ES. _ Ran) SaaSStrategies ix Creative Problem Solving H. Scott Fogler College of Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2136 Steven E. LeBlanc College of Engineering University of Toledo Toledo, Ohio 43606-3390 Prentice Hall PTR Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fogler H, Seow. Scategies for Creative Problem Solving / H. Scott Fopes, Steven E. LeBlanc pom, Includes index. ISBN 0-13-179318-7, 1. Problem Solving, 2-Creative thinking, 1. LeBlanc, Steven E, IL. Tide BRA9.F7 1994 9426267 153.4°3—de20 cp Eeditorial/Production Supervision: Lisa larkowski Acquisitions Edivor: Mike Hays ‘Manufacturing Manager: Alexis R. Heydt Cover Design: Doug Delwca © 1995 Prentice Hall PTR Prentice-Hall, Inc. ‘A Paramount Communications Company Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be repeal inay fom or by any mca ou ‘permission in writing from the publisher. Jolly Green Giants a rogitered ademak of Green Giant Co, The Pilsbury Co Pere Jouer is trademak of Seagrars Chateau 8 Estate Waites Ca, Pose It Notes isa registered ademark of 3M Corporation Pionary ira registered ademark of Wescen Publishing Co, Inc. (Alia of Mate, Inc) Shockblockes i repbteredrademak of U.S- Shoe Corporation Snickers, Milly Wayr Mar Bar are relied rademal of MeM/Mats, In. Hench Baris a regntred trademark Lat Ine ‘The Pankin Dey Manner a epotered raderak of Franklin Quest Co, Coors isa registered trademark of Adolph Coors Co, ‘Tae publi fs dnunson his ook when odd in bulk unites Corporate Sales Department PTR Pence Hall” 113 Sylvan Avenue Englewood Clif, NJ 07632 Phone 201-392-2863 FAX. 201-592-2249, Printed in the United States of America 1098765432 0-13-179318.7, Hall International (UX) Limited, London c-Hall of Australia Pry. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall of Canada, Ine, Toronco Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana S.A., Mexico Frenie Hal of India Private Limited, New Deh Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., To Sloun Sas Aa Pe Lal Singapore Ecditora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Lid, Ro de JaneizoTABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE CHAPTER 1 Problem-Solving Strategies-Why Bother? 1.1 What's the Real Problem? 1.2. Right Problem/Wrong Solution. Summary .. References .... Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 2. Getting Started . 2.1, Getting in the Right Frame of Mind. 2.2. Taking Risks... 2.3. Looking for Paradigm Shit 2.4 Having a Vision 2.5. Using A Heuristi 2.6 Fostering Creativity. 2.7 Interacting Creatively 2.8 Working Together in Teams Closure Summary References Further Reading . Exercises... CHAPTER 3. Problem Definition .. 3.1 The First Four Steps .. 3.2. Defining The Real Problem 3.2A Finding Out Where the Problem Came From 3.2B Exploring the Problem ; 3.2C Using the Present State/Desired State Technique 3.2D_ The Duncker Diagram 3.2E Using the Statement-Restatement Technique 3.2F Evaluating the Problem Definition ... 3.3. The Next Four Steps.. Summary References Further Reading Exercises... iitCHAPTER 4 Contents Generating Solution: 4.1 Recognizing Mental Blocks .. 4.2. Blockbusting . 4.3. Brainstorming 4.3A Osborn’s Checklist. 4.3B_ Random Stimulation 4.3C_ Other People’s Views 43D Futuring.. 4.4 Organizing Brainstorming Ideas ‘The Fishbone Diagram . 4.5. Brainwriting ... 4.6 Analogy and Cross-Fertilization 4.7 Incubating Ideas Closure. Summary . References Further Reading .. Exercise: CHAPTER 5 Deciding the Course of Action 5.1 Situation Analysis 5.1A Evaluation Criteria. 5.1B The Pareto Analysis and Diagram .. 5.2. K.T. Problem Analysis and Troubleshooting 5.3, Decision Analysis 5.3A Cautions ....0 3B Missing Information .. 5.3C__Is the Decision Ethical? 5.4 Potential Problem Analysis ... Summary . References Further Reading .. Exercises. CHAPTER 6 Implementing the Solution 6.1 Approval. 6.2 Planning... 62A. Allocation of Time and Resources 6.2A.1 Gantt Chart.. 6.2B Coordination and Deployment 6.2C Critical Path . 6.2D Necessary Resources .Contents CHAPTER 6 (Cont'd) 6.3. Carry Through Revealing the Solution . 6.4 Follow Up.. 6.5 Problem Statements That Change with Time. 6.6 Experimental Projects .. 6.6A Do You Really Need the Experiments 6.6B Define the Objectives of the Experiment 6.6C Choose the Responses You Want to Measure 6.6D_ Identify the Important Variables 6.6E Design the Experiment Types of Errors ... The Minimum Number of Experiments 6.6F Performing the Experiment: How Many Times? 6.6G Analyze the Results .. 66H Report Closure. Summary References Further Reading Exercises. CHAPTER 7 Evaluation ... 7.1 General Guidelines 7.2. Ethical Considerations . 7.3 Safety Considerations Summary ...... References Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 8 Putting It All Together... 8.1 Case Study: Meet Me at the Mall 8.2. Case Study: The Silver Bullet .. Closure Appendix 1 . Appendix 2 . INDEX .PREFACE The purpose of this book is to help problem solvers improve their street smarts. We know that every individual possesses creative skills of one type or another, and that these skills can be sharpened if they are exercised regularly. This book provides a framework to hone and polish these creative problem-solving skills. Strategies for Creative Problem Solving is for students, new graduates, practitioners, or anyone who wants to increase their problem-solving skills. After studying this book, the reader will be able to encounter an ill-defined problem, identify the real problem, effectively explore the constraints, plan a robust approach, carry it through to a viable solution, and then evaluate what has been accomplished. 42. The skills to achieve these goals will be developed by examining the components of a problem-solving algorithm and studying a series of graduated exercises to familiarize, reinforce, challenge, and stretch the reader’ s creativity in the problem- solving process. In order to cut through the maze of obstacles blocking the pathway to the solution to the problem, we need skills analogous toa pair of scissors with two special blades. EE @ KNOWLEDGE ——>— One of the shears is made of the knowledge necessary to understand the problem and to develop technically feasible solutions. However, no cutting can be done to solve problems of invention with just one shear. The other shear contains creativity that can generate new and innovative ideas. Creativity alone will not generate solutions that are necessarily technically feasible, and again no cutting can be done. Creativity along with a strong technical foundation, however, allows us to cut through the problem to obtain original solutions. Over the past five years, we have researched problem-solving techniques used in industry. Teams of students and faculty have visited a number of companies (see acknowledgments) to study problem-solving strategies. We also carried out an extensive survey of new employees, experienced engineers, and managers in industry to collect information on the problem-solving process. AS a result of our research, we know you can be a better problem solver. ‘A number of the engineers and managers provided examples of industrial problems that were incorrectly defined. These examples of ill-defined problems highlight the need to define the real problem as opposed to the perceived problem. viPREFACE vii We believe that if a problem-solving heuristic had been applied to some of these problems in the first place, the true problem would have been uncovered more rapidly. A problem-solving heuristic is a systematic approach to problem solving that helps guide us through the solution process and generate alternative solution pathways. The heuristic in this book is quite robust and therefore applicable to many types of problems. However, we are not advocating the methods illustrated here as the only heuristic available; they are not. The problem-solving techniques presented in this book do, however, provide an organized, logical approach to generating more creative solutions. The book is designed to lead the reader through