Numbering Systems Tutorial

What is it?
There are many ways to represent the same numeric value. Long ago, humans
used sticks to count, and later learned how to draw pictures of sticks in the
ground and eventually on paper. So, the number 5 was first represented as:
| | | | | (for five sticks).

Later on, the Romans began using different symbols for multiple numbers of
sticks: | | | still meant three sticks, but a V now meant five sticks,
and an X was used to represent ten of them!

Using sticks to count was a great idea for its time. And using symbols instead
of real sticks was much better. One of the best ways to represent a number
today is by using the modern decimal system. Why? Because it includes the
major breakthrough of using a symbol to represent the idea of counting
nothing. About 1500 years ago in India, zero (0) was first used as a
number! It was later used in the Middle East as the Arabic, sifr. And was
finally introduced to the West as the Latin, zephiro. Soon you'll see just how
valuable an idea this is for all modern number systems.

Decimal System
Most people today use decimal representation to count. In the decimal system
there are 10 digits:

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

These digits can represent any value, for example:

754.
The value is formed by the sum of each digit, multiplied by the base (in this
case it is 10 because there are 10 digits in decimal system) in power of digit
position (counting from zero):

Position of each digit is very important! for example if you place "7" to the end:
547
it will be another value:

1
Important note: any number in power of zero is 1, even zero in power of
zero is 1:

Binary System
Computers are not as smart as humans are (or not yet), it's easy to make an
electronic machine with two states: on and off, or 1 and 0.
Computers use binary system, binary system uses 2 digits:

0, 1

And thus the base is 2.

Each digit in a binary number is called a BIT, 4 bits form a NIBBLE, 8 bits
form a BYTE, two bytes form a WORD, two words form a DOUBLE WORD
(rarely used):

There is a convention to add "b" in the end of a binary number, this way we
can determine that 101b is a binary number with decimal value of 5.

The binary number 10100101b equals to decimal value of 165:

2
Hexadecimal System
Hexadecimal System uses 16 digits:

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

And thus the base is 16.

Hexadecimal numbers are compact and easy to read.

It is very easy to convert numbers from binary system to hexadecimal system
and vice-versa, every nibble (4 bits) can be converted to a hexadecimal digit
using this table:

Decimal Binary Hexadecimal

(base 10) (base 2) (base 16)
0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
10 1010 A
11 1011 B
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F

3
There is a convention to add "h" in the end of a hexadecimal number, this way
we can determine that 5Fh is a hexadecimal number with decimal value of 95.
We also add "0" (zero) in the beginning of hexadecimal numbers that begin
with a letter (A..F), for example 0E120h.

The hexadecimal number 1234h is equal to decimal value of 4660:

Converting from Decimal System to Any Other

In order to convert from decimal system, to any other system, it is required to
divide the decimal value by the base of the desired system, each time you
should remember the result and keep the remainder, the divide process
continues until the result is zero.

The remainders are then used to represent a value in that system.

Let's convert the value of 39 (base 10) to Hexadecimal System (base 16):

As you see we got this hexadecimal number: 27h.

All remainders were below 10 in the above example, so we do not use any
letters.

Here is another more complex example:

let's convert decimal number 43868 to hexadecimal form:

4
The result is 0AB5Ch, we are using the above table to convert remainders
over 9 to corresponding letters.

Using the same principle we can convert to binary form (using 2 as the divider),
or convert to hexadecimal number, and then convert it to binary number using
the above table:

As you see we got this binary number: 1010101101011100b

Signed Numbers
There is no way to say for sure whether the hexadecimal byte 0FFh is positive
or negative, it can represent both decimal value "255" and "- 1".

8 bits can be used to create 256 combinations (including zero), so we simply

presume that first 128 combinations (0..127) will represent positive numbers
and next 128 combinations (128..256) will represent negative numbers.

In order to get "- 5", we should subtract 5 from the number of combinations
(256), so it we'll get: 256 - 5 = 251.

Using this complex way to represent negative numbers has some meaning, in
math when you add "- 5" to "5" you should get zero.
This is what happens when processor adds two bytes 5 and 251, the result
gets over 255, because of the overflow processor gets zero!
5
When combinations 128..256 are used the high bit is always 1, so this maybe
used to determine the sign of a number.

The same principle is used for words (16 bit values), 16 bits create 65536
combinations, first 32768 combinations (0..32767) are used to represent
positive numbers, and next 32768 combinations (32767..65535) represent
negative numbers.

There are some handy tools in Emu8086 to convert numbers, and make
calculations of any numerical expressions, all you need is a click on Math
menu:

Number Convertor allows you to convert numbers from any system and to
any system. Just type a value in any text-box, and the value will be
automatically converted to all other systems. You can work both with 8 bit and

6
16 bit values.

Expression Evaluator can be used to make calculations between numbers in

different systems and convert numbers from one system to another. Type an
expression and press enter, result will appear in chosen numbering system.
You can work with values up to 32 bits. When Signed is checked evaluator
assumes that all values (except decimal and double words) should be treated
as signed. Double words are always treated as signed values, so 0FFFFFFFFh
is converted to -1.
For example you want to calculate: 0FFFFh * 10h + 0FFFFh (maximum memory
location that can be accessed by 8086 CPU). If you check Signed and Word
you will get -17 (because it is evaluated as (-1) * 16 + (-1) . To make calculation
with unsigned values uncheck Signed so that the evaluation will be 65535 * 16 +
65535 and you should get 1114095.
You can also use the Number Convertor to convert non-decimal digits to
signed decimal values, and do the calculation with decimal values (if it's
easier for you).

These operation are supported:

~ not (inverts all bits).
* multiply.
/ divide.
% modulus.
+ sum.
- subtract (and unary -).
<< shift left.
>> shift right.
& bitwise AND.
^ bitwise XOR.
| bitwise OR.

Binary numbers must have "b" suffix, example:

00011011b

Hexadecimal numbers must have "h" suffix, and start with a zero
when first digit is a letter (A..F), example:
0ABCDh

Octal (base 8) numbers must have "o" suffix, example:

77o

7
8086 Assembler Tutorial for Beginners (Part 1)

This tutorial is intended for those who are not familiar with assembler at all, or
have a very distant idea about it. Of course if you have knowledge of some
other programming language (Basic, C/C++, Pascal...) that may help you a lot.
But even if you are familiar with assembler, it is still a good idea to look
through this document in order to study Emu8086 syntax.

It is assumed that you have some knowledge about number representation

(HEX/BIN), if not it is highly recommended to study Numbering Systems
Tutorial before you proceed.

What is an assembly language?

Assembly language is a low level programming language. You need to get
some knowledge about computer structure in order to understand anything.
The simple computer model as I see it:

The system bus (shown in yellow) connects the various components of a

computer.
The CPU is the heart of the computer, most of computations occur inside the
CPU.
RAM is a place to where the programs are loaded in order to be executed.

Inside the CPU

8
GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTERS

8086 CPU has 8 general purpose registers, each register has its own name:

• AX - the accumulator register (divided into AH / AL).

