This document discusses static electric fields in material media. It defines key parameters like electrical permittivity and conductivity. Materials are classified as conductors, semiconductors or insulators based on their electrical properties. Conductors have free charges that allow conduction current when an electric field is applied. Dielectrics are polarized by external electric fields, resulting in electric dipoles within the material. The polarization is characterized by a polarization vector P. The electric displacement vector D is introduced as D = ε0E + P to account for polarization effects.
This document discusses static electric fields in material media. It defines key parameters like electrical permittivity and conductivity. Materials are classified as conductors, semiconductors or insulators based on their electrical properties. Conductors have free charges that allow conduction current when an electric field is applied. Dielectrics are polarized by external electric fields, resulting in electric dipoles within the material. The polarization is characterized by a polarization vector P. The electric displacement vector D is introduced as D = ε0E + P to account for polarization effects.
This document discusses static electric fields in material media. It defines key parameters like electrical permittivity and conductivity. Materials are classified as conductors, semiconductors or insulators based on their electrical properties. Conductors have free charges that allow conduction current when an electric field is applied. Dielectrics are polarized by external electric fields, resulting in electric dipoles within the material. The polarization is characterized by a polarization vector P. The electric displacement vector D is introduced as D = ε0E + P to account for polarization effects.
This document discusses static electric fields in material media. It defines key parameters like electrical permittivity and conductivity. Materials are classified as conductors, semiconductors or insulators based on their electrical properties. Conductors have free charges that allow conduction current when an electric field is applied. Dielectrics are polarized by external electric fields, resulting in electric dipoles within the material. The polarization is characterized by a polarization vector P. The electric displacement vector D is introduced as D = ε0E + P to account for polarization effects.
Textbook : Fundamentals of Engineering Electromagnetics,
David K. CHENG
1 Material Media in Static Electric Field The electromagnetic constitutive parameters of a material medium are Electrical permittivity 𝜖 Electrical permeability μ Conductivity 𝜎
If the materials are :
Homogenous, then constitutive parameters do not vary from point to point Isotropic, then constitutive parameters are independent of direction
Materials according to their electrical properties are classified as follows :
2 Conductors A conductor has a large number of loosely attached electrons in the outermost shells of the atoms. When external electric field is applied, the electrons move from one atom to the next in the opposite direction of applied field. Their movement yields the conduction current : J = E (Point form of Ohm’s law) Most metals belong to this group. Perfect conductor: σ = ∞ and then E = 0 regardless of J. Perfect dielectric: σ = 0 and then J = 0 regardless of E.
3 Conductors in Static Electric Field
Assume that some positive (or negative) charges are introduced in the interior of a good conductor. An electric field will be set up in the conductor, the field exerting a force on the charges and making them move away from one another. This movement will continue until all the charges reach the conductor surface and redistribute themselves in such a way that both the charge and the field inside vanish. Hence,
When there are no free charges in the interior of a conductor (v = 0), E must be zero. Because, according to Gauss's law, the total outward electric flux through any closed surface inside the conductor vanishes.
4 Conductors (cont.)
Hence, in the interior of a conductor under static conditions, both free charge and electric field intensity vanish. Under static conditions, the electric field E on a conductor surface is everywhere normal to the surface. This means, the surface of a conductor is an equipotential surface under static conditions. In fact, since E = 0 everywhere inside a conductor, the whole conductor has the same electrostatic potential.
5 The figure above shows an interface between a conductor and free space. Consider the contour abcda, which has width ab = cd = w and height bc = da= h. Sides ab and cd are parallel to the interface. letting h 0, and noting that E in a conductor is zero, we obtain
or
which means that the tangential component of the E field on a conductor surface is zero under static conditions.
6 In order to find En, the normal component of E at the surface of the conductor, we construct a Gaussian surface in the form of a thin pillbox with the top face in free space and the bottom face in the conductor where E = 0. Then, we obtain
or
Hence, the normal component of the E field at a conductor-free space boundary is
equal to the surface charge density on the conductor divided by the permittivity of free space.
7 Then, to summarize the boundary conditions at the conductor surface, we have
On the surface of a conductor under static conditions, the electric field is
perpendicular to the surface, which is equipotential.