the problem-solving process. Chapter | illustrates the need for an organized method of solving problems. Chapter 2 discusses the importance of approaching the problem with a positive attitude, the need for risk taking in the problem-solving process, and gives an overview of the heuristic (i.e., systematic approach). Subsequent chapters move step-by-step through the heuristic, shown below, to increase the reader’ s problem- solving street smarts. Chapter 7 Chapter 6 Decide the Course of Action Chapter 4 Generate Solutions £ 1 2 Yj ee Define the Problem G The Five Building Blocks of the Heuristic Chapter 5 ABOUT THE SOFTWARE Interactive software that reinforces the concepts developed in the text is available for use on IBM compatible computers. The software has been sentto every engineering college in the United States, contact your dean for more information. Individual copies may may be obtained for a nominal charge by writing P.S. Interactive Software, clo Professor H. S. Fogler, 3168 H. H. Dow Building, 2300 Hayward, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109-2136. FAX: 313-763-0459viii PREFACE Eleven interactive modules are available to supplement and reinforce material in the text. The modules are: * CONCENTRATION (Ch. 1 & 2) - An interactive puzzle/game that stresses the foundations of problem solving helps students learn the concepts. + EXPLORE (Ch. 3) - This module reviews and exercises problem definition techniques as the student chooses the membrane for a heart-lung machine. + DUNCKER (Ch. 3) - The student sharpens his/her problem definition skills by working on one of three scenarios involving vague problem statements. + BRAINSTORMING (Ch. 4) - This module leads the student through a variety of brainstorming and blockbusting techniques. * SITUATION (Ch. 5) - The student analyzes a scenario based on the explosion of a gas truck to appraise a situation with many simultaneous problems. + PROBLEM (Ch. 5) - Acting as a paint engineer, the student tries to determine the source of paint defects that are occuring as cars leave the assembly line. * DECISION (Ch. 5) - As the interviewer of several job applicants, the student is guided through the decision analysis process. + POTENTIAL PROBLEM (Ch. 5) - Based on the 1992 World Solar Car Race, this module exercises one’s ability to recognize and deal with potential problems. + PLANNING (Ch. 6) - This module helps the student practice implementation of a problem solution using a student bridge building competition scenario. + EVALUATION (Ch. 7) - As an employee in a paper mill, the student is asked to evaluate a proposed plant expansion. + ETHICS (Ch. 7) - Ethical considerations are stressed in this module that finds the student as an engineer in a chemical company with an environmental problem. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This book had its origins in The Commission on Undergraduate Education formed by Charles M. Vest, Dean of the College of Engineering at the University of Michigan. This commission's charge was to point the directions for engineering education for thenext decade. It was during the workings of this commission that the need to focus on the development of students’ problem-solving and creative skills was required more than ever before because of the increased global competition. To carry out the necessary research and data collection to develop strategies and materialsto fulfill this need, a proposal was submitted to, and funded by, the National Science Foundation. This funding was instrumental in the conception and in the writing of this book. We would like to acknowledge a number of people and organizations who helped make this work possible. We wish to thank the following companies for participating in this project: Amoco Chevron Specialty Chemicals Dow Chemical Dow Corning DuPont Eli LillyPREFACE ix General Mills KMS Fusion Kraft General Foods Mobil Monsanto Procter & Gamble Shell 3M Upjohn We would also like to thank the following faculty and students at the University of Michigan: S. Bike, R. Curl, C. Kravaris, J. Linderman, P. E. Savage, L. Thompson, and H. Wang; and A.C, Bushman, S, Bushman, J. Camp, P. Chen, D. Korotney, J. Gyenese, and J. Komiski, who helped collect, organize, and polish many of the problems in this book. Corinne Falender helped collect data on industrial problem-solving needsand examples. Michael Szachta participated in the preparation of a number of the figures as well as in the development of some of the industrial examples. A number of undergraduate students helped research and collect a number of the real-life examples used in the book by visiting shops, companies, and local merchants. These students are Chad White, Matthew Gdowski, David Graham, James Piana, Chris Teeley, Margaret Michael, Christina Nusbaum, Jen Casteel, and David Turezyn. Cathy Obeid, Susan Montgomery, Phillip Westmorleland, and Jeff Siirola gave a number of careful readings of the book and offereda number of helpful suggestions. Annette User proof read and corrected the copy edited version of the book, and also gave a final reading of the book, along with Michael Farum, Matthew Gdowski, James Piana, and Christopher Domke. David Zinn provided most of the art work that appears throughout the text. In addition, Dr. Montgomery was a key participant in the development of the interactive software. H.S.F. would also like to thank his colleagues in the Chemical Engineering Department at Imperial College. London, and especially Julia Higgins and Stephen Richardson for their help and encouragement, We are also grateful to Professor Donald Woods for his pioneering work in bringing a structure of problem solving to the chemical and other engineering professions as well as initiating and stimulating the authors’ interest in teaching problem solving, Janet Fogler spent endless hours editing and re-editing the book. Her comments and suggestions were invaluable to us. Last but not least we recognize Ms. Wendy Dansereau who helped prepare the initial versions of the manuscript, and Mrs. Laura Bracken, who typed and retyped what must have seemed like a never-ending succession of revisions as we converged on the final version, Their cheerful dispositions were always appreciated. H.S.F. Ann Arbor, MI Sl Toledo, OH July, 19941 PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES- WHY BOTHER? Everyone is called upon to solve problems every day, from such mundane decisions as what to wear or where to go for lunch, to the much more difficult problems thatare found in school or onthe job. Mostreal-world problems have many possible solutions. The more complex the problem, the more alternative solutions there are. The goal is to pick the best solution. All of us will be better able to achieve this goal if we exercise our problem-solving skills frequently to make them sharper. By understanding and practicing the techniques discussed in this book, the reader will develop problem-solving street smarts and become a much more efficient problem solver. 