6.

3 Bone Structure
Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe the microscopic and gross anatomical structures of bones

 Identify the gross anatomical features of a bone

 Describe the histology of bone tissue, including the function of bone cells and matrix
 Compare and contrast compact and spongy bone
 Identify the structures that compose compact and spongy bone
 Describe how bones are nourished and innervated
 function?

Bone tissue (osseous tissue) differs greatly from other tissues in the body. Bone is
hard and many of its functions depend on that characteristic hardness. Later
discussions in this chapter will show that bone is also dynamic in that its shape adjusts
to accommodate stresses. This section will examine the gross anatomy of bone first
and then move on to its histology.

Gross Anatomy of Bones

A long bone has two main regions: the diaphysis and the epiphysis (Figure 6.3.1).
The diaphysis is the hollow, tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal
ends of the bone. Inside the diaphysis is the medullary cavity, which is filled with
yellow bone marrow in an adult. The outer walls of the diaphysis (cortex, cortical
bone) are composed of dense and hard compact bone, a form of osseous tissue.
 Figure 6.3.1 – Anatomy of
a Long Bone: A typical long bone showing gross anatomical features.

The wider section at each end of the bone is called the epiphysis (plural = epiphyses),
which is filled internally with spongy bone, another type of osseous tissue. Red bone
marrow fills the spaces between the spongy bone in some long bones. Each epiphysis
meets the diaphysis at the metaphysis. During growth, the metaphysis contains the
epiphyseal plate, the site of long bone elongation described later in the
chapter. When the bone stops growing in early adulthood (approximately 18–21
years), the epiphyseal plate becomes an epiphyseal line seen in the figure.

Lining the inside of the bone adjacent to the medullary cavity is a layer of bone cells
called the endosteum (endo- = “inside”; osteo- = “bone”). These bone cells
(described later) cause the bone to grow, repair, and remodel throughout life. On the
outside of bones there is another layer of cells that grow, repair and remodel bone as
well. These cells are part of the outer double layered structure called the periosteum
(peri– = “around” or “surrounding”). The cellular layer is adjacent to the cortical bone
and is covered by an outer fibrous layer of dense irregular connective tissue (see
Figure 6.3.4a). The periosteum also contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic
vessels that nourish compact bone. Tendons and ligaments attach to bones at the
periosteum. The periosteum covers the entire outer surface except where the
epiphyses meet other bones to form joints (Figure 6.3.2). In this region, the epiphyses
are covered with articular cartilage, a thin layer of hyaline cartilage that reduces
friction and acts as a shock absorber.

Figure 6.32 – Periosteum and Endosteum: The periosteum forms the outer
surface of bone, and the endosteum lines the medullary cavity.

Flat bones, like those of the cranium, consist of a layer of diploë (spongy bone),
covered on either side by a layer of compact bone (Figure 6.3.3). The two layers of
compact bone and the interior spongy bone work together to protect the internal
organs. If the outer layer of a cranial bone fractures, the brain is still protected by the
intact inner layer.

Figure
6.3.3 – Anatomy of a Flat Bone: This cross-section of a flat bone shows
the spongy bone (diploë) covered on either side by a layer of compact bone.
Osseous Tissue: Bone Matrix and
Cells
Bone Matrix Osseous tissue is a connective tissue and like all connective
tissues contains relatively few cells and large amounts of extracellular
matrix. By mass, osseous tissue matrix consists of 1/3rd collagen fibers
and 2/3rds calcium phosphate salt. The collagen provides a scaffolding
surface for inorganic salt crystals to adhere (see Figure 6.3.4a). These
salt crystals form when calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate combine
to create hydroxyapatite. Hydroxyapatite also incorporates other
inorganic salts like magnesium hydroxide, fluoride, and sulfate as it
crystallizes, or calcifies, on the collagen fibers. The hydroxyapatite
crystals give bones their hardness and strength, while the collagen fibers
give them a framework for calcification and gives the bone flexibility
so that it can bend without being brittle. For example, if you removed
all the organic matrix (collagen) from a bone, it would crumble and shatter
readily (see Figure 6.3.4b, upper panel). Conversely, if you remove all
the inorganic matrix (minerals) from bone and leave the collagen, the bone
becomes overly flexible and cannot bear weight (see Figure 6.3.4b, lower

panel). Figure 6.3.4a Calcified

collagen fibers from bone (scanning electron micrograph, 10,000 X, By
Sbertazzo – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=20904735)
 Figure 6.3.4b Contributions of
the organic and inorganic matrices of bone. Image from Ammerman figure
6-5, Pearson

Bone Cells

Although bone cells compose less than 2% of the bone mass, they are crucial to the
function of bones. Four types of cells are found within bone tissue: osteoblasts,
osteocytes, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts (Figure 6.3.5).

