Op amp equivalent circuit

Vo=AVid=A Vin=A(V+ - V-)

 Ideal Voltage transfer curve

+Vsat
AOL = ∞

-Vd +Vd
0
+Vsat ≈ +Vcc
-Vsat
 Practical voltage transfer curve

1. If Vd is greater than corresponding to b, the output

attains +Vsat

2. If Vd is less than corresponding to a, the output attains

–Vsat

3. Thus range a-b is input range for which output varies

linearily with the input. But AOL is very high, practically
this range is very small
 The modes of using an op-amp

◼ Open Loop : (The output assumes one of the two

possible output states, that is +Vsat or – Vsat and the
amplifier acts as a switch only).

◼ Closed Loop: ( The utility of an op-amp can be greatly

increased by providing negative feed back. The output in
this case is not driven into saturation and the circuit
behaves in a linear manner).
 Open loop configuration of op-amp

◼ The voltage transfer curve indicates the inability of op-

amp to work as a linear small signal amplifier in the open
loop mode

◼ Such an open loop behaviour of the op-amp finds some

rare applications like voltage comparator, zero crossing
detector etc.
 Open loop op-amp configurations

◼ The configuration in which output depends on input, but output has

no effect on the input is called open loop configuration.

◼ No feed back from output to input is used in such configuration.

◼ The opamp works as high gain amplifier

◼ The op-amp can be used in three modes in open loop

configuration they are

1. Differential amplifier

2. Inverting amplifier

3. Non inverting amplifier

 Differential Amplifier
The amplifier which amplifies the difference between the two input
voltages is called differential amplifier.

V o= AOLVd = AOL (V1 − V2 )

= AOL (Vin1 − Vin 2 )

Key point: For very small Vd , output gets driven into saturation due to high AOL ,
hence this application is applicable for very small range of differential input
voltage.
 Inverting Amplifier

The amplifier in which the output is inverted i.e. having

180o phase shift with respect to the input is called an
inverting amplifier

Vo = -AOL Vin

Keypoint: The negative sign indicates that there is phase shift of 180o between
input and output i.e. output is inverted with respect to input.
 Non-inverting Amplifier

The amplifier in which the output is amplified without any

phase shift in between input and output is called non
inverting amplifier

Vo = AOL Vin

Keypoint: The positive output shows that input and output are in phase and
input is amplified AOL times to get the output.
Why op-amp is generally not used in open loop
mode?

As open loop gain of op-amp is very large, very small input

voltage drives the op-amp voltage to the saturation level.
Thus in open loop configuration, the output is at its
positive saturation voltage (+Vsat ) or negative saturation
voltage (-Vsat ) depending on which input V1 or V2 is
more than the other. For a.c. input voltages, output may
switch between positive and negative saturation voltages
This indicates the inability of op-amp to work as a linear small signal
amplifier in the open loop mode. Hence the op-amp in open loop
configuration is not used for the linear applications
 AC Characteristics
Frequency Response
Ideally, an op-amp should have an infinite bandwidth but practically op-
amp gain decreases at higher frequencies. Such a gain reduction
with respect to frequency is called as roll off.

The plot showing the variations in magnitude and phase

angle of the gain due to the change in frequency is called
frequency response of the op-amp
When the gain in decibels, phase angle in degrees are
plotted against logarithmic scale of frequency, the plot is
called Bode Plot

The manner in which the gain of the op-amp changes with

variation in frequency is known as the magnitude plot.

The manner in which the phase shift changes with variation

in frequency is known as the phase-angle plot.
 High Frequency Equivalent Cicuit

To obtain the frequency response , consider the high frequency model

of the op-amp with capacitor C at the output, taking into account the
capacitive effect present

AOL
AOL ( f ) =
1 + j 2fRoC
 Obtaining the frequency response

To obtain the frequency response , consider the high frequency model

of the op-amp with capacitor C at the output, taking into account the
capacitive effect present
Where
AOL
AOL ( f ) = AOL(f) = open loop voltage gain as a
1 + j 2fRoC function of frequency
AOL = Gain of the op-amp at 0Hz
AOL
AOL ( f ) = f = operating frequency
f
1 + j( ) fo = Break frequency or cutoff
fo frequency of op-amp=i/(2πRoC)
For a given op-amp and selected value of C, the frequency fo is constant.
The above equation can be written in the polar form as

