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CHENG 111
Introduction to Chemical
Engineering
Dr. Ajaz Rashid

Chapter 3

Processes and
Process Variables

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Chapter Objectives

▪ Explain in your own words and without the use of jargon (a) the difference between density and specific gravity; (b) the
meaning of gram-mole, lb-mole, mol, and kmol; (c) at least two methods for measuring temperature and at least two for
measuring fluid pressure; (d) the meaning of the terms absolute pressure and gauge pressure; (e) why atmospheric pressure is
not necessarily 1 atm.

▪ Calculate the density from the specific gravity, and vice versa.

▪ Calculate two of the quantities mass (or mass flow rate), volume (or volumetric flow rate), and moles (or molar flow rate) from
a knowledge of the third quantity for any species of known density and molecular weight.

▪ Given the composition of a mixture expressed in terms of mass fractions, calculate the composition in terms of mole fractions,
and vice versa.

▪ Determine the average molecular weight of a mixture from the mass or molar composition of the mixture.

▪ Convert a pressure expressed as a head of a fluid to the equivalent pressure expressed as a force per unit area, and vice versa.

▪ Convert a manometer reading into a pressure difference for an open-end manometer, a sealed-end manometer, and a
differential manometer.

▪ Convert among temperatures expressed in different units.

Operations and Processes

▪ An operation is any action that causes a physical or chemical

changes in a substance or a mixture of substances.
▪ Physical change: heating, cooling, cutting
▪ Chemical change: rusting, burning, reaction
▪ A process is any operation or series of operations by which a
particular objective is accomplished.

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Physical and Chemical Changes

▪ Classify the following as Physical and Chemical changes

Mixing sand
Crushing a can Iron rusting Electroplating Rotting banana
with water

Vinegar and Mixing green

Melting an ice
Baking a cake Chopping wood baking soda and red
cube
mixture marbles

Dissolving sugar Chemical Shredding

Metabolism Fireworks
in water Battery paper

Sublimation of Breaking glass

Cooking an egg Boiling water Burning wood
dry ice

Physical Changes

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Chemical Changes

A Sample Process

The material The material

that enters a that leaves a
process is process is
referred to referred to as
as the input the output or
or feed product

Process units: It is common for processes to consist of multiple

steps, each of which is carried out in a process unit
Process streams: Each process unit has a set of input and output
associated with it; these streams are called process streams

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Role of a Chemical Engineer

▪ As a chemical engineer, you might be called upon to

1. Design a process
▪ formulation of a process flowsheet (layout)
▪ specification of individual process units (such as reactors, separation
equipment, heat exchangers) and associated operating variables
2. Operate a process
▪ the day-to-day running of the process.
▪ the process and all the equipment must produce product at a
designated rate and with specified characteristics

Activities of a Chemical Engineer

▪ Re-engineering: the examination and modification of a system to

reconstitute it in a new form and the subsequent implementation of
the new form.
▪ Cost-cutting measures: actions, procedures, or modifications that
can be introduced to the process in order to reduce the total cost
through reducing the use of raw materials or energy.
▪ Trouble-shooting: find where the problem is and find a solution.
▪ De-bottle-necking: Change operation condition(s) and/or a process
unit in the whole process to increase the overall production rate.
▪ Turndown: reduction in the production below the designed rate.

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Activities of a Chemical Engineer

▪ The links among all of the previously mentioned activities and functions
are the process streams connecting process units and forming the process
flowsheet.
▪ Performance of the functions requires knowledge of the amounts,
compositions, and conditions of the process streams and materials within
the process units.
▪ You must be able to measure or calculate such information for existing
units or specify and calculate such information for units being designed
▪ These amounts, rates, compositions, conditions etc. are what we call the
process variables

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3.1 Mass and Volume

▪ Density: of a substance is the mass per unit volume of the substance

(g/cm3, kg/m3, lbm/ft3)
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
▪ Densities of pure solids and liquids are essentially independent of pressure and
vary slightly with temperature.
▪ e.g. Density of liquid water,, is 0.99987 g/cm3 at 0oC
1.00000 g/cm3 at 3.98oC
0.95838 g/cm3 at 100oC
▪ The density of gases is strong function of temperature and pressure.

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3.1 Mass and Volume

▪ Specific Volume: of a substance is the volume it occupies in unit mass

(cm3/g, m3/kg, ft3/lbm)
𝑉 1
𝑉෠ = =
𝑚 𝜌

▪ Specific Gravity: of a substance is the ratio of the density () of the substance to
the density of a reference substance (ref) at a specific condition:
𝜌𝑖
𝑆𝐺𝑖 =
𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓

▪ The reference most commonly used for solids and liquids is water at 4.0 oC

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3.1 Mass and Volume

▪ Specific Gravity: The reference most commonly used for solids and liquids is
water at 4.0oC
𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 𝑙 4𝑜 C = 1.000 gΤ cm3
= 1000 kgΤm3
= 62.43 lbm /ft 3
𝟐𝟎°
▪ The notation 𝑺𝑮 = 𝟎. 𝟔 𝟒° signifies that the specific gravity of a substance at
20oC with reference to water at 4oC is 0.6.
▪ If you are given the specific gravity of a substance, multiply it by the reference
density in any units to get the density of the substance in the same units.

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3.1 Mass and Volume

▪ Example 3.1-1

▪ Calculate the density of mercury in lbm/ft3 from a tabulated specific gravity, and
calculate the volume in ft3 occupied by 215 kg of mercury.

