ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Hormones are made up of either:
Amino acid-based hormones
Proteins
ENDOCRINE GLANDS Peptides
Amines
Pituitary Gland Steroids – made from cholesterol (a good compound
o Anterior Pituitary Gland in the body; cells and tissues also need cholesterol;
o Posterior Pituitary Gland there are hormones that is made up of cholesterol)
Thyroid Glands Prostaglandins – made from highly active lipids
Parathyroid Glands
Adrenal Glands
Islets of Pancreas MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION
Ovaries and Testes (Gonads)
Pineal Gland Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs
Thymus (target cells or organs); Always specific
Target cells must have specific protein receptors
Hormone binding influences the working of the cells
In general, hormonal activity increases the activity of
the cells, tissues or organs
Effects
Changes in plasma membrane permeability or
electrical state
Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymes
Activation or inactivation of enzymes
Stimulation of mitosis
In general, it has an effect on the body’s metabolism
Steroid Hormone Action
Direct Gene
Activation
1. Diffuse through the
Endocrine System plasma membrane of
target cells
Ductless system 2. Enter the nucleus
The organs, glands involve releases hormones and 3. Bind to a specific protein
reach target organs or tissue through the specific within the nucleus
receptors. 4. Bind to specific sites on
Uses chemical messages (hormones) that are the cell’s DNA
released into the blood 5. Activate genes that result
The endocrine system is the second in synthesis of new
messenger of the body by transmitting proteins
information through hormones
Hormones control several major processes Non-steroid Hormone Action
Reproduction Second messenger
Growth and development system
Mobilization of body defenses
Maintenance of much of homeostasis 1. Hormone binds to a
Regulation of metabolism membrane receptor
Endocrine cells 2. Hormone does not enter
Epithelial in nature the cell
Aggregated as cores or cluster 3. Sets off a series of
reactions that activates
an enzyme
HORMONES AND THEIR ACTIVITY 4. The enzyme catalyzes a
reaction that produces a
Hormones are produced by specialized cells second messenger
Cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluids molecule
Blood transfers hormones to target sites 5. Oversees additional
These hormones regulate the activity of other cells intracellular changes to promote a specific response
CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION Humoral Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
Changing blood levels of
Hormone levels in the blood are maintained by certain ions stimulate
negative feedback hormone release
o A stimulus or low hormone levels in the
blood triggers the release of more hormone
Hormone release stops once an appropriate level in
the blood is reached
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine
Glands
Endocrine glands are Glands that releases hormones
activated by other Other organs may also release hormones but not
hormones technically involved in the endocrine system
Kidneys, livers releases hormone
PITUITARY GLANDS
Pea-sized (1-1.5
cm in diameter)
Hangs by a stalk
(infundibulum)
from the
hypothalamus
Lies and
Neural Stimuli of Endocrine Glands surrounded by
the sella turcica
(“Turk’s saddle”)
Nerve impulses stimulate of the sphenoid
hormone release bone
Most are under control of the
sympathetic nervous system Has two
functional lobes
Anterior pituitary
Glandular tissue
Adenohypophysis
Makes up of 75% of the total weight
Posterior pituitary
Nervous tissue
Neurohypophysis
Not strictly an endocrine gland, but
do release hormones
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal
Protein in nature cortex
Act through the second-messenger system Sometimes called as Corticotropin
Regulated by hormonal stimuli through the negative Some corticotropes release melanin-stimulating
feedback melanocytes
Six anterior pituitary hormones 6. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
o Two affect non-endocrine targets Influences growth and activity of the thyroid
o Four stimulate other endocrine glands Thyrotropin
(tropic hormones)
Pituitary – Hypothalamus Relationship
Release of hormones is controlled by releasing and
inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus
Hypothalamus produces two hormones that are
transported to neurosecretory cells of the posterior
pituitary
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
1. Oxytocin
Stimulates contractions of the uterus during
labor
Causes milk ejection
Released in a significant amount during
childbirth and when a woman is nursing; Induce
labor or to hazen up labor that is progressing in
a slow pace; contraction of uterus
As baby sucks the mother’s breast, it will
stimulate the production or release of the
oxytocin that will then facilitate the milk release
1. Growth Hormone (GH) 2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
General metabolic hormone Can inhibit urine production
Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction
muscles and long bones leading to increased blood pressure
Causes amino acids built in proteins (vasopressin)
Causes fats to be broken down for a source of Needed to conserve water
energy Helps increase blood pressure in case there is a
Stimulate several tissues to secrete insulin-like low blood pressure by constricting blood vessels
growth factors
Growth of skeletal muscles and long bones; not
only for the extension of long bones THYROID GLANDS
Important for body’s metabolic process Lower part of the
2. Prolactin (PRL) anterior neck with
Stimulates and maintains milk production a pair of lobes
following childbirth connected by
Function in males is unknown isthmus
Initiate and maintain milk secretion in the Found at the base
mammary gland of the throat
3. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Consists of two
Stimulates follicle development (ovaries) and lobes and a
sperm development (testes) connecting
4. Luteinizing hormone (LH) isthmus
Triggers ovulation (females) and testosterone Composed of
production (males) hollow structures
called follicles
Gonadotropic Hormones (follicular cells)
o Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads Produces two
(testes and ovaries) hormones:
Hyposecretion of FSH and LH may lead to sterility o Thyroid
Hormones play a critical role in the reproduction hormone
o Calcitonin
5. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Hormones of the Thyroid Gland ADRENAL GLANDS
1. Thyroid Hormone Sits on top of kidneys
Major metabolic hormone Referred to as suprarenal glands
Produced by follicular cells Two glands
Composed of two active iodine-containing Cortex – outer glandular region in three
hormones layers
o Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by thyroid Medulla – inner neural tissue region
follicles
o Triiodothyronine (T3) – conversion of T4
at target tissues
Increase metabolism
Help maintain normal body temperature
Controls the rate at which glucose is burned or
oxidized and converted to body heat and
chemical energy
o Elevation of thyroid hormones =
elevation of sugar
If there will be problems with thyroid hormones:
o The body is always affected by a change
in temperature
Important for normal tissue growth and
development especially in reproductive and
nervous system
If thyroid hormone levels are high, the nervous Adrenal Cortex
system activity is also high
Important for the secretions of mineralocorticoids,
2. Calcitonin glucocorticoids, and androgens
Decreases blood calcium levels by causing its Contains three concentric zones:
deposition on bone More on steroid hormones
Produced by parafolicullar cells Uses direct gene activation
Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone Zona Glomerulosa (superficial)
Regulates calcium homeostasis Regulation of sodium
Inhibits bone resorption Aldosterone (sodium-retaining
Hypocalcemic agent hormone) – makes sure that the
body reabsorbs sodium
Zona Fasiculata (middle)
PARATHYROID GLAND Zona Reticularis (innermost)
Androgens
More secreted in males
Tiny masses on the compared to females
posterior of the Promotes libido in females
thyroid and are converted to
Two pair of estrogen
yellowish gland Stimulates the growth of
closely related to axillary and pubic hair
the posterior Contributes to growth
surface of the (puberty)
thyroid gland
Main function is to
produce or secrete
PTH
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Stimulate osteoclasts to remove calcium from
bone
Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to absorb
more calcium
Hypercalcemic agent
Counter-part of calcitonin
Increase blood calcium levels
Promotes bone resorption
Absorbs through intestine
Hormones of the Adrenal a-cells
o Responsible for the production of glucagon
which increases blood glucose levels
o If too much glucose is stored in the liver, it
will break down glycogen
b-cells
o Helps secrete insulin (lower the blood sugar
levels)
o Facilitate the importation of glucose in the
cells for energy
o To enter the cell or tissues, insulin is needed
o The more insulin, the more chances for
glucose to enter the cells
Delta Cells
o Inhibits the secretion of glucagon and insulin
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla o Somatostatin
also called Growth Hormone
Catecholamines Inhibiting Hormone (GHIH)
Epinephrine (Adrenaline)
Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
Produce effects that enhances the
sympathetic nervous system during stress
Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and
blood glucose level
Dilates small passageway of the lungs
These hormones prepare the body to deal with
short-term stress
“Fight or Flight” Response
PANCREATIC ISLETS
Pancreatic Hormones and Blood Sugar
Mixed gland – has
both endocrine
and exocrine
functions
Located in the tail
region of the
Pancreas
Constitute only 1-
2% of the
Pancreas’ volume
PANCREAS
Pistol-shape flattened organ
The head part is enclosed with duodenum, body
at the back of the stomach and the tail related to
spleen