• BX - the base address register (divided into BH / BL).
• CX - the count register (divided into CH / CL).
• DX - the data register (divided into DH / DL).
• SI - source index register.
• DI - destination index register.
• BP - base pointer.
• SP - stack pointer.

Despite the name of a register, it's the programmer who determines the usage
for each general purpose register. The main purpose of a register is to keep a
number (variable). The size of the above registers is 16 bit, it's something like:
0011000000111001b (in binary form), or 12345 in decimal (human) form.

4 general purpose registers (AX, BX, CX, DX) are made of two separate 8 bit
registers, for example if AX= 0011000000111001b, then AH=00110000b
and AL=00111001b. Therefore, when you modify any of the 8 bit registers 16
bit register is also updated, and vice-versa. The same is for other 3 registers,
"H" is for high and "L" is for low part.

Because registers are located inside the CPU, they are much faster than
memory. Accessing a memory location requires the use of a system bus, so it
takes much longer. Accessing data in a register usually takes no time.
Therefore, you should try to keep variables in the registers. Register sets are
very small and most registers have special purposes which limit their use as
variables, but they are still an excellent place to store temporary data of
calculations.

SEGMENT REGISTERS

9
 • CS - points at the segment containing the current program.
• DS - generally points at segment where variables are defined.
• ES - extra segment register, it's up to a coder to define its usage.
• SS - points at the segment containing the stack.

Although it is possible to store any data in the segment registers, this is never
a good idea. The segment registers have a very special purpose - pointing at
accessible blocks of memory.

Segment registers work together with general purpose register to access any
memory value. For example if we would like to access memory at the physical
address 12345h (hexadecimal), we should set the DS = 1230h and SI =
0045h. This is good, since this way we can access much more memory than
with a single register that is limited to 16 bit values.
CPU makes a calculation of physical address by multiplying the segment
register by 10h and adding general purpose register to it (1230h * 10h + 45h
= 12345h):

The address formed with 2 registers is called an effective address.

By default BX, SI and DI registers work with DS segment register;
BP and SP work with SS segment register.
Other general purpose registers cannot form an effective address!
Also, although BX can form an effective address, BH and BL cannot!

SPECIAL PURPOSE REGISTERS

• IP - the instruction pointer.

• Flags Register - determines the current state of the processor.

IP register always works together with CS segment register and it points to

currently executing instruction.
Flags Register is modified automatically by CPU after mathematical
operations, this allows to determine the type of the result, and to determine
conditions to transfer control to other parts of the program.
Generally you cannot access these registers directly.

10
8086 Assembler Tutorial for Beginners (Part 2)

Memory Access
To access memory we can use these four registers: BX, SI, DI, BP.
Combining these registers inside [ ] symbols, we can get different memory
locations. These combinations are supported (addressing modes):

[BX + SI] [SI] [BX + SI] + d8

[BX + DI] [DI] [BX + DI] + d8
[BP + SI] d16 (variable offset only) [BP + SI] + d8
[BP + DI] [BX] [BP + DI] + d8

[SI] + d8 [BX + SI] + d16 [SI] + d16

[DI] + d8 [BX + DI] + d16 [DI] + d16
[BP] + d8 [BP + SI] + d16 [BP] + d16
[BX] + d8 [BP + DI] + d16 [BX] + d16

d8 - stays for 8 bit displacement.

d16 - stays for 16 bit displacement.

Displacement can be a immediate value or offset of a variable, or even both.

It's up to compiler to calculate a single immediate value.

Displacement can be inside or outside of [ ] symbols, compiler generates the

same machine code for both ways.

Displacement is a signed value, so it can be both positive or negative.

Generally the compiler takes care about difference between d8 and d16, and
generates the required machine code.

For example, let's assume that DS = 100, BX = 30, SI = 70.

The following addressing mode: [BX + SI] + 25
is calculated by processor to this physical address: 100 * 16 + 30 + 70 + 25
= 1725.

By default DS segment register is used for all modes except those with BP
register, for these SS segment register is used.

There is an easy way to remember all those possible combinations using this
chart:

11
You can form all valid combinations by taking only one item from each column
or skipping the column by not taking anything from it. As you see BX and BP
never go together. SI and DI also don't go together. Here is an example of a
valid addressing mode: [BX+5].

The value in segment register (CS, DS, SS, ES) is called a "segment",
and the value in purpose register (BX, SI, DI, BP) is called an "offset".
When DS contains value 1234h and SI contains the value 7890h it can be
also recorded as 1234:7890. The physical address will be 1234h * 10h +
7890h = 19BD0h.

In order to say the compiler about data type,

these prefixes should be used:

BYTE PTR - for byte.

WORD PTR - for word (two bytes).

For example:
BYTE PTR [BX] ; byte access.
or
WORD PTR [BX] ; word access.
Emu8086 supports shorter prefixes as well:

b. - for BYTE PTR

w. - for WORD PTR

sometimes compiler can calculate the data type automatically, but you may
not and should not rely on that when one of the operands is an immediate
value.

MOV instruction
• Copies the second operand (source) to the first operand (destination).

• The source operand can be an immediate value, general-purpose register

or memory location.

• The destination register can be a general-purpose register, or memory

location.

12
 • Both operands must be the same size, which can be a byte or a word.

These types of operands are supported:

MOV REG, memory

MOV memory, REG
MOV REG, REG
MOV memory, immediate
MOV REG, immediate
REG: AX, BX, CX, DX, AH, AL, BL, BH, CH, CL, DH, DL, DI, SI, BP, SP.

memory: [BX], [BX+SI+7], variable, etc...

immediate: 5, -24, 3Fh, 10001101b, etc...

For segment registers only these types of MOV are supported:

MOV SREG, memory

MOV memory, SREG
MOV REG, SREG
MOV SREG, REG
SREG: DS, ES, SS, and only as second operand: CS.

REG: AX, BX, CX, DX, AH, AL, BL, BH, CH, CL, DH, DL, DI, SI, BP, SP.

memory: [BX], [BX+SI+7], variable, etc...

The MOV instruction cannot be used to set the value of the CS and IP
registers.

Here is a short program that demonstrates the use of MOV instruction:

#MAKE_COM# ; instruct compiler to make COM file.

ORG 100h ; directive required for a COM program.
MOV AX, 0B800h ; set AX to hexadecimal value of B800h.
MOV DS, AX ; copy value of AX to DS.
MOV CL, 'A' ; set CL to ASCII code of 'A', it is 41h.
MOV CH, 01011111b ; set CH to binary value.
MOV BX, 15Eh ; set BX to 15Eh.
MOV [BX], CX ; copy contents of CX to memory at B800:015E
RET ; returns to operating system.

You can copy & paste the above program to Emu8086 code editor, and press
[Compile and Emulate] button (or press F5 key on your keyboard).

The Emulator window should open with this program loaded, click [Single
Step] button and watch the register values.

13
How to do copy & paste:

1. Select the above text using mouse, click before the text and drag it down
until everything is selected.

2. Press Ctrl + C combination to copy.

3. Go to Emu8086 source editor and press Ctrl + V combination to paste.

As you may guess, ";" is used for comments, anything after ";" symbol is
ignored by compiler.