1.1 WHAT’S THE REAL PROBLEM? ‘THE CASE OF THE HUNGRY GRIZZLY BEAR' OR AN EXERCISE IN DEFINING THE “REAL PROBLEM” A student and his professor are backpacking in Alaska when a grizzly bear starts to chase them from a distance. They both start running, but it’s clear that eventually the bear will catch up with them. The student takes offhis backpack, gets his running shoes out, and starts putting them on. His professor says, “Youcan’ toutrun the bear, even in running shoes!” The student replies, “I don’t need to outrun the bear; only need to outrun you! ‘The student realized that the bear would be satisfied when he caught one person; consequently the student defined the real problem as outrunning the professor rather than the bear. This example illustrates a very important point: problem definition. Problem definition is a common but difficult task because true problems are often disguised ina variety of ways. Ittakesa skillful individual to analyze a situation and extract the real problem from a sea of information. Ill-defined or poorly posed problems can lead novice (and not so novice) engineers down the wrong path to a series of impossible or spurious solutions. Defining the “real problem” is critical to finding a workable solution. Sometimes we can be “tricked” into treating the symptoms instead of solving the root problem. Treating symptoms (e.g., putting a bucket under a leaking roof) can give the satisfaction of a quick-fix, but finding and solving the real problems (i.e., the cause of the leak) are important in order to minimize lost time,2 ProBLeM-SOLvING StRaTEeGiEs—Wiy Borer? Cuap. | money, and effort. Implementing real solutions to real problems requires discipline (and sometimes stubbornness) to avoid being pressured into accepting a less desirable quick-fix solution because of time constraints. The next three pages present a number of real-life examples from case histories showing how easy itis to fall into the trap of defining and solving the wrong, problem. In these examples and the discussion that follows, the perceived problem referstoa problem thought tobe correctly defined butis not. These examples provide evidence of how millions of dollars and thousands of hours can be wasted by poor problem definition and solution. Examples ofili-Defined Problems. Impatient Guests The Situation: Shortly after the upper floors of a high rise hotel had ben renovated to increase the hotel's room capacity, the guests complained that the elevators were too slow. The building manager assembled his assistants. His : “Find a way to speed up the elevators.’ | Aiter calling the elevator company and an independent expert on elevators, it was determined that nothing could be done to speed up the elevators.. Next, the manager's directions were. “Find a location and design a shaft to |. elevator.” An architectural firm was hited to carry out this request. However, | the shaft nor the new elevator were installed because shortly after: hired the real problem was uncovered. The real [problem wasto find a way to take thé guests’ minds off their wait rather than to install more'elevators: The quests: ‘stopped: complaining When’ mirrors. were installed on each floor: in foe thé: elevators.” Leaking Flowmeter | “thenstien: . Flowmeters, ‘such as the ones at iu gatcinecunnee oie the number of gallons of gas delivered to your gas tank, are commonplace in ee Arosa sa installed in a chemical secret 1Sec. 1.1 WHat’s THE REAL PROBLEM? 3 Bargain Prices The Situation: A local merchant on Main Street in Ann Arbor was having difficulty @ health food mix from the rain forest called Rain Forest Crunch, which was. ‘hot selling item in other stores. Part of the attractiveness of Rain Forest Crunch aetiataae indeed from the Brazilian rain Le hlotabamdtiiba sere essctab a ‘gale went to protect the rain forest. The inst @ “Lower the price of theiitem to increase sales.” Bain Forest Crunch sil ‘did inotsell. The manager lowered the price further. Still no sales. After lowering the price two. ‘more times to a level that was well below the competitors’, the item still did not sell. Finally, the manager walked around the store, and studied the display of Rain Forest Crunch. Then the real problem was uncovered. The problem was not the high cost of the item; the real problem was that it was not in a prominent position inthe slore 10 be ousily: Seen'by the customers, Once the item was made more visible, sales pe to soar.* Wherels the Oil? The Situation: Water flooding is a commonly used technique in oil recovery in. which water is injected into @ well, displacing the oil and pushing it out another ‘Nearby well. In many cases, expensive chemicals are injected along with the water to facilitate pushing out the oil. A major oll company was having problems with a Canadian light-oll reservoir where the recovery was turning out to be much lower. Various studies costing hundreds of shounsns oon were carried out. ra 20-year iod aimed at determining haw to get more oil from the reservoit of low oil recovery efficiency but rather one of miscalculation in the estimate. ase Ten nea porieaee oll. In other words, there just wasn't uch oll down: i eee eciats oase a of Ie satan ay ‘rather than how to find ways to improve oil recovery. Price Reduced $4499ProseM-SOLvING StRATEGIES-Wuy BotHer? Cuap. | Making Gasolinefrom Coal The Situation: A few years ago a major oil company was developing a process for the Department of Energy to produce liquid petroleum products from coal in order to reduce our dependence on foreign oil. In this process, solid coal particles were ground up, mixed with solvent and hydrogen, then passed through a furnace heater toa reactor that would convert the coal to gasoline (see figure below). After installation, the process was not operating properly. Excessive amounts of a tar- like carbonaceous material were being deposited on the pipes in the furnace, fouling, and in some cases plugging the pipes. Solid coal Ve >, e Crusher Tarclike depogits To reactor to convert coal into gasoline ‘problem: these tar-like deposits.” A major research program was initiated. After a year and a half of effort was spent on the process, no one solvent proved to be a better solution tothe problem than any other. Perhaps amore general problem statement such as, “Determine why the carbon deposits are forming and how they can be 6liminated" would have revealed the true problem. The real problem was that the particles and solvent were reacting to form a coal-tar-like substance that was building up on the inside of the pipes in the furnace. The problem was solved by increasing the velocity through the furnace pipe, so that the particles and solvent had less time to react in the furnace to form the tar-like deposits. ‘In addition, the high velocity caused the coal particles in the fluid to act as scouring agents on the furnace pipe wall, This velocity increase was accomplished by using a pipe of smaller diameter while maintaining the same total flow rate. After the furnace pipe was changed, no further problems of this nature were experienced.Sec. 1.2 Ricut Progtem/WRoNG SoLuTiON 5 Better Printing Inks The Situation. in 1990 the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) initiated a lit it ‘inted in the Unked States : “Develop a program to find beter printing inks” A umber of workshops and panels were convened to work on this problem. After a year and a half of hard work by both government officials and college faculty on the perceived problem, research programs at several universities were chosen to try to develop better printing inks. Just as these programs were to be initiated, BEP withdrew the funds stating they had found that the real problem was not with the inks but with the printing machines. Consequently, the money earmarked for research on inks was diverted to the purchase of new printing machines. By originally defining the wrong problem, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing wasted thousands of hours of effort ‘of government officials and college faculty. Decreasing Profits The Situation: \n the 1980s, a government-operated factory in a developing country was taking material from a refinery and using it to make fertilizer. When the plant was designed and built, the price of the fertilizer was quite high and large profits were expected to be made. Unfortunately, shortly after the plant was in ‘operation, the price of fertilizer dropped, andas'a rea the plant was operating at loss. ‘lose the pal because he price othe far a oe ind we can no inger afford to operate it." However, student engineers investigated the situation as a class project and found the real problem was not the price of fertilizer, but the inefficiency of operation which resulted from a power failure to the plant three to four: times per week. There were enormous costs associated with restarting the plant after each power failure. The plant could still have made a substantial profit if the power failures had been prevented with emergency generators. 