▪ Table B.1 from the Appendix

13.546 Answers: Hg = 845.7 lbm/ft3

V = 0.560 ft3

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3.1 Mass and Volume

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 44)

1. What are the units of specific gravity?

2. A liquid has a specific gravity of 0.50. What is its density in g/cm3? What is its specific
volume in cm3/g? What is its density in lbm/ft3? What is the mass of 3.0 cm3 of this
liquid? What volume is occupied by 18 g?

3. If substance A and substance B each have a density of 1.34 g/cm3, must 3 cm3 of A
have the same mass as 3 cm3 of B?

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3.1 Mass and Volume

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 44)

4. If substance A and substance B each have a specific gravity of 1.34, must 3 cm3 of A
have the same mass as 3 cm3 of B? Why not?

5. Freezing a sealed full bottle of water leads to a broken bottle and freezing a sealed full
flexible-walled container of n-butyl alcohol leads to a container with concave walls.
What can you conclude about the densities of the solid and liquid forms of these two
substances?

6. Does the density of liquid mercury increase or decrease with increasing temperature?
Justify your answer using a thermometer as an illustration.

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3.1 Mass and Volume

▪ Effect of Temperature on Liquid Density

▪ Temperature and pressure do not have large influences on the densities of solids
and liquids
▪ However, the effect is measurable
▪ Coefficients of linear and cubic (volume) thermal expansion of selected liquids
and solids are given as empirical polynomial functions of temperature on
pp. 2-128 to 2-131 of Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook
▪ e.g. volume of mercury changes with temperature as:
𝑉 𝑇 = 𝑉0 1 + 0.18182 × 10−3 𝑇 + 0.0078 × 10−6 𝑇 2
where V(T) is the volume of a given mass of mercury at temperature T(oC) and V0
is the volume of the same mass of mercury at 0 oC.

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3.1 Mass and Volume

▪ Example 3.1-2

▪ In Example 3.1-1, 215 kg of mercury was found to occupy 0.560 ft3 at 20 oC.

▪ (1)What volume would the mercury occupy at 100 oC?

▪ (2) Suppose the mercury is contained in a cylinder having a diameter of 0.25 in.
What change in height would be observed as the mercury is heated from
20 oC to 100 oC?

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3.1 Mass and Volume

▪ Example 3.1-2

▪ We know that 𝑉(20 oC) = 0.56 ft3,

𝑉 20 = 𝑉0 1 + 0.18182 × 10−3 (20) + 0.0078 × 10−6 (20)2 = 0.560
𝑉0 = 0.55797 ft 3

𝑉 100 = 𝑉0 1 + 0.18182 × 10−3 (100) + 0.0078 × 10−6 (100)2 = 0.56816 ft 3

𝑑 2 3.14159 0.252 in2 12 ft 2

𝐴=𝜋 = = 3.409 × 10−4 ft 2
4 4 122 in2

𝑉 100 − 𝑉(20) 0.56816 − 0.560

∆ℎ = = = 23.9 ft
𝐴 3.409 × 10−4

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3.2 Flow Rate

3.2a Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate

▪ Most processes involve the movement of material from one point to

another—sometimes between process units, sometimes between a
production facility and a transportation depot.
▪ The rate at which a material is transported through a process line is the
flow rate of that material.

Flow Rate

Mass Volumetric Molar

Flow Rate Flow Rate Flow Rate

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3.2 Flow Rate

3.2a Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate

▪ Mass flow rate is the mass of a fluid flowing per unit time

𝑚
𝑚ሶ = (kg/s)
𝑡

▪ Volume flow rate is the volume of a fluid flowing per unit time

𝑉 3
𝑉ሶ = (m /s)
𝑡

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3.2 Flow Rate

3.2a Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate

▪ Suppose a fluid (gas or liquid) flows in the cylindrical pipe shown below, where
the shaded area represents a section perpendicular to the direction of flow

▪ the mass and the volume of the fluid that pass through the cross section each
second are not independent quantities but are related through the fluid density:
𝑚 𝑚ሶ
𝜌= =
𝑉 𝑉ሶ

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3.2 Flow Rate

3.2a Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 46)

1. The mass flow rate of hexane (𝝆= 0.659 g/cm3) in a pipe is 6.59 g/s. What is the
volumetric flow rate of the hexane?

2. The volumetric flow rate of CCl4 (𝝆= 1.595 g/cm3) in a pipe is 100.0 cm3/min. What is
the mass flow rate of the CCl4?

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3.2 Flow Rate

3.2a Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 46)

3. Suppose a gas is flowing through a cone-shaped pipe.

▪ How do the mass flow rates of the gas at the inlet and outlet compare? (Remember the
law of conservation of mass.)

▪ If the density of the gas is constant, how do the volumetric flow rates at these two points
compare?

▪ What if the density decreases from inlet to outlet?

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3.2 Flow Rate

3.2b Flow Rate Measurement

▪ A flowmeter is a device mounted in a process line that provides

a continuous reading of the flow rate in the line.
▪ Two commonly used flowmeters:
1. Rotameter
2. Orifice flow meter

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3.2 Flow Rate

3.2b Flow Rate Measurement

▪ The rotameter is a tapered vertical tube containing a float;

▪ The larger the flow rate, the higher the float rises in the tube.

Clear, tapered
glass tube

scale
float

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3.2 Flow Rate

3.2b Flow Rate Measurement

▪ The orifice meter is an obstruction in the flow channel with a narrow

opening through which the fluid passes.
▪ The fluid pressure drops (decreases) from the upstream side of the orifice
to the downstream side;
▪ The pressure drop varies with the flow rate—the greater the flow rate, the
larger the pressure drop.