You should see something like that when program finishes:

Actually the above program writes directly to video memory, so you may see
that MOV is a very powerful instruction.

14
8086 Assembler Tutorial for Beginners (Part 3)

Variables
Variable is a memory location. For a programmer it is much easier to have
some value be kept in a variable named "var1" then at the address 5A73:235B,
especially when you have 10 or more variables.

Our compiler supports two types of variables: BYTE and WORD.

Syntax for a variable declaration:

name DB value

name DW value

DB - stays for Define Byte.

DW - stays for Define Word.

name - can be any letter or digit combination, though it should start with a letter. It's
possible to declare unnamed variables by not specifying the name (this variable will
have an address but no name).

value - can be any numeric value in any supported numbering system (hexadecimal,
binary, or decimal), or "?" symbol for variables that are not initialized.

As you probably know from part 2 of this tutorial, MOV instruction is used to
copy values from source to destination.
Let's see another example with MOV instruction:

#MAKE_COM#
ORG 100h

MOV AL, var1

MOV BX, var2

RET ; stops the program.

VAR1 DB 7
var2 DW 1234h

Copy the above code to Emu8086 source editor, and press F5 key to compile
and load it in the emulator. You should get something like:

15
As you see this looks a lot like our example, except that variables are replaced
with actual memory locations. When compiler makes machine code, it
automatically replaces all variable names with their offsets. By default
segment is loaded in DS register (when COM files is loaded the value of DS
register is set to the same value as CS register - code segment).

In memory list first row is an offset, second row is a hexadecimal value,

third row is decimal value, and last row is an ASCII character value.

Compiler is not case sensitive, so "VAR1" and "var1" refer to the same
variable.

The offset of VAR1 is 0108h, and full address is 0B56:0108.

The offset of var2 is 0109h, and full address is 0B56:0109, this variable is a
WORD so it occupies 2 BYTES. It is assumed that low byte is stored at lower
address, so 34h is located before 12h.

You can see that there are some other instructions after the RET instruction,
this happens because disassembler has no idea about where the data starts, it
just processes the values in memory and it understands them as valid 8086
instructions (we will learn them later).
You can even write the same program using DB directive only:

#MAKE_COM#
ORG 100h

DB 0A0h
DB 08h
DB 01h

16
DB 8Bh
DB 1Eh
DB 09h
DB 01h

DB 0C3h

DB 7

DB 34h
DB 12h

Copy the above code to Emu8086 source editor, and press F5 key to compile
and load it in the emulator. You should get the same disassembled code, and
the same functionality!

As you may guess, the compiler just converts the program source to the set of
bytes, this set is called machine code, processor understands the machine
code and executes it.

ORG 100h is a compiler directive (it tells compiler how to handle the source
code). This directive is very important when you work with variables. It tells
compiler that the executable file will be loaded at the offset of 100h (256
bytes), so compiler should calculate the correct address for all variables when
it replaces the variable names with their offsets. Directives are never
converted to any real machine code.
Why executable file is loaded at offset of 100h? Operating system keeps
some data about the program in the first 256 bytes of the CS (code segment),
such as command line parameters and etc.
Though this is true for COM files only, EXE files are loaded at offset of 0000,
and generally use special segment for variables. Maybe we'll talk more about
EXE files later.

Arrays
Arrays can be seen as chains of variables. A text string is an example of a byte
array, each character is presented as an ASCII code value (0..255).

Here are some array definition examples:

a DB 48h, 65h, 6Ch, 6Ch, 6Fh, 00h

b DB 'Hello', 0

b is an exact copy of the a array, when compiler sees a string inside quotes it
automatically converts it to set of bytes. This chart shows a part of the
memory where these arrays are declared:

17
You can access the value of any element in array using square brackets, for
example:
MOV AL, a[3]

You can also use any of the memory index registers BX, SI, DI, BP, for
example:
MOV SI, 3
MOV AL, a[SI]

If you need to declare a large array you can use DUP operator.
The syntax for DUP:

number DUP ( value(s) )

number - number of duplicate to make (any constant value).
value - expression that DUP will duplicate.

for example:
c DB 5 DUP(9)
is an alternative way of declaring:
c DB 9, 9, 9, 9, 9

one more example:

d DB 5 DUP(1, 2)
is an alternative way of declaring:
d DB 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2

Of course, you can use DW instead of DB if it's required to keep values larger
then 255, or smaller then -128. DW cannot be used to declare strings!

The expansion of DUP operand should not be over 1020 characters! (the
expansion of last example is 13 chars), if you need to declare huge array
divide declaration it in two lines (you will get a single huge array in the
memory).

Getting the Address of a Variable

There is LEA (Load Effective Address) instruction and alternative OFFSET
operator. Both OFFSET and LEA can be used to get the offset address of the
variable.
LEA is more powerful because it also allows you to get the address of an

18
indexed variables. Getting the address of the variable can be very useful in
some situations, for example when you need to pass parameters to a
procedure.

Reminder:
In order to tell the compiler about data type,
these prefixes should be used:

BYTE PTR - for byte.

WORD PTR - for word (two bytes).

For example:
BYTE PTR [BX] ; byte access.
or
WORD PTR [BX] ; word access.
Emu8086 supports shorter prefixes as well:

b. - for BYTE PTR

w. - for WORD PTR

sometimes compiler can calculate the data type automatically, but you may not and should not rely on that when one of the
operands is an immediate value.

Here is first example:

ORG 100h

MOV AL, VAR1 ; check value of VAR1 by moving it to AL.

LEA BX, VAR1 ; get address of VAR1 in BX.

MOV BYTE PTR [BX], 44h ; modify the contents of VAR1.1

MOV AL, VAR1 ; check value of VAR1 by moving it to AL.

RET

VAR1 DB 22h

END

Here is another example, that uses OFFSET instead of LEA:

ORG 100h

MOV AL, VAR1 ; check value of VAR1 by moving it to AL.

MOV BX, OFFSET VAR1 ; get address of VAR1 in BX.

1
Try using WORD PTR instead of BYTE PTR.

19
MOV BYTE PTR [BX], 44h ; modify the contents of VAR1.

MOV AL, VAR1 ; check value of VAR1 by moving it to AL.

RET

VAR1 DB 22h

END

Both examples have the same functionality.

These lines:
LEA BX, VAR1
MOV BX, OFFSET VAR1
are even compiled into the same machine code: MOV BX, num
num is a 16 bit value of the variable offset.

Please note that only these registers can be used inside square brackets (as
memory pointers): BX, SI, DI, BP!
(see previous part of the tutorial).

Constants
Constants are just like variables, but they exist only until your program is
compiled (assembled). After definition of a constant its value cannot be
changed. To define constants EQU directive is used:

name EQU < any expression >

For example:

k EQU 5

MOV AX, k

The above example is functionally identical to code:

MOV AX, 5

You can view variables while your program executes by selecting "Variables"
from the "View" menu of emulator.
20
To view arrays you should click on a variable and set Elements property to
array size. In assembly language there are not strict data types, so any
variable can be presented as an array.