1.2 RIGHT PROBLEM/WRONG SOLUTION In this section, we discuss some examples where the real problem has been correctly defined, but the solutions to the problem were woefully inadequate, incorrect, or unnecessary. The persons who made the decisions in the situations described in these examples were all competent, hard-working professionals. However, some essential details that might have prevented the accidents and mistakes were overlooked. Using 20/20 hindsight, consider whether or not the following situations could have been avoided if an organized problem-solving approach had been applied. Profits ($) TimeDOWN Carry out a KTPP, 6 PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES-WHY BOTHER? Cuap. 1 Dam the Torpedoes or Torpedo the Dam The Arcadian government wanted to increase agricultural production by finding ways to grow crops on waste lands. It was decided to cultivate land in the Pantoon region of southeastern Arcadia, which is very arid. Some wild plants could be seen ‘growing in the soil from time to time, but there was insufficient moisture to grow crops. It was believed that the land could be irrigated and that agricultural food ‘crops could be grown. The Orecha River, which flows naturally from the mountains to the sea, passes through the region. The solution chosen by the Arcadian government was: “Design and build a dam to divert the river water inland to irrigate the land.”A multimillion dollar dam was built and the water diverted. Unfortunately, when the irrigation was achieved, absolutely no new vegetation grew, and even the ‘vegetation that had previously grown on some of the land died. It was then determined that the infertility of the soil occurred because the diverted water dissolved abnormally high concentrations of salts present in the soil, which then entered the plant roots. Little of the vegetation could tolerate the salts at such high concentrations and as a result the vegetation died. A Potential Problem Analysis (Chapter 5) might have prevented this costly experiment.’ Currently efforts are underway to deal with this salinity problem ranging from desalination to the construction of salt ponds. AnUnexpected Twist ‘On June 1, 1974, the Nypro factory in Flixborough, England was destroyed and 28 menwere killed when a vapor cloud of cyclohexane (a flammable chemical) ignited. ‘Three units in the plant, each on a different level, were connected in a series. The middle unit was not operating efficiently. The problem statement was: "Remove and repair the middle unit.’ What followed was a faulty solution to the correct problem statement. When the middle unit was removed for repairs, a bent makeshift replacement pipe was used to connect the first and third units. A slight rise in the pressure and flow rates between the units caused the bent pipe to twist, = producing excessive strain. The pipe then ruptured, causing leakage of the vapor, which subsequently ignited, resulting in the explosion. Unfortunately, the only design consideration for the temporary pipe was a chalk drawing on the plant floor. ‘Seemingly, the ramifications of such a replacement were not thoroughly thought ‘out and certainly no. concern was givento the strain that eventually caused the leak. ‘This example shows the danger of a quick-fix solution that was not well thought out. Using the Kepner-Tregoe® technique of Potential Problem Analysis (KTPPA) might have prevented this disaster.Sec. 1.2 RIGHT PRosLeM/WRONG SOLUTION 7 The Kansas City Hyatt The newly constructed Kansas City Hyatt Regency Hotel opened in 1980. It had three skywalks connecting the bedroom areas with the conference areas on all three levels, The skywalks were 120 feet long and were suspended from the roof. LOWER AY LOBBY QRIGINAL DESIGN SUPPORT BOLT On July 17, 1981, a tea dance was being held in the lobby area, and people were watching from the skywalks and from the lobby below. The lower two skywalks. collapsed, plummeting to the lobby below. Over 70 tons of concrete and girders fell to the ground. There were 114 people killed and hundreds more injured. It did not take long to determine the cause of the accident. In the original design, the top walkway was to be hung from the ceiling by long rods that passed through it and also supported the lower walkway. In this version of the design, each bolt had to support only one walkway. But somewhere between the original design and the actual construction, it was decided to replace each single long rod by two shorter rods. As a result, the bolt under the top walkway had to support not only the upper walkway, but the lower one as well, which doubled the force on the upper bolt. The connection failed when the bolt pulled through the upper walkway, and as a result, both walkways fell. A Potential Problem Analysis (PPA) onthe modified design may have prevented the change from being implemented.8 ProsLeM-SoLvinG StRaTEGIES~Wuy BotHeR? Cxar. 1 ‘What’sthe Disease? On a lighter note, we end with the following true example of Right Problem/Wrong Solution. .At an American Medical Association (AMA) convention a number of years ago, an upper-body X-ray was displayed at the registration desk, The instructions given to the physicians as they registered: “Diagnose the ailment from the X-ray, and place your answer in the contest box near the display” (a correct problem statement). The winner of a valuable prize would be drawn from those who had made the correct diagnosis.. Because of the focus on the upper torso, virtually every known lung disease was suggested by one physician or another. There was no need to hold a drawing from the correct diagnoses Submitted because only one person discovered the true solution: Set a broken left arm.” Nearly all project design failures, such as those above, result from faulty judgments rather than faulty calculations. The goal of this book is to structure the process of defining and solving real problems in a way that will be useful in everyday life, both on and off the job. We shall achieve this goal by providing a structure to the problem-solving process called a heuristic. A problem -solving heuristic is a systematic approach that helps guide us through the solution process and generate alternative solution pathways. While a heuristic cannot prevent people from making errors, it provides a uniform, systematic approach to deal with any problem. In Chapter 2, we will continue discussing the use of a problem-solving heuristic. SUMMARY Why bother with using a problem-solving strategy? This chapter presented a number of factual case histories that illustrate what happens when the real problem isn’t defined or there is no organized approach to problem solving. In the chapters that follow, we will present a heuristic and a number of techniques that can greatly enhance the chances of defining and solving the real problem as opposed to the perceived problem and to identify potential problems during the design process. REFERENCES Prof. John Falconer, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80302. Adapted from Chemtech, 22, |, p. 24, 1992. Dr. R.G, McNally, Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI 48667. Margaret Michael, University of Michigan, April 1993, Dr. Mark Hoefner, Mobil Research and Development Corp., Dallas, TX. 75387, Prof. Antonio Garcia, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ 85287-6006. . True life example; only the country and other names have been changed. nm aVEeDpeCuap. 1 EXERCISES 9 8. Kepner, C.H., and B.B. Tregoe, The New Rational Manager, Princeton Research Press, Princeton, NJ, 1981. 9. Prof, Brymer Williams, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. FURTHER READING Copulsky, William, “Stories from the Front,” Chemtech, 22, p. 154, 1992. More anecdotal cases of histories of ill-defined situations and solutions. EXERCISES 1. Keep a journal of the ideas that speak to you as you go through this book. Begin by writing some thoughts below on what types of problems you would like to become more skilled in solving. 