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3.2 Flow Rate

3.2a Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 47)

1. A steadily flowing stream of water is funneled into a graduated cylinder for exactly
30 s, during which time 50 mL is collected. What is the volumetric flow rate of the
stream? The mass flow rate?

2. What is a rotameter? An orifice meter?

3. A rotameter calibration curve (flow rate versus float position) obtained using a liquid is
mistakenly used to measure a gas flow rate. Would you expect the gas flow rate
determined in this manner to be too high or too low?

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3.3 Chemical Composition

MATTER

PURE
MIXTURES
SUBSTANCES

Homogenous Heterogenous Compounds

Elements
mixtures mixtures

Salt-water Soil Copper (Cu) H2O

Air Salad Helium (He) NaCl

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3.3 Chemical Composition

▪ Most materials encountered in nature and in chemical process systems are

mixtures of various species.
▪ The physical properties of a mixture depend strongly on the mixture
composition.
Effect of salt concentration of water density
1030

1020
Density (kg/m3)

1010

1000

990
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
% salinity

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3a Moles and Molecular Mass

▪ Atomic weight (Atomic Mass): Atomic weight of an element is the mass of

an element on a scale that assigns C12 (the isotope of carbon whose
nucleus contains six protons and six neutrons) a mass of exactly 12.
▪ Molecular Weight of a compound(M): is the sum of the atomic weights of
the atoms that constitute a molecule of the compound.

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3a Moles and Molecular Mass

▪ Molar Units
▪ A mole is a measure of quantity of substance or the number of particles.
▪ A gram-mole (mol, gmol) of a species is the amount of a species whose
mass in grams is numerically the same as its molecular weight.
▪ 1 gram-mole of any substance = Molecular Weight of substance in grams.
𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3a Moles and Molecular Mass

▪ If the molecular weight of a substance is M, then there are M grams per

gram-mole. This means you can use the molecular weight as a conversion
factor for going from mass to moles:
▪ A kilogram-mole (kmol, kgmol) of a species is the amount of a species
whose mass in kilograms is numerically the same as its molecular weight.
▪ 1 gram-mole (gmole or mol) of any substance = Molecular Weight of
substance in grams.
▪ 1 pound-mole (lbmol) of any substance = Molecular Weight of substance
in pounds.

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3a Moles and Molecular Mass

▪ The same factors used to convert masses from one unit to another unit
may be used to convert the equivalent molar units.
Mass units
1 kg = 1000 g = 2.20462 lbm
1 lbm = 453.593 g = 0.453593 kg
Molar units
1 kgmol = 1000 gmol = 2.20462 lbmol
1 lbmol = 453.593 gmol = 0.453593 kgmol
▪ One g-mole of any species contains approximately 6.022x1023 molecule of
that species (Avogadro’s Number)

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3a Moles and Molecular Mass

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3a Moles and Molecular Mass

▪ What is the molecular mass of H2SO4?

▪ From the Periodic Table of Elements, we have the Atomic masses of the
elements:
H=1 S = 32 O = 16
MH2SO4 = 2x1 + 32 + 4x16 = 98
▪ Choice of units is according to usage:
MH2SO4 = 98 g/mol MH2SO4 = 98 kg/kgmol MH2SO4 = 98 lbm/lbmol

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3a Moles and Molecular Mass
▪ Example 3.3-1

▪ How many of each of the following are contained in 100.0 g of CO2( 44.01)?
(1) mol CO2; 2.273 mol CO2;
(2) lb-moles CO2; 5.011x10-3 lb-moles CO2;
(3) mol C; 2.273 mol C;
(4) mol O; 4.546 mol O;
(5) mol O2; 2.273 mol O2;
(6) g O; 72.7 g O;
(7) g O2; 72.7 g O2;
(8) molecules of CO2. 1.37x1024 molecules of CO2

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3a Moles and Molecular Mass

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 49)

1. What is a mol of a species of molecular weight 𝑀, in terms of (a) a number of molecules?

(b) a mass?

2. What is a ton-mole of a species?

3. How many lb-moles and lb of (a) H2 and (b) H are contained in 1 lb-mole of H2O?

4. How many gram-moles of C3H8 are contained in 2 kmol of this substance?

5. One hundred kilograms of molecular hydrogen (H2) is fed into a reactor each hour. What is
the molar flow rate of this stream in gram-moles/hour?

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3a Moles and Molecular Mass

▪ The molecular weight of a species can be used to relate the mass flow rate
of a continuous stream of this species to the corresponding molar flow
rate.
▪ Example: if carbon dioxide (CO2 , M = 44.0) flows through a pipeline at a
rate of 100 kg/h, the molar flow rate of the CO2 is:

100 kg CO2 kgmol CO2 kmol CO2

𝑛ሶ 𝐶𝑂2 = = 2.27
h 44.0 kg CO2 h

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3b Moles and Molecular Mass

▪ The molecular weight of a species can be used to relate the mass flow rate
of a continuous stream of this species to the corresponding molar flow
rate.
▪ Example: if carbon dioxide (CO2 , M = 44.0) flows through a pipeline at a
rate of 100 kg/h, the molar flow rate of the CO2 is:

100 kg CO2 kgmol CO2 kmol CO2

𝑛ሶ 𝐶𝑂2 = = 2.27
h 44.0 kg CO2 h

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3b Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight

mass of A kg A gA lbm A
Mass fraction: 𝑥A = or or
total mass kg total g total lbm total

moles of A kmol A mol A lbmoles A

Mole fraction: 𝑦A = or or
total moles kmol mol lbmoles

▪ The percent by mass of A is 100 xA

▪ The mole percent of A is 100 yA

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3b Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight

▪ Example 3.3-2

▪ A solution contains 15% A by mass (xA = 0.15) and 20 mole% B (yB = 0.20).
1. Calculate the mass of A in 175 kg of the solution.
2. Calculate the mass flow rate of A in a stream of solution flowing at a rate of 53 lbm/h.
3. Calculate the molar flow rate of B in a stream flowing at a rate of 1000 mol/min.
4. Calculate the total solution flow rate that corresponds to a molar flow rate of 28 kmol
B/s.
5. Calculate the mass of the solution that contains 300 lbm of A.