AOL
AOL ( f ) =
2
 f 
1 +  
 fo 

 f 
AOL ( f ) =  ( f ) = − tan   −1

 f0 
Frequency Response of an op-amp
 The following observations can be made from the frequency response of an
op-amp
i) The open loop gain AOL is almost constant from 0 Hz to the break
frequency fo .
ii) At f=fo , the gain is 3dB down from its value at 0Hz . Hence the frequency
fo is also called as -3dB frequency. It is also know as corner frequency
iii) After f=fo , the gain AOL (f) decreases at a rate of 20 dB/decade or
6dB/octave. As the gain decreases, slope of the magnitude plot is -
20dB/decade or -6dB/octave, after f=fo .
iv) At a certain frequency, the gain reduces to 0dB. This means 20log|AOL | is
0dB i.e. |AOL | =1. Such a frequency is called gain cross-over frequency or
unity gain bandwidth (UGB). It is also called closed loop bandwidth.

UGB is the gain bandwidth product only if an op-amp has a single breakover
frequency, before AOL (f) dB is zero.
For an op-amp with single break frequency fo , after fo
the gain bandwidth product is constant equal to UGB

UGB=AOL fo

UGB is also called gain bandwidth product and denoted as ft

Thus ft is the product of gain of op-amp and bandwidth.
The break frequency is nothing but a corner frequency fo . At this
frequency, slope of the magnitude plot changes. The op-amp for
which there is only once change in the slope of the magnitude plot,
is called single break frequency op-amp.
For a single break frequency we can also write

UGB= Af ff

Af = closed loop voltage gain

Ff = bandwidth with feedback

v) The phase angle of an op-amp with single break frequency varies

between 00 to 900 . The maximum possible phase shift is -900 , i.e. output
voltage lags input voltage by 900 when phase shift is maximum
vi) At a corner frequency f=fo , the phase shift is -450.

F = UGB / AOL
o
 Transient Response Rise time

When the output of the op-amp is suddenly changing like

pulse type, then the rise time of the response depends on
the cut-off frequency fH of the op-amp. Such a rise time is
called cut-off frequency limited rise time or transient
response rise time ( tr )

0.35
tr =
fH
 Need for Closed loop operation of op-amp

1. Amplitude of the input voltage signal is limited because

of the large voltage gain. It takes the op-amp into
saturation region

2. The bandwidth is very small because of large voltage

gain, thus op-amp can only amplify nearly d c signals

Solution is to reduce the open loop voltage

gain using negative feedback
 Closed loop operation of op-amp

The utility of the op-amp can be increased considerably

by operating in closed loop mode. The closed loop
operation is possible with the help of feedback. The
feedback allows to feed some part of the output back to
the input terminals. In the linear applications, the op-
amp is always used with negative feedback. The
negative feedback helps in controlling gain, which
otherwise drives the op-amp out of its linear range, even
for a small noise voltage at the input terminals
 Realistic simplifying assumptions

◼ Zero input current: The current drawn by either of the

input terminals (inverting and non-inverting) is zero

◼ Virtual ground :This means the differential input voltage

Vd between the non-inverting and inverting terminals is
essentially zero. (The voltage at the non inverting input
terminal of an op-amp can be realistically assumed to be
equal to the voltage at the inverting input terminal
Type of Feedback
 Type of Feedback

Voltage Series Feedback Voltage Shunt Feedback

Non-Inverting Amplifier- Voltage Series Feedback

Inverting Amplifier- Voltage Shunt Feedback

 Type of Feedback
Current Series Feedback Current Shunt Feedback
The Inverting Amplifier

Rf Rf
Vout = − Vin A=−
Rin Rin
Analyzing the Inverting
Amplifier

1)
inverting input (-):

non-inverting input (+):

Inverting Amplifier Analysis
1) −:

+:

V Vin − VB VB − Vout
2) − : i = = =
R Rin Rf
+ : VA = 0
Vin − Vout
3) VA = VB = 0 =
Rin Rf
Vout Rf
=−
Vin Rin
The Non-Inverting Amplifier

 Rf 
Vout = 1 + Vin
 R 
 g 
Rf
A = 1+
Rg
 Analysis of Non-Inverting
Amplifier Note that step 2 uses a voltage
divider to find the voltage at VB
relative to the output voltage.