Variable can be viewed in any numbering system:

• HEX - hexadecimal (base 16).

• BIN - binary (base 2).
• OCT - octal (base 8).
• SIGNED - signed decimal (base 10).
• UNSIGNED - unsigned decimal (base 10).
• CHAR - ASCII char code (there are 256 symbols, some symbols are
invisible).

You can edit a variable's value when your program is running, simply double
click it, or select it and click Edit button.

It is possible to enter numbers in any system, hexadecimal numbers should

have "h" suffix, binary "b" suffix, octal "o" suffix, decimal numbers require no
suffix. String can be entered this way:
'hello world', 0
(this string is zero terminated).

Arrays may be entered this way:

1, 2, 3, 4, 5
(the array can be array of bytes or words, it depends whether BYTE or WORD
is selected for edited variable).

Expressions are automatically converted, for example:

when this expression is entered:
5+2
it will be converted to 7 etc...

21
8086 Assembler Tutorial for Beginners (Part 4)

Interrupts
Interrupts can be seen as a number of functions. These functions make the
programming much easier, instead of writing a code to print a character you
can simply call the interrupt and it will do everything for you. There are also
interrupt functions that work with disk drive and other hardware. We call such
functions software interrupts.

Interrupts are also triggered by different hardware, these are called hardware
interrupts. Currently we are interested in software interrupts only.

To make a software interrupt there is an INT instruction, it has very simple

syntax:
INT value
Where value can be a number between 0 to 255 (or 0 to 0FFh),
generally we will use hexadecimal numbers.
You may think that there are only 256 functions, but that is not correct. Each
interrupt may have sub-functions.
To specify a sub-function AH register should be set before calling interrupt.
Each interrupt may have up to 256 sub-functions (so we get 256 * 256 =
65536 functions). In general AH register is used, but sometimes other
registers maybe in use. Generally other registers are used to pass parameters
and data to sub-function.

The following example uses INT 10h sub-function 0Eh to type a "Hello!"
message. This functions displays a character on the screen, advancing the
cursor and scrolling the screen as necessary.

#MAKE_COM# ; instruct compiler to make COM

file.
ORG 100h

; The sub-function that we are using

; does not modify the AH register on
; return, so we may set it only once.

MOV AH, 0Eh ; select sub-function.

; INT 10h / 0Eh sub-function

; receives an ASCII code of the
; character that will be printed
; in AL register.

MOV AL, 'H' ; ASCII code: 72

INT 10h ; print it!

MOV AL, 'e' ; ASCII code: 101

INT 10h ; print it!

22
MOV AL, 'l' ; ASCII code: 108
INT 10h ; print it!

MOV AL, 'l' ; ASCII code: 108

INT 10h ; print it!

MOV AL, 'o' ; ASCII code: 111

INT 10h ; print it!

MOV AL, '!' ; ASCII code: 33

INT 10h ; print it!

RET ; returns to operating system.

Copy & paste the above program to Emu8086 source code editor, and press
[Compile and Emulate] button. Run it!

See list of supported interrupts for more information about interrupts.

23
8086 Assembler Tutorial for Beginners (Part 5)

Library of common functions - emu8086.inc

To make programming easier there are some common functions that can be
included in your program. To make your program use functions defined in
other file you should use the INCLUDE directive followed by a file name.
Compiler automatically searches for the file in the same folder where the
source file is located, and if it cannot find the file there - it searches in Inc
folder.

Currently you may not be able to fully understand the contents of the
emu8086.inc (located in Inc folder), but it's OK, since you only need to
understand what it can do.

To use any of the functions in emu8086.inc you should have the following line
in the beginning of your source file:

include 'emu8086.inc'

emu8086.inc defines the following macros:

• PUTC char - macro with 1 parameter, prints out an ASCII char at

current cursor position.

• GOTOXY col, row - macro with 2 parameters, sets cursor position.

• PRINT string - macro with 1 parameter, prints out a string.

• PRINTN string - macro with 1 parameter, prints out a string. The same
as PRINT but automatically adds "carriage return" at the end of the
string.

• CURSOROFF - turns off the text cursor.

• CURSORON - turns on the text cursor.

To use any of the above macros simply type its name somewhere in your code,
and if required parameters, for example:

include emu8086.inc

ORG 100h

PRINT 'Hello World!'

GOTOXY 10, 5

24
PUTC 65 ; 65 - is an ASCII code for 'A'
PUTC 'B'

RET ; return to operating system.

END ; directive to stop the compiler.

When compiler process your source code it searches the emu8086.inc file for
declarations of the macros and replaces the macro names with real code.
Generally macros are relatively small parts of code, frequent use of a macro
may make your executable too big (procedures are better for size
optimization).

emu8086.inc also defines the following procedures:

• PRINT_STRING - procedure to print a null terminated string at current

cursor position, receives address of string in DS:SI register. To use it
declare: DEFINE_PRINT_STRING before END directive.

• PTHIS - procedure to print a null terminated string at current cursor

position (just as PRINT_STRING), but receives address of string from
Stack. The ZERO TERMINATED string should be defined just after the
CALL instruction. For example:

CALL PTHIS
db 'Hello World!', 0

To use it declare: DEFINE_PTHIS before END directive.

• GET_STRING - procedure to get a null terminated string from a user,

the received string is written to buffer at DS:DI, buffer size should be in
DX. Procedure stops the input when 'Enter' is pressed. To use it declare:
DEFINE_GET_STRING before END directive.

• CLEAR_SCREEN - procedure to clear the screen, (done by scrolling

entire screen window), and set cursor position to top of it. To use it
declare: DEFINE_CLEAR_SCREEN before END directive.

• SCAN_NUM - procedure that gets the multi-digit SIGNED number from

the keyboard, and stores the result in CX register. To use it declare:
DEFINE_SCAN_NUM before END directive.

• PRINT_NUM - procedure that prints a signed number in AX register. To

use it declare: DEFINE_PRINT_NUM and DEFINE_PRINT_NUM_UNS
before END directive.

25
 • PRINT_NUM_UNS - procedure that prints out an unsigned number in
AX register. To use it declare: DEFINE_PRINT_NUM_UNS before END
directive.

To use any of the above procedures you should first declare the function in the
bottom of your file (but before END!!), and then use CALL instruction followed
by a procedure name. For example:

include 'emu8086.inc'

ORG 100h

LEA SI, msg1 ; ask for the number

CALL print_string ;
CALL scan_num ; get number in CX.

MOV AX, CX ; copy the number to AX.

; print the following string:

CALL pthis
DB 13, 10, 'You have entered: ', 0

CALL print_num ; print number in AX.

RET ; return to operating system.

msg1 DB 'Enter the number: ', 0

DEFINE_SCAN_NUM
DEFINE_PRINT_STRING
DEFINE_PRINT_NUM
DEFINE_PRINT_NUM_UNS ; required for print_num.
DEFINE_PTHIS

END ; directive to stop the compiler.