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3b Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight

175 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 0.15 𝑘𝑔 𝐴

1) ቤ = 26.25 𝑘𝑔 𝐴
1 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

53 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 0.15 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐴 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐴 If a mass or molar unit is

2) ℎ
ቤ1 𝑙𝑏 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 7.95 ℎ
𝑚 not followed by the name
1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙 0.20 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵 of a species, the unit
3) 𝑚𝑖𝑛
ฬ 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 200 𝑚𝑖𝑛 should be understood to
refer to the total mixture
28 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 or solution rather than to
4) 𝑠
ฬ 0.20 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵 = 140 𝑠 a specific component
300 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐴 1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
5) ቤ 0.15 𝑙𝑏 𝐴 = 2000 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3b Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight

▪ Note that the numerical value of a mass or a mole fraction does not depend on the mass
or mole units in the numerator and denominator as long as these units are the same.
e.g.:
0.35 𝑘𝑔 𝐴 0.35 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐴 0.35 𝑔 𝐴
𝑥𝐴 = 0.35 → → →
𝑘𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

▪ Mass and Mole fractions are interconvertible by using a basis of calculation

▪ Always remember that:

෍ 𝒙𝒊 = 𝟏 ෍ 𝒚𝒊 = 𝟏

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3b Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight

▪ Example 3.3-3

▪ A mixture of gases has the following composition by mass:

O2 16% (xO2 = 0.16 g O2 / g total)

CO 4%
CO2 17%
N2 63%

▪ What is the molar composition?

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3b Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight

▪ Step 1: Select a Basis for the calculations

▪ If mass fractions are given, then select your basis in units of mass (a convenient
basis is 100 g of mixture)

▪ If mole fractions are given, then select your basis in units of moles (a convenient
basis is 100 mol of mixture)

▪ You are free to choose any basis for your calculations

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3b Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight

▪ Step 2: Put the data in a tabular format

Component Mass Fraction Mass (g) Molecular Weight Moles Mole Fraction
i xi (gi /g) mi = xi × mtotal Mi (g/mol) ni (mi/Mi) yi = (ni /ntotal)

O2 0.16 16 32 0.500 0.150

CO 0.04 4 28 0.143 0.044

CO2 0.17 17 44 0.386 0.120

N2 0.63 63 28 2.250 0.690

Total 1.00 100 3.279 1.000

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3b Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight

▪ To convert Mole Fractions to Mass Fractions

▪ Step 1: Basis = 100 moles of mixture
▪ Step 2: Use the following table
Moles of 𝒊
Component Mole Fraction Molecular Weight Mass of 𝒊 Mass Fraction
𝒏𝒊 = 𝒚𝒊 × 𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝑴𝒊 𝒎𝒊 = 𝒏𝒊 × 𝑴𝒊 𝒙𝒊 = 𝒎𝒊 /𝒎𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍

TOTAL 1.00 100 𝒎𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 1.00

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3b Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight

▪ Average Molecular Weight

▪ also knows as mean molecular weight
▪ Average Molecular Weight = Total mass / Total moles
𝑛
ഥ = ෍ 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖 = 𝑦1 𝑀1 + 𝑦2 𝑀2 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛 𝑀𝑛
𝑀
𝑖=1
using mol fractions
𝑛
1 𝑥𝑖 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥𝑛
=෍ = + +⋯+
ഥ
𝑀 𝑀𝑖 𝑀1 𝑀2 𝑀𝑛
𝑖=1
using mol fractions

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3b Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight

▪ Example 3.3-4

▪ Calculate the average molecular weight of air

1. from its approximate molar composition of 79% N2, 21% O2 and
2. from its approximate composition by mass of 76.7% N2, 23.3% O2.

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3b Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight

▪ Example 3.3-4

𝑛
ഥ = ෍ 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖 = 0.79 28 + 0.21 32 = 28.84
𝑀
𝑖=1

𝑛
1 𝑥𝑖 0.767 0.233
=෍ = + ഥ = 28.84
= 0.035 ⟹ 𝑀
ഥ
𝑀 𝑀𝑖 28 32
𝑖=1

Note: Air contains small amounts of carbon dioxide, argon, and other gases that have been neglected
ഥ
in this calculation, but whose presence does not significantly affect the calculated value of 𝑀.

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3b Mass and Mole Fractions and Average Molecular Weight

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 55)

1. The molecular weight of atomic hydrogen is approximately 1, and that of

atomic bromine is 80. What are (a) the mass fraction and (b) the mole fraction
of bromine in pure HBr?
2. If 100 lbm/min of A (𝑀𝐴 =2) and 300 lbm/min of B (𝑀𝐵 =3) flow through a pipe,
what are the (i) mass fractions and (ii) mole fractions of A and B, (iii) the mass
flow rate of A, (iv) the molar flow rate of B, (v) the total mass flow rate, and the
(vi) total molar flow rate of the mixture?