2. Collect two or more ill-defined problems similar to the case histories described in this chapter.2. GETTING STARTED 2.1 GETTING IN THE RIGHT FRAME OF MIND Extensive research has been carried out on the differences between effective problem solvers and ineffective problem solvers.'? The most important factors that distinguish between ineffective and effective problem solvers are the attitudes with which they approach the problem, their aggressiveness in the problem-solving process, their concern for accuracy, and the solution procedures they use. For example, effective problem solvers believe that problems can be solved through the use of heuristics and careful persistent analysis, while ineffective problem solvers think, “You either know it or you don’t.” Effective problem solvers become very active in the problem-solving process: They draw figures, make sketches, and ask questions of themselves and others. Ineffective problem solvers don’t seem to understand the level of personal effort needed to solve the problem. Effective problem solvers take great care to understand all the facts and relationships accurately. Ineffective problem solvers make judgments without checking for accuracy. The table below further identifies differences between effective and ineffective problem solvers. By approaching a situation using the characteristic attitudes and actions of an effective problem solver, you will be well on your way to {finding the real problem and generating an outstanding solution. Characteristics of Effective/Inetfective Problem Solvers'” Effective ineffective Believe the problem can be solved. Give up easily. Reread the problem several times. Lie back and hope a solution will occur. Redescribe the problem. Unable to redescribe Ask themselves questions, the problem. Create a mental picture. Draw sketches, write equations. Don’t jump to conclusions. Jump to conclusions. Accuracy: — Check and recheck, Do not check. Solution Procedures: Break the problem into subproblems. Don’t break the problem apart. Start at a point they first understand. Don’t know where to start. Use a few key fundamental concepts Fail to identify key concepts. as building blocks. Use heuristics. Guess. Persevere when stuck. Quit. Use quantitative formulas, descriptions. Do not do so. Keep track of progress. Use no special format. i if you think you can-- ‘you will Ifyou think you can’ ‘you won'tIt would be sad to work very hard to cut a path through a dense jungle only to find out it is the wrong Jungle, “Do not fear mistakes-fear only the absence of creative, constructive responses to those mistakes.” 12 Gerrinc Startep Cuap. 2 People who are effective problem solvers develop mind sets and habits which aid them in dealing with difficult problems. Stephen Covey’s" research on highly effective people revealed that there are certain habits these people practice. The seven habits you should consider developing are shown in the table below. The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People Be Proactive. Take the initiative and make thingshappen. Aggressively seek new ideas and innovations, Don’t let a negative environment affect your behavior and decisions. Work on things that you can do something about. If you make a mistake, acknowledge it and learn from it, Habit 2 Begin with the End in Mind. Know where you are going and make sure all the steps you take are in the right direction. First determine the right things toaccomplish and then how to best accomplish them. Writea personal mission statement describing where you want to go and what you want to be and how to accomplish these things. Habit3 Put First Things First. List your top priorities each day for the upcoming week and schedule time to work on them. Continually review and prioritize your goals, Say NOto doing unimportant tasks, Focus on the important tasks, the ones that will have impact if carefully thought out and planned. ‘Think Win/Win. Win/Win is the frame of mind that seeks mutual benefits for all people involved in solutions and agreements. Identify the key issues and results that would constitute a fully acceptable solution to all. Make all involved in the decision feel good about the decision and committed to a plan of action, Habit 5 Seek First to Understand, Then to Be Understood. Lear as much as you can about the situation. “Listen, listen, listen.” Try to see the problem from the other person's perspective. Be willing to be adaptable in seeking to be understood, Presentthings logically, notemotionally. Be credible, empathetic, and logical. Synergize. Make the whole greater than the sum of its parts. Value the differences in the people you work with. Foster open and honest communication. Help everyone bring out the best in everyone else. Renewal, Renew the four dimensions of your nature: Physical: Exercise, nutrition, stress management. Mental. Reading, thinking, visualizing, planning, writing. Spiritual: Value clarificationand commitment, study and meditation, Social/Emotional: Service, empathy, self-esteem, synergy ‘The upward spiral: Learn, Commit, Do; Learn, Commit, Do; Learn, . . "The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, COPYRIGHT®, 1989 by Covey, Stephen R. Reprinted by permission of Simon & Schuster, Inc., New York.Sec. 2.2 Takine Risks 13 The previous table is meant to give only a thumbnail sketch of the 7 Habits, and the reader is referred to Covey’s number one best-selling book for a more complete discussion, which includes a number of examples that illustrate these habits. 2.2 TAKING RISKS Risks are actions, with little chance of succeeding, that require significant effort, resources, and/or time. However, if they are successful, they will have a major impact. Truly innovative solutions that make a significant difference in your life, organization, and/or community are almost never found without some risk taking. Although we don’t advocate risk taking merely for its own sake, it can be an essential component to really creative solutions. Remember the old adage . .. the greater the risk, the bigger the reward. Arsenio Hall was a successful department store manager. He gave up a “safe” job by taking arisk asa budding comedian. He failed a number of times before hitting it big, but we can safely say the reward was worth the risk! The Dallas Cowboys was for years one of the most successful football franchises and Coach Tom Landry was one of the most respected field generals in the game. He was synonymous with the Dallas Cowboys. However in the late 1980s when the injury- laden Cowboys were having some unsuccessful seasons, the ownership changed. In a surprising move the new owner, Jerry Jones, fired the Dean of footballl coaches, Tom Landry and took a major risk by replacing him with Jimmy Johnson, who was an NFL rookie coach, and his college roommate. Within five years the Cowboys won two Superbowls, compared to only one Superbowl victory in the previous 25 years. There are many similar examples and we should take a lesson from them. Effective problem solvers have developed the proper attitude towards risk raking. HoHoHo Another example of risk taking concerns the logo for Green Giant™ food products. “The Jolly Green Giant’ first appeared as the symbol for Minnesota Valley Canning Company in 1925. However, when the company president proposed putting a green giant onto the label for canned peas, executives argued that it was ridiculous. tohave a giant with green skin: The executives were afraid to take a risk. “Whoever heard of green skin?" Fortunately, the president of the company was willing to take arisk, One could now ask the question “Who hasn’theard of the green giant?” He has appeared more than 450 million times on cans and been heard to say “Ho Ho Ho" more than 16,000 times in over 300 television commercials. (NWA World Traveler, 25, No. 3, p. 20, 1993)“We are ‘making more progress by our failures than by ‘our successes.” John Dunbar in “Dances with Wolves”, 14 Gerrinc Startep Crap. 2 ‘There are some simple activities you can do that will make you become more comfortable with risk taking. For example, + ask a question in a