liner motion of the cone crusher in a vertical cross section is
material, manganese steel, is well known for its excellent synchronous. In a certain vertical plane, the closing and
capability of work hardening. This effect is generally not opening takes place simultaneously everywhere in a cone
observed when crushing quartzite, however. It may be crusher. This is not the case for the jaw crusher, which
necessary to take the effect of work hardening into ac- opens at the top while closing take place at the bottom.
count when crushing other materials than quartzite. The Hence, discrepancies between modelled and measured
influence of particle size distribution on wear rate may wear at the top and bottom of the crusher, can be ex-
need to be investigated further. pected to be smaller in a real crusher. The objective of
Figs. 19 and 20 shows a similarity between simulated this study was to predict the geometry of the worn
and measured geometry. The crushing chamber in the crusher regardless of how long it takes. It is not so im-
jaw crusher used in these experiments is 120 mm high. portant to be able to predict the wear rate. It is more
The boundary effects (poor confinement of particle bed important to predict how the geometry changes in the
near top and bottom of crusher) will be less significant in worn crusher, regardless of time.
a cone crusher, since the crushing chamber is much
higher compared to the bed thickness and stroke. An-
other circumstance that may be beneficial is that the 6. Conclusions

The flow model is not accurate enough to predict

pressure in the jaw crusher without additional mea-
surements. The relationship between wear and pressure
has proven to be reasonably good (see Figs. 5,19,20).
The pressure distribution is similar to the wear distri-
bution with the exception of the lower part of the
crusher. Fig. 21 shows that wear is proportional to time.
This is in agreement with ArchardÕs wear equation. This
is promising since there are reasons to assume that wear
prediction will be more accurate in a cone crusher. The
next step will be to implement the wear model for the
cone crusher (Figs. 22 and 23).

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the following persons

for support, advice and valuable discussions: Professor
G€oran Gerbert, Jan M€ oller and Mats Persson at Chal-
mers University of Technology, Richard Bern, Torsten
hman, Anders Nilsson and Per Olsson-Artberger at
A
Fig. 22. Size distribution after crushing and for different closed side Sandvik Rock Processing, Claes L€ owgren at SSAB, Per
settings of the crusher. Jonning at NCC.

Fig. 23. Maximum crushing force on lower force cell vs closed side setting of crusher (left). Capacity of crusher vs closed side setting of crusher
(right).
12 M. Lindqvist, C.M. Evertsson / Minerals Engineering 16 (2003) 1–12

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