First compiler processes the declarations (these are just regular the macros
that are expanded to procedures). When compiler gets to CALL instruction it
replaces the procedure name with the address of the code where the
procedure is declared. When CALL instruction is executed control is transferred
to procedure. This is quite useful, since even if you call the same procedure
100 times in your code you will still have relatively small executable size.
Seems complicated, isn't it? That's ok, with the time you will learn more,
currently it's required that you understand the basic principle.

26
8086 Assembler Tutorial for Beginners (Part 6)

Arithmetic and Logic Instructions

Most Arithmetic and Logic Instructions affect the processor status register (or
Flags)

As you may see there are 16 bits in this register, each bit is called a flag and
can take a value of 1 or 0.

• Carry Flag (CF) - this flag is set to 1 when there is an unsigned

overflow. For example when you add bytes 255 + 1 (result is not in
range 0...255). When there is no overflow this flag is set to 0.

• Zero Flag (ZF) - set to 1 when result is zero. For none zero result this
flag is set to 0.

• Sign Flag (SF) - set to 1 when result is negative. When result is

positive it is set to 0. Actually this flag take the value of the most
significant bit.

• Overflow Flag (OF) - set to 1 when there is a signed overflow. For

example, when you add bytes 100 + 50 (result is not in range -
128...127).

• Parity Flag (PF) - this flag is set to 1 when there is even number of one
bits in result, and to 0 when there is odd number of one bits. Even if
result is a word only 8 low bits are analyzed!

• Auxiliary Flag (AF) - set to 1 when there is an unsigned overflow for

low nibble (4 bits).

• Interrupt enable Flag (IF) - when this flag is set to 1 CPU reacts to
interrupts from external devices.

• Direction Flag (DF) - this flag is used by some instructions to process

data chains, when this flag is set to 0 - the processing is done forward,
when this flag is set to 1 the processing is done backward.

27
There are 3 groups of instructions.

First group: ADD, SUB,CMP, AND, TEST, OR, XOR

These types of operands are supported:

REG, memory
memory, REG
REG, REG
memory, immediate
REG, immediate
REG: AX, BX, CX, DX, AH, AL, BL, BH, CH, CL, DH, DL, DI, SI, BP, SP.

memory: [BX], [BX+SI+7], variable, etc...

immediate: 5, -24, 3Fh, 10001101b, etc...

After operation between operands, result is always stored in first operand.

CMP and TEST instructions affect flags only and do not store a result (these
instruction are used to make decisions during program execution).

These instructions affect these flags only:

CF, ZF, SF, OF, PF, AF.

• ADD - add second operand to first.

• SUB - Subtract second operand to first.

• CMP - Subtract second operand from first for flags only.

• AND - Logical AND between all bits of two operands. These rules apply:

1 AND 1 = 1
1 AND 0 = 0
0 AND 1 = 0
0 AND 0 = 0

As you see we get 1 only when both bits are 1.

• TEST - The same as AND but for flags only.

• OR - Logical OR between all bits of two operands. These rules apply:

1 OR 1 = 1
1 OR 0 = 1
0 OR 1 = 1
0 OR 0 = 0

28
 As you see we get 1 every time when at least one of the bits is 1.

• XOR - Logical XOR (exclusive OR) between all bits of two operands.
These rules apply:

1 XOR 1 = 0
1 XOR 0 = 1
0 XOR 1 = 1
0 XOR 0 = 0

As you see we get 1 every time when bits are different from each other.

Second group: MUL, IMUL, DIV, IDIV

These types of operands are supported:

REG
memory
REG: AX, BX, CX, DX, AH, AL, BL, BH, CH, CL, DH, DL, DI, SI, BP, SP.

memory: [BX], [BX+SI+7], variable, etc...

MUL and IMUL instructions affect these flags only:

CF, OF
When result is over operand size these flags are set to 1, when result fits in
operand size these flags are set to 0.

For DIV and IDIV flags are undefined.

• MUL - Unsigned multiply:

when operand is a byte:

AX = AL * operand.

when operand is a word:

(DX AX) = AX * operand.

• IMUL - Signed multiply:

when operand is a byte:

AX = AL * operand.

when operand is a word:

(DX AX) = AX * operand.

• DIV - Unsigned divide:

29
 when operand is a byte:
AL = AX / operand
AH = remainder (modulus). .

when operand is a word:

AX = (DX AX) / operand
DX = remainder (modulus). .

• IDIV - Signed divide:

when operand is a byte:

AL = AX / operand
AH = remainder (modulus). .

when operand is a word:

AX = (DX AX) / operand
DX = remainder (modulus). .

Third group: INC, DEC, NOT, NEG

These types of operands are supported:

REG
memory
REG: AX, BX, CX, DX, AH, AL, BL, BH, CH, CL, DH, DL, DI, SI, BP, SP.

memory: [BX], [BX+SI+7], variable, etc...

INC, DEC instructions affect these flags only:

ZF, SF, OF, PF, AF.

NOT instruction does not affect any flags!

NEG instruction affects these flags only:

CF, ZF, SF, OF, PF, AF.

• NOT - Reverse each bit of operand.

• NEG - Make operand negative (two's complement). Actually it reverses

each bit of operand and then adds 1 to it. For example 5 will become -5,
and -2 will become 2.

30
8086 Assembler Tutorial for Beginners (Part 7)

Program Flow Control

Controlling the program flow is a very important thing, this is where your
program can make decisions according to certain conditions.

• Unconditional Jumps

The basic instruction that transfers control to another point in the

program is JMP.

The basic syntax of JMP instruction:

JMP label

To declare a label in your program, just type its name and add ":" to the
end, label can be any character combination but it cannot start with a
number, for example here are 3 legal label definitions:

label1:
label2:
a:

Label can be declared on a separate line or before any other instruction,

for example:

x1:
MOV AX, 1

x2: MOV AX, 2

Here is an example of JMP instruction:

ORG 100h

MOV AX, 5 ; set AX to 5.

MOV BX, 2 ; set BX to 2.

JMP calc ; go to 'calc'.

back: JMP stop ; go to 'stop'.

calc:
ADD AX, BX ; add BX to AX.
JMP back ; go 'back'.

stop:

RET ; return to operating system.

31
 END ; directive to stop the compiler.

Of course there is an easier way to calculate the some of two numbers,

but it's still a good example of JMP instruction.
As you can see from this example JMP is able to transfer control both
forward and backward. It can jump anywhere in current code segment
(65,535 bytes).

• Short Conditional Jumps

Unlike JMP instruction that does an unconditional jump, there are

instructions that do a conditional jumps (jump only when some
conditions are in act). These instructions are divided in three groups, first
group just test single flag, second compares numbers as signed, and
third compares numbers as unsigned.

Jump instructions that test single flag

Opposite
Instruction Description Condition
Instruction

JZ , JE Jump if Zero (Equal). ZF = 1 JNZ, JNE

Jump if Carry (Below, Not Above

JC , JB, JNAE CF = 1 JNC, JNB, JAE
Equal).

JS Jump if Sign. SF = 1 JNS

JO Jump if Overflow. OF = 1 JNO

JPE, JP Jump if Parity Even. PF = 1 JPO

JNZ , JNE Jump if Not Zero (Not Equal). ZF = 0 JZ, JE

JNC , JNB, Jump if Not Carry (Not Below, Above

CF = 0 JC, JB, JNAE
JAE Equal).