2) + : VA = Vin
Rg
− : VB = Vout
R f + Rg
Rg
3) VA = VB Vin = Vout
R f + Rg
1) +: Vout R f + Rg
−: =
Vin Rg
Vout Rf
= 1+
Vin Rg
Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Bandwidth Inverting Amplifier
fF=fo(1+AB); fo=(UGB)/A

=(UGB) (1+AB) /A

=(UGB)K’ /AF

For unit gain amplifier

K’=0.5
Thus fF=(UGB) /2

Total output offset voltage

VooT= ±Vsat/(1+AB)
 Comparison of the ideal inverting and non-
inverting op-amp
Ideal Inverting amplifier Ideal non-inverting amplifier

1. Voltage gain=-Rf/R1 1. Voltage gain=1+Rf/R1

2. The output is inverted with 2. No phase shift between input

respect to input and output

3. The voltage gain can be 3. The voltage gain is always

adjusted as greater than, equal to greater than one
or less than one

4. The input impedance is R1 4. The input impedance is very

large
 Ideal Inverting Amplifier
1. The output is inverted with respect to input, which is indicated by minus
sign.

2. The voltage gain is independent of open loop gain of the op-amp, which is
assumed to be large.

3. The voltage gain depends on the ratio of the two resistances. Hence
selecting Rf and R1 , the required value of gain can be easily obtained.

4. If Rf > R1,, the gain is greater than 1

If Rf < R1,, the gain is less than 1

If Rf = R1, the gain is unity

Thus the output voltage can be greater than, less than or equal to the input
voltage in magnitude
5. If the ratio of Rf and R1 is K which is other than one, the circuit is called
scale changer while for Rf/R1 =1 it is called phase inverter.

6. The closed loop gain is denoted as AVF or ACL i.e. gain with feedback
Applications Inverting Amplifier
Applications Inverting Amplifier

Vo=-Vi when Rf=R1

Non-inverting Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
Non-Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Non-Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Non Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Non Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Non Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Bandwidth Non Inverting Amplifier
fF=fo(1+AB); fo=(UGB)/A
AOL ( R1 + R f )
ACL =
=(UGB) (1+AB) /A R1 + R f + R1 AOL

=(UGB) /AF

For unit gain amplifier

Thus fF=(UGB)

Total output offset voltage

VooT= ±Vsat/(1+AB)
 Applications Non-inverting Amplifier
Voltage Follower

◼ Non Inverting Amplifier with unit gain

◼ Rf=0
◼ Af=1
 Ideal Non-inverting Amplifier

1. The voltage gain is always greater than one

2. The voltage gain is positive indicating that for a.c. input, the output
and input are in phase while for d.c. input, the output polarity is
same as that of input

3. The voltage gain is independent of open loop gain of op-amp, but

depends only on the two resistance values

4. The desired voltage gain can be obtained by selecting proper

values of Rf and R1
 Practical Inverting Amplifier

AOL R f
Closed Loop Voltage gain = ACL = −
R1 + R f + R1 AOL
 Practical Non-Inverting Amplifier

Closed Loop Voltage gain = AOL ( R1 + R f )

ACL =
R1 + R f + R1 AOL
Differential Amplifier in Closed Loop

Single Op-amp
Differential Amplifier in Closed Loop
Differential Amplifier in Closed Loop
Differential Amplifier in Closed Loop
Differential Amplifier in Closed Loop

Vo= -(R2/R1) (v1-v2)

Differential Amplifier in Closed Loop
Differential Amplifier in Closed Loop
Differential Amplifier in Closed Loop
The End