53

3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3c Concentration

▪ The mass concentration of a component of a mixture or solution is the mass of

this component per unit volume of the mixture
𝑚𝐴 kg A gA lbm A
𝑐𝐴 = or or
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥 m3 mixture cm3 mixture ft 3 mixture

▪ The molar concentration of a component of a mixture or solution is the moles of

this component per unit volume of the mixture
𝑛𝐴 kmol A mol A lbmol A
𝐶𝐴 = or or 3
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥 m3 mixture 3
cm mixture ft mixture

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3c Concentration

▪ The molarity of a solution is the value of the molar concentration of the

solute expressed in gram-moles solute/liter solution
▪ e.g. a 2.0 M NaOH solution contains 2 mol NaOH per liter of solution
▪ The concentration of a substance in a mixture or solution can be used as a
conversion factor to relate the mass (or moles) of a component in a
sample of the mixture to the sample volume,
▪ or to relate the mass (or molar) flow rate of a component of a continuous
stream to the total volumetric flow rate of the stream.

55

3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3c Concentration

▪ Consider, for example, a 0.02-molar solution of NaOH. How much NaOH is contained in
5 L of this solution?

5 L solution 0.02 mol NaOH

𝑛𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 = อ = 0.1 mol NaOH
L solution

▪ If a stream of this solution flows at a rate of 2 L/min, what is the molar flow rate of
NaOH?

2 L solution 0.02 mol NaOH mol NaOH

𝑛ሶ 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 = อ = 0.04
min L solution min

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3c Concentration

▪ Consider, for example, a 0.02-molar solution of NaOH. What quantity of this solution will
give me 0.5 mol NaOH?

0.5 mol NaOH L solution

𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙 = อ = 25 L sol
0.02 mol NaOH

▪ If the flow rate of NaOH in a stream of this solution is 2 mol/min, what is the volume flow
rate of the solution?

2 mol NaOH L solution L sol

𝑉ሶ𝑠𝑜𝑙 = อ = 100
min 0.02 mol NaOH min

57

3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3c Concentration

▪ Example 3.3-5

▪ A 0.50-molar aqueous solution of sulfuric acid flows into a process unit at

a rate of 1.25 m3/min. The specific gravity of the solution is 1.03. Calculate
1. the mass concentration of H2SO4 in kg/m3,
2. the mass flow rate of H2SO4 in kg/s, and
3. the mass fraction of H2SO4.

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3c Concentration

1. the mass concentration of H2SO4 in kg/m3

0.5 mol H2 SO4 98 g 1 kg 1000 L kg H2 SO4

𝑐𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 = ቤ 3
= 49
L mol 1000 g 1 m m3

2. the mass flow rate of H2SO4 in kg/s

1.25 m3 49 kg H2 SO4 1 min kg H2 SO4

𝑚ሶ 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 = 3
= 1.021
min m 60 s s

59

3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3c Concentration

3. the mass fraction of H2SO4

1.03 1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = อ 3
= 1030 3
𝑚 𝑚

1.25 𝑚3 1030 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔

𝑚ሶ 𝑠𝑜𝑙 = 3
= 21.4583
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚 60 𝑠 𝑠

𝑚ሶ 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 1.021 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

𝑥𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 = = = 0.0476
𝑚ሶ 𝑠𝑜𝑙 21.4583 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3c Concentration

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 56)

▪ A solution with volume 𝑉 (L) contains 𝑛 (mol) of a solute A with a molecular

weight of 𝑀𝐴 (g A/mol). In terms of 𝑉, 𝑛, and 𝑀𝐴 :
1. What is the molar concentration of A?
2. What is the mass concentration of A?
▪ In terms of 𝐶𝐴 (mol A/L) and 𝑐𝐴 (g A/L):
3. What volume of the solution contains 20 mol of A?
4. What is the mass flow rate of A in a stream whose volumetric flow rate is 120
L/h?

61

3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3d Parts per Million and Parts per Billion

▪ If the amount of a species is very small (traces) in a mixture of gases or liquids,

then we express it using ppm (parts per million) or ppb (parts per billion)
▪ The definitions may refer to mass ratios (usual for liquids)
▪ or mole ratios (usual for gases)

𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 × 106

𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 × 109

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3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3d Parts per Million and Parts per Billion

▪ Sulfur concentration in ultra low sulfur diesel is around 15 ppm. What is

the mass fraction of sulfur in diesel?

𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑆 = 𝑥𝑆 × 106

𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑆 15
𝑥𝑆 = 6
= 6 = 1.5 × 10−5 = 0.0015%
10 10

63

3.3 Chemical Composition

3.3d Parts per Million and Parts per Billion

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 57)

▪ A blood sample is reported to contain 68 ppm creatinine (mass basis).

1. What is the mass fraction of creatinine in the blood?
2. How many milligrams of creatinine are contained in one kilogram of the blood?
3. What is the approximate concentration of creatinine in the blood in g/L?
(blood density= 1060 kg/m3)

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3.4 Pressure
3.4a Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

▪ A pressure is the ratio of a force to the area on which the force acts.
𝐹
𝑝=
𝐴
▪ Accordingly, pressure units are force units divided by area units (e.g.,
N/m2, dynes/cm2, and lbf/in.2 or psi).
Force = F
▪ The SI pressure unit, N/m2, is called a pascal (Pa).

Area = A

65

3.4 Pressure
3.4a Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

▪ Consider a fluid (gas or liquid) contained in a closed vessel or flowing

through a pipe and suppose that a hole of area 𝐴 is made in the wall of
the containing vessel.

▪ The fluid pressure may be defined as the ratio 𝐹/𝐴, where is 𝐹 the
minimum force that would have to be exerted on a frictionless plug in the
hole to keep the fluid from emerging.