JNS Jump if Not Sign. SF = 0 JS

JNO Jump if Not Overflow. OF = 0 JO

JPO, JNP Jump if Parity Odd (No Parity). PF = 0 JPE, JP

As you can see there are some instructions that do that same thing,
that's correct, they even are assembled into the same machine code, so
32
 it's good to remember that when you compile JE instruction - you will
get it disassembled as: JZ.
Different names are used to make programs easier to understand and
code.

Jump instructions for signed numbers

Instruction Description Condition Opposite Instruction

Jump if Equal (=).

JE , JZ ZF = 1 JNE, JNZ
Jump if Zero.

Jump if Not Equal (<>).

JNE , JNZ ZF = 0 JE, JZ
Jump if Not Zero.

ZF = 0
Jump if Greater (>).
JG , JNLE and JNG, JLE
Jump if Not Less or Equal (not <=).
SF = OF

Jump if Less (<).

JL , JNGE SF <> OF JNL, JGE
Jump if Not Greater or Equal (not >=).

Jump if Greater or Equal (>=).

JGE , JNL SF = OF JNGE, JL
Jump if Not Less (not <).

ZF = 1
Jump if Less or Equal (<=).
JLE , JNG or JNLE, JG
Jump if Not Greater (not >).
SF <> OF

<> - sign means not equal.

Jump instructions for unsigned numbers

Opposite
Instruction Description Condition
Instruction

Jump if Equal (=).

JE , JZ ZF = 1 JNE, JNZ
Jump if Zero.

Jump if Not Equal (<>).

JNE , JNZ ZF = 0 JE, JZ
Jump if Not Zero.

Jump if Above (>). CF = 0

JA , JNBE Jump if Not Below or Equal (not and JNA, JBE
<=). ZF = 0

Jump if Below (<).

JB , JNAE, JC Jump if Not Above or Equal (not CF = 1 JNB, JAE, JNC
>=).

33
 Jump if Carry.

Jump if Above or Equal (>=).

JAE , JNB,
Jump if Not Below (not <). CF = 0 JNAE, JB
JNC
Jump if Not Carry.

CF = 1
Jump if Below or Equal (<=).
JBE , JNA or JNBE, JA
Jump if Not Above (not >).
ZF = 1

Generally, when it is required to compare numeric values CMP

instruction is used (it does the same as SUB (subtract) instruction, but
does not keep the result, just affects the flags).

The logic is very simple, for example:

it's required to compare 5 and 2,
5-2=3
the result is not zero (Zero Flag is set to 0).

Another example:
it's required to compare 7 and 7,
7-7=0
the result is zero! (Zero Flag is set to 1 and JZ or JE will do the jump).

Here is an example of CMP instruction and conditional jump:

include emu8086.inc

ORG 100h

MOV AL, 25 ; set AL to 25.

MOV BL, 10 ; set BL to 10.

CMP AL, BL ; compare AL - BL.

JE equal ; jump if AL = BL (ZF = 1).

PUTC 'N' ; if it gets here, then AL <> BL,

JMP stop ; so print 'N', and jump to stop.

equal: ; if gets here,

PUTC 'Y' ; then AL = BL, so print 'Y'.

stop:

RET ; gets here no matter what.

END

34
•

Try the above example with different numbers for AL and BL, open flags
by clicking on [FLAGS] button, use [Single Step] and see what happens,
don't forget to recompile and reload after every change (use F5
shortcut).

•
•
All conditional jumps have one big limitation, unlike JMP instruction they
can only jump 127 bytes forward and 128 bytes backward (note that
most instructions are assembled into 3 or more bytes).

We can easily avoid this limitation using a cute trick:

o Get a opposite conditional jump instruction from the table above,

make it jump to label_x.

o Use JMP instruction to jump to desired location.

o Define label_x: just after the JMP instruction.

label_x: - can be any valid label name.

Here is an example:

include emu8086.inc

ORG 100h

MOV AL, 25 ; set AL to 25.

MOV BL, 10 ; set BL to 10.

CMP AL, BL ; compare AL - BL.

JNE not_equal ; jump if AL <> BL (ZF = 0).

JMP equal
not_equal:

; let's assume that here we

; have a code that is assembled
; to more then 127 bytes...

PUTC 'N' ; if it gets here, then AL <> BL,

JMP stop ; so print 'N', and jump to stop.

equal: ; if gets here,

PUTC 'Y' ; then AL = BL, so print 'Y'.

stop:

35
 RET ; gets here no matter what.

END

Another, yet rarely used method is providing an immediate value instead of a

label. When immediate value starts with a '$' character relative jump is
performed, otherwise compiler calculates instruction that jumps directly to
given offset. For example:

ORG 100h

; unconditional jump forward:

; skip over next 2 bytes,
JMP $22
a DB 3 ; 1 byte.
b DB 4 ; 1 byte.

; JCC jump back 7 bytes:

; (JMP takes 2 bytes itself)
MOV BL,9
DEC BL ; 2 bytes.
CMP BL, 0 ; 3 bytes.
JNE $-7

RET

END

2
$2 - displacement (2 bytes here) relative to the current position

36
8086 Assembler Tutorial for Beginners (Part 8)

Procedures
Procedure is a part of code that can be called from your program in order to
make some specific task. Procedures make program more structural and easier
to understand. Generally procedure returns to the same point from where it
was called.

The syntax for procedure declaration:

name PROC

; here goes the code

; of the procedure ...

RET
name ENDP

name - is the procedure name, the same name should be in the top and the
bottom, this is used to check correct closing of procedures.

Probably, you already know that RET instruction is used to return to operating
system. The same instruction is used to return from procedure (actually
operating system sees your program as a special procedure).

PROC and ENDP are compiler directives, so they are not assembled into any
real machine code. Compiler just remembers the address of procedure.

CALL instruction is used to call a procedure.

Here is an example:

ORG 100h

CALL m1

MOV AX, 2

RET ; return to operating system.

m1 PROC
MOV BX, 5
RET ; return to caller.
m1 ENDP

END

The above example calls procedure m1, does MOV BX, 5, and returns to the
next instruction after CALL: MOV AX, 2.

37
There are several ways to pass parameters to procedure, the easiest way to
pass parameters is by using registers, here is another example of a procedure
that receives two parameters in AL and BL registers, multiplies these
parameters and returns the result in AX register:

ORG 100h

MOV AL, 1
MOV BL, 2

CALL m2
CALL m2
CALL m2
CALL m2

RET ; return to operating system.

m2 PROC
MUL BL ; AX = AL * BL.
RET ; return to caller.
m2 ENDP

END

In the above example value of AL register is update every time the procedure
is called, BL register stays unchanged, so this algorithm calculates 2 in power
of 4,
so final result in AX register is 16 (or 10h).

Here goes another example,

that uses a procedure to print a Hello World! message:

ORG 100h

LEA SI, msg ; load address of msg to SI.

CALL print_me

RET ; return to operating system.