Figure 6.3.5 – Bone Cells: Four types of cells are found within bone
tissue. Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated and develop into
osteoblasts. Osteoblasts deposit bone matrix. When osteoblasts get
trapped within the calcified matrix, they become osteocytes. Osteoclasts
develop from a different cell lineage and act to resorb bone.

The osteoblast is the bone cell responsible for forming new bone and is found in the
growing portions of bone, including the endosteum and the cellular layer of the
periosteum. Osteoblasts, which do not divide, synthesize and secrete the collagen
matrix and other proteins. As the secreted matrix surrounding the osteoblast calcifies,
the osteoblast become trapped within it; as a result, it changes in structure and
becomes an osteocyte, the primary cell of mature bone and the most common type of
bone cell. Each osteocyte is located in a small cavity in the bone tissue called a
lacuna (lacunae for plural). Osteocytes maintain the mineral concentration of the
matrix via the secretion of enzymes. Like osteoblasts, osteocytes lack mitotic activity.
They can communicate with each other and receive nutrients via long cytoplasmic
processes that extend through canaliculi (singular = canaliculus), channels within the
bone matrix. Osteocytes are connected to one another within the canaliculi via gap
junctions.

If osteoblasts and osteocytes are incapable of mitosis, then how are they replenished
when old ones die? The answer lies in the properties of a third category of bone
cells—the osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cell. These osteogenic cells are
undifferentiated with high mitotic activity and they are the only bone cells that divide.
Immature osteogenic cells are found in the cellular layer of the periosteum and the
endosteum. They differentiate and develop into osteoblasts.

The dynamic nature of bone means that new tissue is constantly formed, and old,
injured, or unnecessary bone is dissolved for repair or for calcium release. The cells
responsible for bone resorption, or breakdown, are the osteoclasts. These
multinucleated cells originate from monocytes and macrophages, two types of white
blood cells, not from osteogenic cells. Osteoclasts are continually breaking down old
bone while osteoblasts are continually forming new bone. The ongoing balance
between osteoblasts and osteoclasts is responsible for the constant but subtle
reshaping of bone. Table 6.3 reviews the bone cells, their functions, and locations.

Bone Cells (Table 6.3)

Cell type Function Location
Osteogenic Develop into Endosteum, cellular layer of the
cells osteoblasts periosteum
Endosteum, cellular layer of the
Osteoblasts Bone formation
periosteum, growing portions of bone
Maintain mineral
Osteocytes concentration of Entrapped in matrix
matrix
Endosteum, cellular layer of the
Osteoclasts Bone resorption periosteum, at sites of old,
injured, or unneeded bone

Compact and Spongy Bone

Most bones contain compact and spongy osseous tissue, but their distribution and
concentration vary based on the bone’s overall function. Although compact and
spongy bone are made of the same matrix materials and cells, they are different in
how they are organized. Compact bone is dense so that it can withstand compressive
forces, while spongy bone (also called cancellous bone) has open spaces and is
supportive, but also lightweight and can be readily remodeled to accommodate
changing body needs.

Compact Bone
Compact bone is the denser, stronger of the two types of osseous tissue (Figure 6.3.6).
It makes up the outer cortex of all bones and is in immediate contact with the
periosteum. In long bones, as you move from the outer cortical compact bone to the
inner medullary cavity, the bone transitions to spongy bone.

Figure
6.3.6 – Diagram of Compact Bone: (a) This cross-sectional view of compact
bone shows several osteons, the basic structural unit of compact bone.
(b) In this micrograph of the osteon, you can see the concentric lamellae
around the central canals. LM × 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents
of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)

Figure 6.3.7 Osteon

If you look at compact bone under the microscope, you will observe a highly
organized arrangement of concentric circles that look like tree trunks. Each group of
concentric circles (each “tree”) makes up the microscopic structural unit of compact
bone called an osteon (this is also called a Haversian system). Each ring of the osteon
is made of collagen and calcified matrix and is called a lamella (plural = lamellae).
The collagen fibers of adjacent lamallae run at perpendicular angles to each other,
allowing osteons to resist twisting forces in multiple directions (see figure 6.34a).
Running down the center of each osteon is the central canal, or Haversian canal,
which contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels. These vessels and nerves
branch off at right angles through a perforating canal, also known as Volkmann’s
canals, to extend to the periosteum and endosteum. The endosteum also lines each
central canal, allowing osteons to be removed, remodeled and rebuilt over time.

The osteocytes are trapped within their lacuane, found at the borders of adjacent
lamellae. As described earlier, canaliculi connect with the canaliculi of other lacunae
and eventually with the central canal. This system allows nutrients to be transported to
the osteocytes and wastes to be removed from them despite the impervious calcified
matrix.