Interconnected with the different organs of the
lower abdomen
Its endocrine portion consists of the cell of the
islets of Langerhans
PINEAL GLANDS
Located on the caudal end of diencephalon
Consists of pinealocytes
Found on the third ventricle of the brain
Also known as Epiphysis Cerebri
Melatonin 2. Progesterone
o Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep Produced by the corpus luteum
cycles Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual
o Hormone derived from serotonin which cycle
promotes sleeping Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the
o Could be stimulated by the amount of light uterus
o Bananas are reached in serotonin
HORMONES OF THE TESTES
Interstitial cells of testes are hormone-producing
Produce several androgens
Interstitial cells of Leydig in testes secretes
androgens like testosterone
Testosterone
Responsible for adult male secondary sex
characteristics
Promotes growth and maturation of male
reproductive system
Required for sperm cell production
THYMUS
Located posterior to the sternum
Largest in infants and children
Thymosin
o Matures some types of white blood cells
o Important in developing the immune system
T-lymphocytes/T-cells
o White blood cell that matures in the thymus
o Responsible for immune mechanism
o Help eliminate unwanted and toxic materials
Releasing or inhibiting hormone will always come
from the hypothalamus
OTHER ENDOCRINE ORGANS AND TISSUES
(See OTHER ENDOCRINE ORGANS AND TISSUES
Endocrine Function of the Placenta
Produces human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)
HORMONES OF THE OVARIES o In addition to estrogen, progesterone, and
Hyposecretion of ovarian hormones severely have other hormones, it is also a marker used to
burst a woman’s ability to conceive and bear a child detect pregnancy
o Elevates the first trimester of pregnancy
1. Estrogens o Decreases after the first trimester
Secreted by follicular cells of the ovaries Produces Human placental lactogen (hPL)
Produced by Graafian follicles or the placenta o Prepares the breasts for lactation
Stimulates the development of secondary o Helps in lactation
female characteristics o Enlargement of the breasts
Helps prepare the uterus to receive a fertilized Produces Relaxin
egg o Causes pelvic ligaments and the pubic
Helps the maturation of reproductive organs symphysis to relax
Helps maintain pregnancy
Prepares the breast for milk production
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Grave’s disease
Most endocrine organs operate smoothly until old o Hyperthyroidism
age High basal metabolic rate and
Menopause is brought about by lack of efficiency of intolerance to heat
the ovaries Hard to get fat because of increased
Growth hormone production declines with age metabolic rate
Many endocrine glands decrease output with age o Nervous and agitated behaviour
o Causes exophthalmic goiter
Eyes bulges
HOMEOSTATIC BALANCES o Edema behind eyes causes bulging
Posterior Pituitary Gland Goiters
o Enlargement of the thyroid gland
Diabetes Insipidus Because of accumulation of inactive
o Hyposecretion of ADH (antidiuretic thyroxin
hormone) Inactive thyroxin results in a
o Increased volume of urine deficiency in iodine
o Frequent urination Iodine helps activate thyroid
o There will be dehydration hormone
o Diet is deficient in iodine
Anterior Pituitary Gland
Adrenal Gland
Pituitary Dwarfism
o Hyposceretion of GH during childhood Addison’s Disease
o Maximum of adult height of 4ft o Destruction of adrenal cortex characterized
by chronic deficiency of cortisol,
Pituitary Gigantism aldosterone, and androgens
o Hypersecretion of GH during childhood o ACTH accumulates causing stimulation of
o Common height may reach 8-9 ft melanocytes (bronze skin color)
o Increase in length (compared to acromegaly) Pigmentation in the skin
o Without cortisol, there is no mobilization of
Acromegaly glucose under stress; can be life-threatening.
o Hypersecretion of GH after long bone o Hyposecretion of aldosterone-most serious,
growth has ended causes hyperkalemia (high blood potassium)
o Facial bones (ridges of eyebrows and lower leading to cardiac arrest
jaw) are enlarged
o Hands also become enlarged Cushing’s Syndrome
o Manifestation of excessive of corticosteroids
Sterility o Hypersecretion of the adrenal cortex
o Hyposecretion of FSH and LH for both males hormone, cortisol is primary problem.
and females o Cortisol, as a hormone, also promote
o Inability to reproduce destruction of glycogen
o Results in Diabetes mellitus from increased
blood glucose
Thyroid Gland o Subcutaneous fat deposited in midsection
o High blood pressure
Cretinism o Obesity, moon-face or buffalo hump,
o Hyposecretion of Thyroxine in early sometimes lead to osteoporosis or
childhood hypertension
o Short, stocky body type.
o Causes mental retardation of severe
hypothyroidism
o Abnormal body proportion (compared to
dwarfism)
o Part of new born screening test
Myxedema
o Hypothyroidism in adulthood
Easy to get fat
Improper metabolic ability
o Adults-lethargy, weight gain, loss of hair