;
==========================================================
; this procedure prints a string, the string should be null
; terminated (have zero in the end),
; the string address should be in SI register:
print_me PROC

next_char:
CMP b.[SI], 0 ; check for zero to stop

38
 JE stop ;

MOV AL, [SI] ; next get ASCII char.

MOV AH, 0Eh ; teletype function number.

INT 10h ; using interrupt to print a char in AL.

ADD SI, 1 ; advance index of string array.

JMP next_char ; go back, and type another char.

stop:
RET ; return to caller.
print_me ENDP
;
==========================================================

msg DB 'Hello World!', 0 ; null terminated string.

END

"b." - prefix before [SI] means that we need to compare bytes, not words.
When you need to compare words add "w." prefix instead. When one of the
compared operands is a register it's not required because compiler knows the
size of each register.

39
8086 Assembler Tutorial for Beginners (Part 9)

The Stack
Stack is an area of memory for keeping temporary data. Stack is used by
CALL instruction to keep return address for procedure, RET instruction gets
this value from the stack and returns to that offset. Quite the same thing
happens when INT instruction calls an interrupt, it stores in stack flag register,
code segment and offset. IRET instruction is used to return from interrupt call.

We can also use the stack to keep any other data,

there are two instructions that work with the stack:

PUSH - stores 16 bit value in the stack.

POP - gets 16 bit value from the stack.

Syntax for PUSH instruction:

PUSH REG
PUSH SREG
PUSH memory
PUSH immediate
REG: AX, BX, CX, DX, DI, SI, BP, SP.

SREG: DS, ES, SS, CS.

memory: [BX], [BX+SI+7], 16 bit variable, etc...

immediate: 5, -24, 3Fh, 10001101b, etc...

Syntax for POP instruction:

POP REG
POP SREG
POP memory
REG: AX, BX, CX, DX, DI, SI, BP, SP.

SREG: DS, ES, SS, (except CS).

memory: [BX], [BX+SI+7], 16 bit variable, etc...

Notes:

• PUSH and POP work with 16 bit values only!

• Note: PUSH immediate works only on 80186 CPU and later!

40
The stack uses LIFO (Last In First Out) algorithm,
this means that if we push these values one by one into the stack:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5
the first value that we will get on pop will be 5, then 4, 3, 2, and only then 1.

It is very important to do equal number of PUSHs and POPs, otherwise the

stack maybe corrupted and it will be impossible to return to operating system.
As you already know we use RET instruction to return to operating system, so
when program starts there is a return address in stack (generally it's 0000h).

PUSH and POP instruction are especially useful because we don't have too
much registers to operate with, so here is a trick:

• Store original value of the register in stack (using PUSH).

• Use the register for any purpose.

• Restore the original value of the register from stack (using POP).

Here is an example:

ORG 100h

MOV AX, 1234h

PUSH AX ; store value of AX in stack.

MOV AX, 5678h ; modify the AX value.

POP AX ; restore the original value of AX.

RET

END

41
Another use of the stack is for exchanging the values,
here is an example:

ORG 100h

MOV AX, 1212h ; store 1212h in AX.

MOV BX, 3434h ; store 3434h in BX

PUSH AX ; store value of AX in stack.

PUSH BX ; store value of BX in stack.

POP AX ; set AX to original value of BX.

POP BX ; set BX to original value of AX.

RET

END

The exchange happens because stack uses LIFO (Last In First Out) algorithm,
so when we push 1212h and then 3434h, on pop we will first get 3434h and
only after it 1212h.

The stack memory area is set by SS (Stack Segment) register, and SP (Stack
Pointer) register. Generally operating system sets values of these registers on
program start.

"PUSH source" instruction does the following:

• Subtract 2 from SP register.

• Write the value of source to the address SS:SP.

"POP destination" instruction does the following:

• Write the value at the address SS:SP to destination.

• Add 2 to SP register.

The current address pointed by SS:SP is called the top of the stack.

For COM files stack segment is generally the code segment, and stack pointer
is set to value of 0FFFEh. At the address SS:0FFFEh stored a return address
for RET instruction that is executed in the end of the program.

42
You can visually see the stack operation by clicking on [Stack] button on
emulator window. The top of the stack is marked with "<" sign.

43
8086 Assembler Tutorial for Beginners (Part 10)

Macros
Macros are just like procedures, but not really. Macros look like procedures,
but they exist only until your code is compiled, after compilation all macros are
replaced with real instructions. If you declared a macro and never used it in
your code, compiler will simply ignore it. emu8086.inc is a good example of
how macros can be used, this file contains several macros to make coding
easier for you.

Macro definition:

name MACRO [parameters,...]

<instructions>

ENDM

Unlike procedures, macros should be defined above the code that uses it, for
example:

MyMacro MACRO p1, p2, p3

MOV AX, p1
MOV BX, p2
MOV CX, p3

ENDM

ORG 100h

MyMacro 1, 2, 3

MyMacro 4, 5, DX

RET

The above code is expanded into:

MOV AX, 00001h

MOV BX, 00002h
MOV CX, 00003h
MOV AX, 00004h
MOV BX, 00005h
MOV CX, DX

44
Some important facts about macros and procedures:

• When you want to use a procedure you should use CALL instruction, for example:

CALL MyProc

• When you want to use a macro, you can just type its name. For example:

MyMacro

• Procedure is located at some specific address in memory, and if you use the same
procedure 100 times, the CPU will transfer control to this part of the memory. The
control will be returned back to the program by RET instruction. The stack is used to
keep the return address. The CALL instruction takes about 3 bytes, so the size of the
output executable file grows very insignificantly, no matter how many time the
procedure is used.

• Macro is expanded directly in program's code. So if you use the same macro 100 times,
the compiler expands the macro 100 times, making the output executable file larger
and larger, each time all instructions of a macro are inserted.

• You should use stack or any general purpose registers to pass parameters to
procedure.

• To pass parameters to macro, you can just type them after the macro name. For
example:

MyMacro 1, 2, 3

• To mark the end of the macro ENDM directive is enough.

• To mark the end of the procedure, you should type the name of the procedure before
the ENDP directive.

Macros are expanded directly in code, therefore if there are labels inside the
macro definition you may get "Duplicate declaration" error when macro is used
for twice or more. To avoid such problem, use LOCAL directive followed by
names of variables, labels or procedure names. For example:

MyMacro2 MACRO
LOCAL label1, label2

CMP AX, 2
JE label1
CMP AX, 3
JE label2
label1:
INC AX
label2:
ADD AX, 2

45
ENDM

ORG 100h

MyMacro2

MyMacro2

RET

If you plan to use your macros in several programs, it may be a good idea to
place all macros in a separate file. Place that file in Inc folder and use
INCLUDE file-name directive to use macros. See Library of common
functions - emu8086.inc for an example of such file.

46
8086 Assembler Tutorial for Beginners (Part 11)

Making your own Operating System

Usually, when a computer starts it will try to load the first 512-byte sector
(that's Cylinder 0, Head 0, Sector 1) from any diskette in your A: drive to
memory location 0000h:7C00h and give it control. If this fails, the BIOS tries
to use the MBR of the first hard drive instead.