Spongy (Cancellous) Bone

Like compact bone, spongy bone, also known as cancellous bone, contains osteocytes
housed in lacunae, but they are not arranged in concentric circles. Instead, the lacunae
and osteocytes are found in a lattice-like network of matrix spikes called trabeculae
(singular = trabecula) (Figure 6.3.8). The trabeculae are covered by the endosteum,
which can readily remodel them. The trabeculae may appear to be a random network,
but each trabecula forms along lines of stress to direct forces out to the more solid
compact bone providing strength to the bone. Spongy bone provides balance to the
dense and heavy compact bone by making bones lighter so that muscles can move
them more easily. In addition, the spaces in some spongy bones contain red bone
marrow, protected by the trabeculae, where hematopoiesis occurs.
 Figure
6.3.8 – Diagram of Spongy Bone: Spongy bone is composed of trabeculae
that contain the osteocytes. Red marrow fills the spaces in some bones.
Aging and the…Skeletal System: Paget’s Disease

Paget’s disease usually occurs in adults over age 40. It is a disorder of the bone
remodeling process that begins with overactive osteoclasts. This means more bone is
resorbed than is laid down. The osteoblasts try to compensate but the new bone they
lay down is weak and brittle and therefore prone to fracture.

While some people with Paget’s disease have no symptoms, others experience pain,
bone fractures, and bone deformities (Figure 6.3.9). Bones of the pelvis, skull, spine,
and legs are the most commonly affected. When occurring in the skull, Paget’s
disease can cause headaches and hearing loss.
 Figure 6.3.9 –
Paget’s Disease: Normal leg bones are relatively straight, but those
affected by Paget’s disease are porous and curved.

What causes the osteoclasts to become overactive? The answer is still unknown, but
hereditary factors seem to play a role. Some scientists believe Paget’s disease is due
to an as-yet-unidentified virus.

Paget’s disease is diagnosed via imaging studies and lab tests. X-rays may show bone
deformities or areas of bone resorption. Bone scans are also useful. In these studies, a
dye containing a radioactive ion is injected into the body. Areas of bone resorption
have an affinity for the ion, so they will light up on the scan if the ions are absorbed.
In addition, blood levels of an enzyme called alkaline phosphatase are typically
elevated in people with Paget’s disease. Bisphosphonates, drugs that decrease the
activity of osteoclasts, are often used in the treatment of Paget’s disease.

Blood and Nerve Supply

The spongy bone and medullary cavity receive nourishment from arteries that pass
through the compact bone. The arteries enter through the nutrient foramen (plural =
foramina), small openings in the diaphysis (Figure 6.3.10). The osteocytes in spongy
bone are nourished by blood vessels of the periosteum that penetrate spongy bone and
blood that circulates in the marrow cavities. As the blood passes through the marrow
cavities, it is collected by veins, which then pass out of the bone through the foramina.

In addition to the blood vessels, nerves follow the same paths into the bone where
they tend to concentrate in the more metabolically active regions of the bone. The
nerves sense pain, and it appears the nerves also play roles in regulating blood
supplies and in bone growth, hence their concentrations in metabolically active sites
of the bone.

Figure 6.3.10 – Diagram of Blood

and Nerve Supply to Bone: Blood vessels and nerves enter the bone through
the nutrient foramen.

External Website

Watch this video to see the microscopic features of a bone.

Chapter Review

A hollow medullary cavity filled with yellow marrow runs the length of the diaphysis
of a long bone. The walls of the diaphysis are compact bone. The epiphyses, which
are wider sections at each end of a long bone, are filled with spongy bone and red
marrow. The epiphyseal plate, a layer of hyaline cartilage, is replaced by osseous
tissue as the organ grows in length. The medullary cavity has a delicate membranous
lining called the endosteum. The outer surface of bone, except in regions covered with
articular cartilage, is covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum. Flat
bones consist of two layers of compact bone surrounding a layer of spongy bone.
Bone markings depend on the function and location of bones. Articulations are places
where two bones meet. Projections stick out from the surface of the bone and provide
attachment points for tendons and ligaments. Holes are openings or depressions in the
bones.

Bone matrix consists of collagen fibers and organic ground substance, primarily
hydroxyapatite formed from calcium salts. Osteogenic cells develop into osteoblasts.
Osteoblasts are cells that make new bone. They become osteocytes, the cells of
mature bone, when they get trapped in the matrix. Osteoclasts engage in bone
resorption. Compact bone is dense and composed of osteons, while spongy bone is
less dense and made up of trabeculae. Blood vessels and nerves enter the bone
through the nutrient foramina to nourish and innervate bones.

Review Questions

Critical Thinking Questions

1. If the articular cartilage at the end of one of your long bones were to degenerate,
what symptoms do you think you would experience? Why?