large lecture. + go somewhere you have never gone before, (e.g., visit the Amazon). + try anew sport, (¢.g., skydiving). + join a thespian group + volunteer to be the organizer of a group activity. * take a challenging course outside your area of expertise. + challenge established patterns of doing business in your organization. Remember, to truly be considered risk, an activity must have a chance of anegative outcome. To get in the habit of taking risks, you will need to developa thick skin (i.e. not being too sensitive to criticism). Anytime you take a risk there will most likely be someone out there to criticize it. Whyis Champagne Dry, Charles? Up until the mid 1880s, champagnes were sweet and consumed at the end of a meal in much the same manner as ports and sherries. Charles Perrier was a ‘successful champagne producer in France. In 1837 he began marketing and selling Perrier-Jouét™ Champagne in the United States, and between 1840 and 1870 exported over a million bottles. His success and fortune continued to grow. to the extent that he constructed a $120,000 chateau (1870 dollars) in Epernay, France. The chateau featured six miles.of underground cellars containing eight miflion bottles of champagne. In the mid 1880s, a family friend, John Crocktort, encouraged Perrier-Jouét to produce a dry (i.e., less sweet) champagne, one that would not compete with the after-dinner sherries and ports. Perrier-Joubt considered the idea and thoughtit was interesting. But why should they change? Who would buy it? Though not the leading champagne company in France, they ‘were extremely successful and were concerned that such a change could bring tuination. Nevertheless, they did take ariskand began producing adry champagne, Although it did take a white to catch on, by the early 1890s it was out-selling sweet champagne. By the turn of the century, ne Weak no | champagne were being exported worldwide. Nowadays, virtually all champagnes are dry. wa Waar 25, NO8, p28 1993) : The fear of failure is the greatest inhibitor to risk taking. When you are concerned about taking a risk, outline what the risk is, why it is important, and what would be the worst possible outcome. Next, describe what your options would be, given the worst possible outcome, and how you would deal with the failure. Learning how to deal with failure helps us to break away from the pattern of generating solutions that are “safe,” but less than innovative. Failure accelerates the learning process by generating new information.Src. 2.3 Lookinc ror Parapicm Suirts 15 A course was recently offered in the University of Michigan’s business school called Failure 101.3 The basic premise of the course was to encourage risk taking by teaching the students not to be afraid to fail with the ideas they generated. The course provided many opportunities for students to fail on a number of projects in the marketing area. The class discussed examples of first failures that eventually ¢-gaiiiGim developed into major successful ventures. The first pizza store of Tom Monaghan, owner of Domino’s™ Pizza, went out of business, A glue the 3M company developed didn’t stick well enough and was nearly abandoned until someone used it to develop Post-it™ notes. When the Petrossian brothers, who fled from Russia in 1917, introduced caviar at the Ritz Hotel in Paris, the French made ready use of the nearby spittoons. They were quite discouraged and could well have given up on the idea. Fortunately they persisted and overcame this first rejection, and today Petrossian Caviar is sold throughout France with prices up to $1,000/Ib. If major breakthroughs are to be made, risks will have to be taken. Failures resulting from these risks will occur but should not deter any future risk taking. The knowledge gained from these failures should be used constructively so that the chances of success will be even greater on the next try.* 2.3 LOOKING FOR PARADIGM SHIFTS Joel Barker, in his work Discovering the Future speaks of the concepts of paradigm shifts, paradigm paralysis, and paradigm pioneers.’ A paradigm is a]: Boldly go | model or pattern based on aset of rules that defines boundaries and specifies how to Jeane before.” be successful at and within these boundaries. Success is measured by the problems J Cplin Jean-Lug you solve using these rules. Paradigm shifts can occur instantaneously or they can develop over a period of time. They move us from seeing the world one way to another. When a paradigm shifts, a new model based on a new set of rules replaces the old model. The new rules establish new boundaries and allow solutions to problems previously unsolvable. All practitioners of the old paradigm are returned to “ground zero” and are again on equal footing because the old rules no longer apply. For example, the guidelines (rules) followed by the most successful manufacturer of slide rules became useless by the paradigm shift in computation brought about by the invention of pocket calculators. Barker describes paradigm paralysis a8 someone (or some organization) who is frozen with the idea that what was successful in the past will continue to be successful in the future. Paradigm pioneers ate people who have the courage to escapea paradigm paralysis by breaking existing rules when success is not guaranteed. f They realize that there are no easy roads when traveling in uncharted territory, and &, they cutnew pathways, making itsafe and easy forotherstofollow. Thecharacteristics of a paradigm pioneer are the intuition to recognize a big idea, the courage to move 1 forward in the face of great risk, and the perseverance to bring the idea to fruition” 2 You need to be a paradigm pioneer, not only as you generate alternative solutions to a problem, but also as you look for ways to improve things when no apparent“If you don't know where you --Yogi Berra 16 Gertinc Startep Cuap. 2 problems exist. Additionally, paradigm pioneers should continually be searching for opportunities to initiate a paradigm shift to improve their process, product, organization, etc. Barker uses the example of the Swiss watch industry to make this point about paradigms.° AParadigm Shift In 1968 the Swiss, with a respected history of making fine watches, held approximately 80% of the world market in watch sales. Today, they hold less than 10% of the market because of the emergence of the quartz digital watch. You will be surprised to discover, however, that the Swiss invented the quartz digital watch. ‘A paraaigm shittin wristwatch technology had occurred. The Swiss failed to adopt this new technology because they were caught in a paradigm paralysis: The idea that whatwas successful in the past will continue to be successful in the future. After all, “the digital watch didn’t have a main spring, it didn’t tick; who would buy such awatch?” Consequently, the inventors did not protect their invention with a patent, allowing Seiko of Japan and Texas Instruments (T!) to capitalize on the idea and market it. As a result of this paradigm paralysis, the employment in the Swiss watch industry dropped from about 65,000 to. about 15,000 in a period of alittle over three years. Evenifthe Swiss haddecided to manufacture the digital watch after realizing its success, they would only have been on equal footing with Seiko and TI because of the paradigm shift. That is, all of their vast experience in making watches with gears and mainsprings would have given them absolutely no advantage in manufacturing digital watches. Have you ever heard someone in your organization or business say “This is the way we have always done it. Everything seems to be going along OK, so why should we change what we are doing now?” If you have, you may have found someone caught in paradigm paralysis. If you recognize the symptoms of paradigm paralysis, you will be in a position to cure them by providing a vision and direction for your organization. 