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3.4 Pressure
3.4a Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

▪ Suppose a vertical column of fluid is ℎ (m) high and has a uniform cross-
sectional area 𝐴(m2). Further suppose that the fluid has a density of
(kg/m3), and that a pressure 𝑃0 (N/m2) is exerted on the upper surface of
the column.
▪ The pressure at the bottom of the column
can be written as: 𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝑃𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
where 𝑃𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 is the pressure due to the column
of fluid

67

3.4 Pressure
3.4a Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

▪ We can find the pressure of the fluid as:

𝑃𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐹/𝐴
▪ The force in this case is the weight of the fluid
𝑊 𝑚𝑔
𝑃𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = =
𝐴 𝐴
▪ Mass can be written in terms of 𝜌 and 𝑉
𝜌𝑉𝑔 𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔
𝑃𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = = = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝐴 𝐴
▪ Hence,
𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

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3.4 Pressure
3.4a Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

▪ Which tank has the highest pressure at the base?

𝑷 is independent of area!
A B C D E F

All have the same pressure at the base because fluid height is same

69

3.4 Pressure
3.4a Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

▪ In addition to being expressible as a force per unit area, a pressure may be

expressed as a head of a particular fluid—that is, as the height of a
hypothetical column of this fluid that would exert the given pressure at its
base if the pressure at the top were zero.
▪ You can thus speak of a pressure of 14.7 psi or equivalently of a pressure
(or head) of 33.9 ft of water (33.9 ft H2O) or 76 cm of mercury (76 cm Hg).

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3.4 Pressure
3.4a Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

▪ The equivalence between a pressure (force/area) and the corresponding

head (height of a fluid) is given by using 𝑃0 = 0 in the equation for pressure
of fluid:

force
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔𝑃ℎ (head of fluid)
area

71

3.4 Pressure
3.4a Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

▪ Example 3.4-1

▪ Express a pressure of 2.00x105 Pa in terms of mm Hg.

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3.4 Pressure
3.4a Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head
Example 3.4-1
▪ Express a pressure of 2.00x105 Pa in terms of mm Hg.

𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2

𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 13546 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑃 2 × 105 Pa m3 s2 1000 mm 1 kg/s. m

𝑃ℎ = = = 1505 mm Hg
𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑔 13546 kg 9.81 m 1m 1 Pa

73

3.4 Pressure
3.4a Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head
Example 3.4-2
▪ What is the pressure 30.0 m below the surface of a lake?
Atmospheric pressure (the pressure at the surface) is 10.4 m H2O, and
the density of water is 1000.0 kg/m3. Assume that 𝑔 is 9.807 m/s2.

𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
10.4 m H2 O 1.01325 × 105 Pa 1000 kg 9.807m 30 m
= อ +
10.33 m H2 O m3 s2
= 396,222 Pa
= 396.2 kPa

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3.4 Pressure
3.4a Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head
Example 3.4-2
▪ What is the pressure 30.0 m below the surface of a lake?
Atmospheric pressure (the pressure at the surface) is 10.4 m H2O, and
the density of water is 1000.0 kg/m3. Assume that 𝑔 is 9.807 m/s2.

𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
= 10.4 + 30 = 40.4 m H2 O

40.4 m H2 O 101325 Pa
𝑃= อ = 396.2 kPa
10.33 m H2 O

75

3.4 Pressure
3.4a Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 59)

▪ Define (a) the pressure of a fluid flowing in a pipe, (b) hydrostatic pressure, and
(c) a head of a fluid corresponding to a given pressure.
▪ Consider the tank in the figure.
Does the pressure at the plug depend on the height of the opening
in the tank? Why?
Would you expect the difference between the pressure at the top
and that at the bottom to be very large if the fluid were air?
How about water? Mercury?

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3.4 Pressure
3.4a Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 59)

▪ Suppose the pressure in the tank is given as 1300 mm Hg. Does this tell you
anything about the height of the tank?
If you were given the area of the hole (say, 4 cm2), how would you calculate the
force needed to hold the plug in the hole?
▪ Suppose the pressure at a point within a column of mercury in a tube is
74 mm Hg. What is the pressure 5 mm below this point?

77

3.4 Pressure
3.4b Atmospheric Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Gauge Pressure

▪ Atmospheric pressure, also called barometric pressure, is the force per

unit area exerted by an atmospheric column (that is, the entire body of air
above the specified area).
Top of Atmosphere

▪ A typical value of the atmospheric pressure

at sea level, 760.0mmHg, has been designated as
a standard pressure of 1 atmosphere.
Surface
Unit Area

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3.4 Pressure
3.4b Atmospheric Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Gauge Pressure

▪ Atmospheric pressure can be measured

with a mercury barometer (hence the
commonly used synonym barometric
pressure), which indicates the height of a
column of mercury that exactly balances
the weight of the column of atmosphere
over the barometer.

79

3.4 Pressure
3.4b Atmospheric Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Gauge Pressure

▪ Absolute pressure:
▪ When a total vacuum is reported as ZERO then the pressure is referred to
as absolute pressure.

▪ Gauge pressure:
▪ Many pressure-measuring devices give the gauge pressure of a fluid, or
the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

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3.4 Pressure
3.4b Atmospheric Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Gauge Pressure

▪ Absolute pressure:
▪ Absolute pressure can never be negative.
▪ A zero absolute pressure means total vacuum.

▪ Gauge pressure:
▪ Gauge pressure is zero at atmospheric pressure.
▪ Gauge pressures above 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 are positive.
▪ Gauge pressures below 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 are negative.
▪ Negative gauge pressures are reported as positive amounts of vacuum.