This tutorial covers booting up from a floppy drive, the same principles are
used to boot from a hard drive. But using a floppy drive has several
advantages:

• You can keep your existing operating system intact (Windows, DOS...).

• It is easy to modify the boot record of a floppy disk.

Example of a simple floppy disk boot program:

; directive to create BOOT file:

#MAKE_BOOT#

; Boot record is loaded at 0000:7C00,

; so inform compiler to make required
; corrections:
ORG 7C00h

PUSH CS ; make sure DS=CS

POP DS

; load message address into SI register:

LEA SI, msg

; teletype function id:

MOV AH, 0Eh

print: MOV AL, [SI]

CMP AL, 0
JZ done
INT 10h ; print using teletype.
INC SI
JMP print

; wait for 'any key':

done: MOV AH, 0
INT 16h

; store magic value at 0040h:0072h:

; 0000h - cold boot.
; 1234h - warm boot.
MOV AX, 0040h

47
MOV DS, AX
MOV w.[0072h], 0000h ; cold boot.

JMP 0FFFFh:0000h ; reboot!

new_line EQU 13, 10

msg DB 'Hello This is My First Boot Program!'

DB new_line, 'Press any key to reboot', 0

Copy the above example to Emu8086 source editor and press [Compile and
Emulate] button. The Emulator automatically loads ".boot" file to
0000h:7C00h.

You can run it just like a regular program, or you can use the Virtual Drive
menu to Write 512 bytes at 7C00h to the Boot Sector of a virtual floppy
drive (FLOPPY_0 file in Emulator's folder).
After writing your program to the Virtual Floppy Drive, you can select Boot
from Floppy from Virtual Drive menu.

3
If you are curious, you may write the virtual floppy (FLOPPY_0) or ".boot"
file to a real floppy disk and boot your computer from it, I recommend using
"RawWrite for Windows" from:
http://uranus.it.swin.edu.au/~jn/linux/rawwrite.htm
(recent builds now work under all versions of Windows!)

Note: however, that this .boot file is not an MS-DOS compatible boot sector
(it will not allow you to read or write data on this diskette until you format it
again), so don't bother writing only this sector to a diskette with data on it. As
a matter of fact, if you use any 'raw-write' programs, such at the one listed
above, they will erase all of the data anyway. So make sure the diskette you
use doesn't contain any important data.

".boot" files are limited to 512 bytes (sector size). If your new Operating
System is going to grow over this size, you will need to use a boot program to
load data from other sectors. A good example of a tiny Operating System can
be found in "Samples" folder as:

3
The alternative is to do it as follows.
1. Compile the program to get a .boot file.
2. Rename it as a .bin file.
3. Activate DEBUG and load the .exe file with command “debug filename.bin” in DOS prompt.
4. Write the loaded program to the boot sector (sector 0) of a formatted floppy disk with command “w cs:100 0 0
1”.

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micro-os_loader.asm4
micro-os_kernel.asm

To create extensions for your Operating System (over 512 bytes), you can use
".bin" files (select "BIN Template" from "File" -> "New" menu).

To write ".bin" file to virtual floppy, select "Write .bin file to floppy..." from
"Virtual Drive" menu of emulator:

You can also use this to write ".boot" files.

Sector at:
Cylinder: 0
Head:0
Sector: 1
is the boot sector!

Idealized floppy drive and diskette structure:

4
In practice, this loader may not work in your computer. BIOS function call INT 13H is BIOS-dependent. The
parameters appear in the program may not compatible with your computer.
I modified the load-kernel-from-floppy-disk segment as follows to read sectors one by one and then it works.
MOV AH, 02h ; read function.
MOV AL, 1 ; sectors to read. (It must be 1 to make it work in my computer.)
MOV CH, 0 ; cylinder.
MOV CL, 1 ; sector.
MOV DH, 0 ; head.
; DL not changed! - drive number.

; ES:BX points to receiving data buffer:

MOV BX, CS
MOV ES, BX
MOV BX, 200h

INT 13H

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For a 1440 kb diskette:

• Floppy disk has 2 sides, and there are 2 heads; one for each side (0..1),
the drive heads move above the surface of the disk on each side.

• Each side has 80 cylinders (numbered 0..79).

• Each cylinder has 18 sectors (1..18).

• Each sector has 512 bytes.

• Total size of floppy disk is: 2 x 80 x 18 x 512 = 1,474,560 bytes.

To read sectors from floppy drive use INT 13h / AH = 02h.

50
8086 Assembler Tutorial for Beginners (Part 12)

Controlling External Devices

There are 3 devices attached to the emulator: Traffic Lights, Stepper-Motor

and Robot. You can view devices using "Virtual Devices" menu of the
emulator.

For technical information see I/O ports section of Emu8086 reference.

In general, it is possible to use any x86 family CPU to control all kind of
devices, the difference maybe in base I/O port number, this can be altered
using some tricky electronic equipment. Usually the ".bin" file is written into
the Read Only Memory (ROM) chip, the system reads program from that chip,
loads it in RAM module and runs the program. This principle is used for many
modern devices such as micro-wave ovens and etc...

Traffic Lights

Usually to control the traffic lights an array (table) of values is used. In certain
periods of time the value is read from the array and sent to a port. For
example:

; directive to create BIN file:

#MAKE_BIN#
#CS=500#
#DS=500#
#SS=500#
#SP=FFFF#
#IP=0#

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; skip the data table:
JMP start

table DW 100001100001b
DW 110011110011b
DW 001100001100b
DW 011110011110b

start:

MOV SI, 0

; set loop counter to number

; of elements in table:
MOV CX, 4

next_value:

; get value from table:

MOV AX, table[SI]

; set value to I/O port

; of traffic lights:
OUT 4, AX

; next word:
ADD SI, 2

CALL PAUSE

LOOP next_value

; start from over from

; the first value
JMP start

; ==========================
PAUSE PROC
; store registers:
PUSH CX
PUSH DX
PUSH AX

; set interval (1 million

; microseconds - 1 second):
MOV CX, 0Fh
MOV DX, 4240h
MOV AH, 86h
INT 15h

; restore registers:
POP AX
POP DX
POP CX
RET
PAUSE ENDP
; ==========================

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Stepper-Motor

The motor can be half stepped by turning on pair of magnets, followed by a

single and so on.

The motor can be full stepped by turning on pair of magnets, followed by

another pair of magnets and in the end followed by a single magnet and so on.
The best way to make full step is to make two half steps.

Half step is equal to 11.25 degrees.

Full step is equal to 22.5 degrees.

The motor can be turned both clock-wise and counter-clock-wise.

See stepper_motor.asm in Samples folder.

See also I/O ports section of Emu8086 reference.

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Robot

Complete list of robot instruction set is given in I/O ports section of Emu8086
reference.

To control the robot a complex algorithm should be used to achieve maximum

efficiency. The simplest, yet very inefficient, is random moving algorithm, see
robot.asm in Samples folder.

It is also possible to use a data table (just like for Traffic Lights), this can be
good if robot always works in the same surroundings.

54