2.4 HAVING A VISION Having a vision of the future is being able to see the way things ought to be (as opposed to the way they are now). Italso includes a master plan for reaching this destination. It is imperative to identify a destination that is worthwhile reaching. A vision is essential for those who want to make a difference. George Bernard Shaw said: “Some people see things and say why, I see things that never were and say why not.” Each one of us must look forward and find the voids in our organization, community, and life and try to fill them. We can achieve this by bringing together a coherent powerful vision through listening, reading, talking, and focusing our thoughts to find better ways of doing things. A vision with a master plan also makes day-to-day decisions easier by determining which of the decision choices is the mostSrc. 2.5 Usine a Heuristic 17 consistent with the master plan. We use our ethical and moral values to measure the rightness of our vision. However, vision is not the only thing we need. Vision without action is merely a dream. Action without vision merely passes the time. Vision with action can change the world. To develop a vision, occasionally set aside a block of time (anywhere from a few minutes to several hours) to become introspective and to step back and look at the big picture. Determine what directions your life (or organization) should be taking, what needs to be accomplished, and devise a plan to meet your goals. 2.5 USING A HEURISTIC In Chapter 1 we saw many examples of ill-defined and incorrectly solved problems. How can we avoid the same pitfalls as the people in these examples? The use of a problem-solving heuristic will help prevent many of these mistakes. A heuristic is a procedure that provides aid or direction in the solution of a problem. A heuristic is analogous to a road map. It can tell you where you are, where you want 4 to go, and how to get there. Heuristics, like road maps, may also help you determine % alternative routes to a destination, A complex problem, like a route selection, can be ill-defined, can have many choices, or possibly can have no feasible solution as posed. While there is no unique or preferred way to solve open-ended problems, we believe the use of a heuristic is an effective technique. The heuristic which we will be using is shown below and finds its origins in the McMaster Five-Point Strategy.® ‘The complete McMaster Five-Point Strategy is given in Appendix 1. Decide the Course of Action A Define the Problem Figure 2-1. The Five Building Blocks of the Problem-Solving HeuristicImplement J 18 Gertine Startep Cuap. 2 Building Blocks of the Heuristic As you have seen in Chapter 1, the problem definition phase of the heuristic is very important, In practice, this phase can resurface at any point of the problem- solving process as one finds dead ends or changing criteria or conditions. Six techniques to help you arrive at the correct problem definition will be discussed in Chapter 3. We don’t anticipate that you will use all six techniques all the time. In fact, different people will find some of the techniques more comfortable to use than others and the preferred techniques will vary from person to person. Once you have defined the real problem, itis then important to ask the following questions: Has this problem been solved before? Is it worth solving? What resources (time, money, personnel) are available to obtain a solution? Have you collected all the necessary information by reviewing data, reading the literature, and talking to colleagues and those involved in the problem? After gathering significant information about the problem, you can proceed to the next step in the heuristic, which is to generate alternative solutions (Chapter 4). One of the most popular techniques used in industry to generate ideas is brainstorming. This technique is useful in expanding thinking as to what is possible and what is nor possible. In addition to brainstorming, other methods to facilitate idea generation include analogies and blockbusting. After you generate a number of solution altematives, the next step in the solution process is to decide which alternative to choose (Chapter 5). Here, logic and analysis of each alternative are major factors in reaching a decision. Once the decision is made, you need to plan to ensure its success by identifying things that could go wrong, the causes of each potential problem, the preventive actions that could be taken, and the steps of last resort. Having made the decision and planned for its success, you may now implement the solution (Chapter 6). The first step is to plan the activities you need to do to solve the problem. A number of techniques to allocate time and resources are presented to carry the solution through to successful completion. In the evaluation phase (Chapter 7), you need to look back and make sure all of the criteria in the problem statement were fulfilled and that none of the constraints were violated. Has the problem really been solved, and is the solution the best solution? Is the solution innovative, new and novel, or is it merely an application of principles (which, in some cases, may be alll that’s necessary)? Is the solution ethical, safe, and environmentally responsible? Although evaluation is listed at the end of the heuristic, you should also evaluate the problem solution at various points along the way, especially when major decisions are made or branch points occur.Sec. 2.6 Fosterinc Creativity 19 2.6 FOSTERING CREATIVITY Apple Computer is perceived as being one of the more creative companies of the past decade. John Sculley (former chairman of Apple Computer) discussed the philosophy of maintaining a creative environment for product development.’ Some of the ideas that he suggests for team leaders or managers to foster a creative environment are shown in Table 2-1. TABLE 2-1: Establishing a Creative Environment’ “Don’t give people goals; give them directions (i.e., roughly aim them).” “Encourage contrarian thinking.” Dissent stimulates discussion, prompting others to make more perceptive observations. It ultimately influences decision making for the better. “Build a textured environment to extend not just people's aspirations but their sensibilities.” You can’t buy creativity, you can inspire it. Creative people require an atmosphere conducive to thinking in nonstandard ways. The work environment needs to be informal and relaxed. “Build emotion into the system.” Defensiveness is the bane of all passion-filled creative work, One way to keep defenses down is to encourage problem-finding as well as. problem-solving. The world is moving so fast that problems are being created all the time. The people who can find them have tremendous powers of creative observation. “The safer you make the situation, the higher you can raise the challenge.” The workplace should be safe, so that the workers are not afraid to take risks and make mistakes, but the standards should be set high. “Encourage accountability over responsibility.” Traditional responsibilities, like punching a clock from nine to five, can inhibit creativity. Instead, people are made accountable for the results of their work. “Getting ordinary people to reach beyond themselves and do extraordinary things can be the result of establishing a nurturing creative environment.” To establish this type of atmosphere requires the reconciliation of traditional corporate attitudes with more iconoclastic entrepreneurial attitudes. Ifthis fine line canbe traversed without abandoning the very characteristics that have led to a company’s success in the past, much progress can be made.* Itis essential to set the proper atmosphere for creativity to flourish. One of the ways to do this is being an effective leader who inspires others and leads by example, There are distinct differences between leaders and bosses, as summarized in the following table.20 Gertine Startep Cuap. 2 Characteristics of Leaders and Bosses A Boss... A Leader... demands respect but earns respect is a taskmaster is acoach is critical is encouraging rules by fear guides by example commands inspires makes work a burden makes work fun punishes mistakes rewards success Dora Dodge* effectively sums up these difference in her short poem “The Boss,” which ends with “The boss gets compliance. The leader gets committment.” Everybody needs leaders, but nobody needs a boss. 2.7 INTERACTING CREATIVELY The ideas presented by Sculley for establishing a creative working environment are complemented by Scholtes who discusses the necessity forcreative interactions with all people.