81

3.4 Pressure
3.4b Atmospheric Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Gauge Pressure

any point above 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑷𝒈

Atmospheric pressure, 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎

𝑷𝒈 = 𝟎
𝑷𝒗𝒂𝒄
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔
𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 𝑷𝒈 any point below 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
negative

𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔
Absolute vacuum Absolute vacuum
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 𝑷𝒈 = −𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎
= 𝟎

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3.4 Pressure
3.4b Atmospheric Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Gauge Pressure

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 60)

1. Is atmospheric pressure always equal to 1 atm?

2. What is absolute pressure? Gauge pressure?
3. The gauge pressure of a gas is 20mm Hg at a point where atmospheric pressure
is 755 mm Hg. How else can the gas pressure be expressed in terms of mm Hg?
(Give two values.)
4. A mercury column is open to the atmosphere on a day when atmospheric
pressure is 29.9 inches Hg. What is the gauge pressure 4 inches below the
surface? The absolute pressure? (Give the answers in inches Hg.)

83

3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

▪ Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook categorizes pressure-

measurement devices as:

1. elastic-element methods—Bourdon tubes, bellows, or diaphragms

2. liquid-column methods—manometers
3. electrical methods—strain gauges, piezoresistive transducers, and
piezoelectric transducers

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3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

▪ The most common mechanical device used for pressure measurement is a

Bourdon gauge
▪ It is a hollow tube closed at one end and bent into a C configuration.
▪ The open end of the tube is exposed to the fluid whose pressure is to be
measured.
▪ As the pressure increases, the tube tends to straighten, causing a pointer
attached to the tube to rotate. The position of the pointer on a calibrated
dial gives the gauge pressure of the fluid.
▪ Bourdon gauges are used to measure fluid pressures from nearly perfect
vacuums to about 7000 atm.

85

3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

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3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

▪ Although Bourdon gauge is most commonly used, more accurate

measurements of pressures below about 3 atm are provided by
manometers
▪ A manometer is a U-shaped tube partially filled with a fluid of known
density (the manometer fluid).
▪ When the ends of the tube are exposed to different pressures, the field
level drops in the high-pressure arm and rises in the low-pressure arm.
▪ The difference between the pressures can be calculated from the
measured difference between the liquid levels in each arm.

87

3.4 Pressure
pressure

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3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

▪ Manometers are used in several different ways

𝑃1 > 𝑃2 in all cases

89

3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

▪ We need to find a relation

between 𝑃1 and 𝑃2

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3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

▪ Important Note: The fluid pressure must be the same at any two points at
the same height in a continuous fluid

𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐷

91

3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌1 𝑔𝑑1

𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑑2 + 𝜌𝑓 𝑔ℎ
▪ Since
𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑏

𝑃1 + 𝜌1 𝑔𝑑1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑑2 + 𝜌𝑓 𝑔ℎ
The General Manometer Equation

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3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

▪ Special cases for the General Manometer Equation

▪ If 1 = 2 =  then for a differential manometer, we have:

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑓 − 𝜌 𝑔ℎ

▪ If the fluid in the stream is gas then, gas << liq

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔ℎ

93

3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

Example 3.4-3
1. A differential manometer is used to measure the drop in pressure
between two points in a process line containing water. The specific
gravity of the manometer fluid is 1.05. The measured levels in each arm
are shown below.

▪ Calculate the pressure drop between

points 1 and 2 in dynes/cm2.

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3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

ℎ = 382 − 374 = 8 mm

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑓 − 𝜌 𝑔ℎ

1.05 − 1.00 g 981 cm 8 mm 1 cm 1 dyne

= 3 2
cm s 10 mm 1 g. cm/s 2

dynes
= 39.24
cm2

95

3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

Example 3.4-3
2. The pressure of gas being pulled though a line by a vacuum pump is
measured with an open-end mercury manometer. A reading of 2 in. is
obtained.
▪ What is the gas gauge pressure
in inches of mercury?
▪ What is the absolute pressure if
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 30 in. Hg?

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3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

▪ From the definition of gauge pressure

𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = −2 in. Hg

▪ Absolute pressure is given by:

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = −2 in + 30 in = 28 in Hg

97

3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 63)

1. What is a Bourdon gauge? What range of pressures can it be used to measure?

As it is normally calibrated, does it measure gauge or absolute pressure?
2. What is an open-end manometer? A differential manometer? A sealed-end
manometer?

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3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 63)

1. True or false?
a) An open-end manometer provides a direct reading of the gauge pressure of a gas.
b) A sealed-end manometer provides a direct reading of the absolute pressure of a
gas, provided that the gas pressure in the sealed end may be neglected.
c) The reading of a differential manometer does not depend on the density of the
fluid in the pipeline but only on that of the manometer fluid.

2. The pressure of a gas in a pipeline is measured with an open-end mercury

manometer. The mercury level in the arm connected to the line is 14 mm
higher than the level in the open arm. What is the gauge pressure of the gas in
the line?

99

3.5 Temperature

▪ What is Temperature?
▪ The temperature of a substance in a particular state of aggregation (solid,
liquid, or gas) is a measure of the average kinetic energy possessed by the
substance molecules.
▪ Since this energy cannot be measured directly, the temperature must be
determined indirectly by measuring some physical property of the
substance whose value depends on temperature in a known manner.