8 Conductivity of Some Common Materials
9 Example: A positive point charge Q is at the center of a spherical conducting shell of an inner radius Ri and an outer radius R0. Determine E and V as functions of the radial distance R. Soln: There is spherical symmetry. It is simplest to use Gauss's law to determine E and then find V by integration. There are three regions: a) R > R0, b) Ri< R< R0, and c) R < Ri. Suitable spherical Gaussian surfaces will be constructed in these regions. Symmetry requires that E = aRER in all three regions.
10 a) R> R0 (Gaussian surface S1) :
or
The E field is the same as that of a point charge Q without the presence of the shell. The potential V1 referring to the point at infinity is
b) Ri < R < R0 (Gaussian surface S2): ER2 = 0. (Conducting shell)
v = 0 in the conducting shell and the total charge enclosed in surface S2 must be zero. Then, an amount of negative charge -Q must be induced on the inner shell surface at R = Ri. (and +Q is induced on the outer shell surface at R=R0). The conducting shell is an equipotential body. Hence,
11 c) R < Ri (Gaussian surface S3): Applying Gauss's law, we obtain
The two graphs show the variations of ER and V in all three regions. Note that whereas the electric intensity has discontinuous jumps, the potential remains continuous. Thus, potential is continuous across boundaries. 12 Example. Consider two spherical conductors with radii b1 and b2 (b2 >b1) that are connected by a conducting wire. The distance of separation between the conductors is assumed to be very large in comparison to b2 so that the charges on the spherical conductors may be considered as uniformly distributed. A total charge Q is deposited on the sphere . Find a) the charges on the two spheres, and b) the electric field intensities at the sphere surfaces.
13 a) Since the spherical conductors are at the same potential, then we have
Since
Then we have
b) The electric field intensities at the surfaces of the two conducting spheres are
and
14 Dielectrics Materials are composed of atoms with a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Although the molecules of dielectrics are macroscopically neutral, an external electric field causes a force to be exerted on each charged particle and results in small displacements of positive and negative charges in opposite directions. These are bound charges. The displacements polarize a dielectric material and create electric dipoles. Thus, a dielectric medium is polarized by the external electric field Eext
Dielectrics are insulating
materials, and contain bound charges which cannot move freely to generate currents. Bound charges can move short distances under an electric field and form electric dipoles. Figure: A dielectric medium polarized by an external electric field
15 To analyze the macroscopic effect of induced dipoles we define a polarization vector P as
where n is the number of molecules per unit volume and the numerator represents the vector sum of the induced dipole moments contained in a very small volume ∆v. The vector P is the volume density of electric dipole moment. The dipole moment of an elemental volume is dp = P dv', which produces an electrostatic potential:
Then, we obtain the potential due to the polarized dielectric as follows:
where R is the distance from the elemental volume dv' to a fixed field point.
16 Electric Flux Density And Dielectric Constant To analyze the effect of induced dipoles we introduce a new field quantity, such that 𝐃 = 𝜖0 𝐄 + 𝐏. D: Electric flux density (electric displacement) P: Polarization vector. Now we have in differential form 𝛁 ∙ 𝐃 = 𝜌𝑣 (C/m3) 𝜌𝑣 is the volume density of free charges. The corresponding integral form is
න 𝛁. 𝐃𝑑𝑣 = න 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑉 𝑉
𝐃 𝑆ׯ. 𝑑𝐬 = 𝑄 (C). (Generalized Gauss’s law)
It states that, total outward flux of the electric displacement (or, the total outward electric flux) over any closed surface is equal to the total free charge enclosed in the surface. 17 When the dielectric properties of the medium are linear and isotropic, the polarization is directly proportional to the electric field intensity, and the proportionality constant is independent of the direction of the field. Then we write P=𝜖0 𝜒𝑒 𝐄, where χe is the electric susceptibility of the material. A dielectric medium is linear if χe is independent of E and homogenous if χe is independent of space coordinates. 𝐃 = 𝜖0 𝐄 + 𝜖0 𝜒𝑒 𝐄 = 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 𝐄 = 𝜖𝐄 𝜖 𝜖𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒𝑒 = 𝜖0 𝜖0 is the permittivity of vacuum, 𝜖𝑟 is the relative permittivity (or dielectric constant) of the material, 𝜖 = 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 is the absolute permittivity (often called simply permittivity) of the material (Farads per meter, F/m). 18 𝜖𝑟 can be a function of space coordinates. If 𝜖𝑟 is independent of position, the medium is homogenous. A linear, homogeneous, and isotropic medium is called a simple medium. The relative permittivity of a simple medium is a constant. For anisotropic materials (such as crystals) the dielectric constant is different for different directions of the electric field, and D and E vectors have different directions.