2. In what ways is the structural makeup of compact and spongy bone well suited to
their respective functions?

Glossary
articular cartilage
thin layer of cartilage covering an epiphysis; reduces friction and
acts as a shock absorber
articulation
where two bone surfaces meet
canaliculi
 (singular = canaliculus) channels within the bone matrix that house
one of an osteocyte’s many cytoplasmic extensions that it uses to
communicate and receive nutrients
central canal
longitudinal channel in the center of each osteon; contains blood
vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels; also known as the Haversian
canal
compact bone
dense osseous tissue that can withstand compressive forces
diaphysis
tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of a
long bone
diploë
layer of spongy bone, that is sandwiched between two the layers of
compact bone found in flat bones
endosteum
delicate membranous lining of a bone’s medullary cavity
epiphyseal plate
(also, growth plate) sheet of hyaline cartilage in the metaphysis
of an immature bone; replaced by bone tissue as the organ grows in
length
epiphysis
wide section at each end of a long bone; filled with spongy bone
and red marrow
hole
opening or depression in a bone
lacunae
(singular = lacuna) spaces in a bone that house an osteocyte
medullary cavity
hollow region of the diaphysis; filled with yellow marrow
nutrient foramen
small opening in the middle of the external surface of the diaphysis,
through which an artery enters the bone to provide nourishment
osteoblast
cell responsible for forming new bone
osteoclast
cell responsible for resorbing bone
osteocyte
primary cell in mature bone; responsible for maintaining the matrix
osteogenic cell
undifferentiated cell with high mitotic activity; the only bone
cells that divide; they differentiate and develop into osteoblasts
osteon
 (also, Haversian system) basic structural unit of compact bone;
made of concentric layers of calcified matrix
perforating canal
(also, Volkmann’s canal) channel that branches off from the central
canal and houses vessels and nerves that extend to the periosteum
and endosteum
periosteum
fibrous membrane covering the outer surface of bone and continuous
with ligaments
projection
bone markings where part of the surface sticks out above the rest
of the surface, where tendons and ligaments attach
spongy bone
(also, cancellous bone) trabeculated osseous tissue that supports
shifts in weight distribution
trabeculae
(singular = trabecula) spikes or sections of the lattice-like
matrix in spongy bone

Solutions

Answers for Critical Thinking Questions

1. If the articular cartilage at the end of one of your long bones were to deteriorate, which is
actually what happens in osteoarthritis, you would experience joint pain at the end of that
bone and limitation of motion at that joint because there would be no cartilage to reduce
friction between adjacent bones and there would be no cartilage to act as a shock absorber.
2. The densely packed concentric rings of matrix in compact bone are ideal for resisting
compressive forces, which is the function of compact bone. The open spaces of the
trabeculated network of spongy bone allow spongy bone to support shifts in weight
distribution, which is the function of spongy bone.

Bone Markings
Define and list examples of bone markings

The surface features of bones vary considerably, depending on the function and
location in the body. Table 6.2 describes the bone markings, which are illustrated in
(Figure 6.3.4). There are three general classes of bone markings: (1) articulations, (2)
projections, and (3) holes. As the name implies, an articulation is where two bone
surfaces come together (articulus = “joint”). These surfaces tend to conform to one
another, such as one being rounded and the other cupped, to facilitate the function of
the articulation. A projection is an area of a bone that projects above the surface of
the bone. These are the attachment points for tendons and ligaments. In general, their
size and shape is an indication of the forces exerted through the attachment to the
bone. A hole is an opening or groove in the bone that allows blood vessels and nerves
to enter the bone. As with the other markings, their size and shape reflect the size of
the vessels and nerves that penetrate the bone at these points.

Bone Markings (Table 6.2)

Marking Description Example
Articulations Where two bones meet Knee joint
Prominent rounded
Head Head of femur
surface
Facet Flat surface Vertebrae
Condyle Rounded surface Occipital condyles
Projections Raised markings Spinous process of the vertebrae
Protuberance Protruding Chin
Process Prominence feature Transverse process of vertebra
Spine Sharp process Ischial spine
Small, rounded
Tubercle Tubercle of humerus
process
Tuberosity Rough surface Deltoid tuberosity
Slight, elongated
Line Temporal lines of the parietal bones
ridge
Crest Ridge Iliac crest
Holes and Foramen (holes through which blood
Holes
depressions vessels can pass through)
Fossa Elongated basin Mandibular fossa
Fovea Small pit Fovea capitis on the head of the femur
Sulcus Groove Sigmoid sulcus of the temporal bones
Canal Passage in bone Auditory canal
Fissure Slit through bone Auricular fissure
Foramen Hole through bone Foramen magnum in the occipital bone
Meatus Opening into canal External auditory meatus
Air-filled space in
Sinus Nasal sinus
bone
 Figure
6.3.4 Bone Features The surface features of bones depend on their function,
location, attachment of ligaments and tendons, or the penetration of blood
vessels and nerves.