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3.5 Temperature

Some properties that are a function of temperature and can

be used to measure the temperature indirectly
Voltage at junction Spectra of
Electrical Volume of fixed
of two dissimilar emitted
resistance metals mass of a liquid
radiation

Resistance
thermometer
Thermocouple pyrometer thermometer

101

3.5 Temperature

▪ Temperature Scale
▪ Since different properties are used to measure the temperature,
Temperature scales can be defined in terms of any of these properties
▪ A temperature scale is obtained by arbitrarily assigning numerical values
to two reproducibly measurable temperatures
▪ The two most common temperature scales are defined using the freezing
point (𝑇𝑓 )and boiling point (𝑇𝑏 )of water at 1 atm pressure

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3.5 Temperature
Two most commonly used Temperature scales

Celsius
Fahrenheit
(or centigrade)
scale
scale

Freezing point of
0 oC 32 oF
water

180 degrees
100 degrees

Boiling point of
100 oC 212 oF
water

the length of a unit temperature interval is called a degree

103

3.5 Temperature

▪ The lowest possible temperature attainable theoretically in nature is

called the “Absolute zero”
▪ The absolute zero falls at -273.15 oC on Celsius scale.
▪ The absolute zero falls at -459.67 oF on Fahrenheit scale.
▪ Absolute scale:
▪ The Kelvin and Rankine scales are defined such that absolute zero has a
value of 0 and the size of a degree is the same as a Celsius degree (Kelvin
scale) or a Fahrenheit degree (Rankine scale).

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We do not
use
degrees
with
Kelvin

105

3.5 Temperature

▪ How to convert from one temperature scale to another?

𝑇 𝐾 = 𝑇 ℃ + 273.15

𝑇 °𝑅 = 𝑇 ℉ + 459.67

𝑇 °𝑅 = 1.8 𝑇(𝐾)

𝑇 ℉ = 1.8 𝑇 ℃ + 32
▪ These are all equations of a straight line

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3.5 Temperature

▪ A degree refers to both a temperature and a temperature interval

▪ This can often be very confusing

▪ Examples:
▪ The room temperature is 25oC or 298.15 K Temperature
▪ The A/C reduced the room temperature by 12oF Temperature interval
▪ 1 Calorie is the heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram
water from 15oC to 16oC at 1 atm Temperature
▪ In another word, it is the heat required to increase the
temperature of 1 g water by 1oC at 1 atm Temperature interval

107

3.5 Temperature

▪ Conversion of Temperature intervals

▪ In the interval from 0 – 5oC, we have So for temperature intervals, T

▪ 5 Celsius degrees 1 oC = 1 K
▪ 5 Kelvins I oF = 1 oR
▪ 9 Fahrenheit degrees 1 oC = 1.8 oF
▪ 9 Rankine degrees 1 K = 1.8 oR

1.8℉ 1.8°R 1℉ 1℃
𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔:
1℃
, , ,
1 K 1°R 1 K

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3.4 Pressure
3.4c Fluid Pressure Measurement

▪ TEST YOURSELF (page 65)

1. Suppose you were given a glass tube with mercury in it but no scale markings,
and you were given only a beaker of water, a freezer, and a bunsen burner with
which to work. How would you calibrate the thermometer to provide readings
in °C?
2. Which is warmer, a temperature of 1°C or 1°F?
3. Which reflects a greater change in temperature, an increase of 1°C or 1°F?

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3.5 Temperature

▪ Example 3.5-2
▪ Consider the interval from 20 oF to 80 oF.
1. Calculate the equivalent temperatures in oC and the interval between
them.
2. Calculate directly the interval in oC between the temperatures.

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3.5 Temperature

1. 𝑇1 = 20 oF 𝑇2 = 80 oF

𝑇 ℉ − 32
𝑇 ℃ =
1.8
20−32 80−32
𝑇1 ℃ = = −6.67℃ 𝑇2 ℃ = = 26.67℃
1.8 1.8

∆𝑇 ℃ = 𝑇2 ℃ − 𝑇1 ℃ = 33.33℃

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3.5 Temperature

2. We know that:
∆𝑇(℉) 1℃ (80℉ − 20℉) 1℃
∆𝑇 ℃ = ቤ = ቤ = 33.33℃
1.8℉ 1.8℉

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3.5 Temperature

▪ Example 3.5-3
▪ The heat capacity of ammonia, defined as the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass of ammonia by precisely 1o at a
constant pressure, is, over a limited temperature range, given by the
expression
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐶𝑝 = 0.487 + 2.29 × 10−4 𝑇(℉)
𝑙𝑏𝑚 . ℉
▪ Determine the expression for 𝐶𝑝 in J/(g.oC) in terms of 𝑇 (oC).

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3.5 Temperature

▪ Note: The oF in the units of Cp refers to a temperature interval, while the

unit of T is a temperature. The calculation is best done in two steps.
1. Substitute for T(oF) and simplify the resulting equation:
Btu
𝐶𝑝 = 0.487 + 2.29 × 10−4 1.8𝑇 ℃ + 32
lbm . ℉
= 0.494 + 4.12 × 10−4 𝑇(℃)
2. Convert to the desired temperature interval unit:
J
We define 𝐶𝑝′ which has the units of g ℃

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3.5 Temperature

Btu J 9.486 × 10−4 Btu 454g 1℃

𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑝′
lbm . ℉ g. ℃ 1J 1 lbm 1.8℉

Btu J
𝐶𝑝 = 0.239258𝐶𝑝′
lbm . ℉ g. ℃

Btu
𝐶𝑝 = 0.494 + 4.12 × 10−4 𝑇(℃)
lbm . ℉

Replace 𝐶𝑝 by 𝐶𝑝′
0.239258𝐶𝑝′ = 0.494 + 4.12 × 10−4 𝑇(℃)

J
𝐶𝑝′ = 2.0647 + 1.722 × 10−3 𝑇(℃)
g. ℃

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