Dielectric Strength If the electric field is very strong, it will pull electrons completely out of the molecules. This means that the applied electric field exceeds the dielectric strength of the material, and it will free the electrons completely from the molecules in the form of a conduction current. The material will become conducting, and large currents may result. This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown. In other words, the maximum electric field intensity that a dielectric material can withstand without breakdown is the dielectric strength of the material. 19 Relative permittivity (dielectric constant) and dielectric strength of some common materials
20 Example: A positive point charge Q is at the center of a spherical dielectric shell of an inner radius Ri and an outer radius R0. The dielectric constant of the shell is 𝜖𝑟 . Determine E, V, D, and P as functions of the radial distance R.
a) R> Ro
21 b) Ri < R < Ro
c) R < Ri
22 Boundary Conditions for Electrostatic Fields
Electromagnetic problems often involve different media with different physical
properties and require the knowledge of the relations of the field quantities at an interface between two media. For instance, we may wish to determine how the E and D vectors change in crossing an interface. We have already learned the boundary conditions that must be satisfied at a conductor/free space interface. These conditions are given as follows:
We now consider an interface between two general media.
23 Interface between Two General Media : We create the path abcda with the sides ab in medium 1 and cd in medium 2. Then we apply the rule 𝐄 𝐶ׯ. 𝑑𝒍 = 0 over the closed contour. As the sides bc = da = Δh approach zero, their contributions to the line integral of E around the path can be neglected. Hence, the line integral is written as follows:
Then we have
• which means that the tangential component of E is continuous across an interface.
• When media l and 2 are dielectrics with permittivities 𝜖1 and 𝜖2 respectively, we can write
24 The relation between the normal components of the field at a boundary is obtained by creating a small pillbox. Its top face is in medium l and bottom face is in medium 2. S is the area of each face and the height h is vanishingly small. From Gauss’s law,
Unit vectors an2 and an1 are outward unit normal
from media 1 and 2, respectively. Then, we have
the reference unit normal is outward from medium 2.
25 The above equation states that the normal component of D is discontinuous across an interface where a surface charge exists. The amount of discontinuity is equal to the surface charge density. If medium 2 is a conductor, D2 = 0 and
When two dielectrics are in contact with no free charges at the interface, 𝜌𝑠 = 0 and we have
In summary, the boundary conditions for static electric fields are :
26 Example: A lucite sheet (𝜖𝑟 = 3.2) is introduced perpendicularly in a uniform electric field E0 = axE0 in free space. Determine Ei, Di and Pi inside the lucite.
Soln: The interfaces are perpendicular to the electric field, only the normal field components are considered. No free charges exist.
27 The boundary condition D1n=D2n at the left interface gives
Electric flux density does not change across the interface. The electric field intensity inside the lucite sheet is
The polarization vector is zero outside the lucite sheet (P0 = 0). Inside the sheet,
Clearly, a similar application of the boundary condition D1n=D2n on the right
interface will yield the original Eo and Do in the free space on the right of the lucite sheet. 28 Example: Two dielectric media with permittivities 𝜖1 and 𝜖2 are separated by a charge-free boundary as shown in the figure. The electric field intensity in medium 1 at the point P1 has a magnitude E1 and makes an angle 𝛼1 with the normal. Determine the magnitude and direction of the electric field intensity at point P2 in medium 2.
29 Soln: and
30 Example: A uniform electric field intensity of magnitude 1000 V/m is measured underwater and points at an angle 2 = 30° at the interface between water and air, as shown in Figure below. If it is known that no surface charges can exist and the relative permittivity of water is 80, calculate the electric field intensity in air (direction and magnitude).
Solution: The electric field intensity in air is found by separating the electric field intensity in water into its tangential and normal components and then imposing the continuity in the tangential component and discontinuity in the normal component.
31 Then, (taking water as material 2),
The tangential and normal components of the electric field intensity in water are
In air,
The magnitude of the total electric field intensity in air is
and
The electric field intensity in air points at 0.04 from the normal.