° He makes the point that these interactions are essential for quality leadership. The principles of quality leadership stem from the premise that everyone you interact with at your workplace should be treated as a customer whom you must strive to satisfy: The customer may be a neighbor, supervisor, subordinate, co-worker, or an external client. Some of the leadership principles Scholtes specifically identifies are * Customer focus * Continued education and training * Obsession with quality * Unity of purpose Scholtes urges us to listen, listen, and listen again to the customer. Find out what the customer's needs are. Involve the customer in the problem-solving process. Brainstorm possible solutions with the customer. Get input from the customer at each step and make him or her an integral part of the process. Relentlessly pursue the best quality product and/or service. Provide a structure where everyone can continue to learn so they can not only upgrade their skills but also keep at the forefront of their fields. The continual upgrading of one’s skills is especially important in today’s competitive marketplace, because many companies no longer guarantee employment based solely on loyalty and years of service. Rather, companies look at an employee's current skills and how these skills will be useful to the company. Have everyone on your team committed to work together to strive for excellence in everything they do.Sec. 2.8 WorkiNG TOGETHER IN Teams 2 The Keyls Listening to Your Customers Arecent article in the New York Times (reprinted in the Detroit Free Press, p. B1, January 3, 1993) states that a major reason consumers have defected from purchasing automobiles from G.M. is because they compare the key entry system ‘and the key ignition of the G.M. car with that of a Toyota car. The G.M. cars require two keys: one that can be used only for the car door and the trunk while the other one can be used only for the ignition, The idea behind this developmentis that you could allow someone to drive your car without jeopardizing the safety of the trunk’s contents. In addition, the keys would work only if they were inserted right side up. The annoyance of such a system becomes acute when fumbling for the right key and right key alignment while trying to enter. a locked car with a bag full of groceries, or a bundle of packages, which fall to the ground as a result of the fumbling. In the mid-1970s, Toyota introduced a single key that unlocks the door, trunk, and glove compartment and starts the ignition. In addition the key could be inserted with either side up. This innovation was followed by other Japanese auto makers. However, more than 15 years later, G.M. has yet to adopt the idea and is not even considering it, now or in the near future. This paradigm paralysis exists despite research that shows customers prefer a single key. This example is not the only time G.M. has been caught in paradigm paralysis and resisted innovation. Other examples cited were resistance to seat belts, air bags, advanced engines, and transmissions. We believe that the principles and examples brought forth in this book will develop a customer awareness along with a set of problem-solving and decision-making skills that will develop creative responses to customer needs. 2.8 WORKING TOGETHER IN TEAMS Even with a good road map, travelers may arrive at the wrong destination or take an excessive amount of time to get to the correct destination, In a similar way problem solvers may come to the wrong solution or take too much time to obtain a solution. Travelers also have to approach the trip with a positive attitude and draw upon the characteristics of expert travelers who have navigated the road before them. Finally, they need to make sure there is agreement on the route among themselves because conflicts between the travelers can make the trip unpleasant, sometimes with a disastrous outcome. Similarly, problem-solving groups can be much more efficient when they work well together. This chapter concludes with a section of ideas for enhancing group interactions to help the problem-solving process run smoothly. As problems become more complex and interdisciplinary in nature, their solutions will require assembling groups of people with different areas of expertise. Consequently, itis important that the group dynamics of participants build cohesive, supportive, and productive teams. Because of the increasing focus in industry on the team approach to problem solving, many studies have been carried out on group22 Gertinc StarteD — CHap. 2 interactions and how to improve them.!®!? Scholtes identifies ten common problems of team dynamics and some solutions to these problems.’ Table 2-2 is an abbreviated summary. TABLE 2-2: Top Ten Listof Group Problems Problem How to minimize Floundering Make sure the mission is clear and everyone understands what is needed to move forward. . Overbearing Experts Have an agreement among team members that there are no sacred cows and that all team members have the right to explore all areas. Dominating Participants List “balance of participation” as a goal and evaluate regularly, Practice “gate keeping” t0 limit dominant participant. . Reluctant Participants Ask opinions of quiet members and encourage by validation. Require individual assignments and reports. Unquestioned Acceptance of Ask for supporting data and reasoning. Accept Opinion and encourage conflicting ideas. Rush to Accomplishment Confront those doing the rushing and remind them not to compromise the best solution, Make sure a consensus is reached. Attribution of Motives to Reaffirm agreement that the group sticks to the Others scientific approach. Ask for confirmation of data. Discounting or Ignoring Provide training in effective listening. Support Group Member’s Statement the discounted person, Talk off-line with any one who continually discounts other team members, Wanderlust: Digression and Follow an agenda with time estimates. Keep the Tangents topics in full view of the team and direct the conversation back to the topic. Feuding Team Members Focus on ideas, not personalities. Get adversaries to discuss the issues off-line or get them to agree to a standard of behavior during meetings.Cuap.2 Closure 23 For a more complete discussion of ways to further minimize these top ten problems, the reader is referred to Scholtes. Most problem-solving activities will require interaction with other people, either one-on-one or in group meetings. Meetings are essential tools for team problem solving. They should be carefully planned and skillfully run to realize the maximum benefit from them. The abbreviated list of guidelines shown in Table 2-3 will help team meetings be fruitful activities rather than time wasters: ald TABLE 2-3: Howto Run Effective Meetings Atyourfirst meeting, introduce yourselves, and givea little background, Sethe group norms and expectations (¢.g., showing up on time for meetings, responsibilities). + Appoint a leader who will inspire the group to high levels of performance and be an effective listener. Prepare and distribute an agenda prior to meetings and stick to it * State why the group has come together. + Bring all your materials (such as problem statement, group notes, handouts, your work, etc.) to all the meetings. + Keep the discussion focused. + Have someone in charge of keeping the meeting on track. + Appoint a “devil's advocate” to challenge ideas as they arise. + Have someone take minutes to remind participants of decisions made, actions to be taken. * Draft an agenda for the next meeting, identifying what is to be covered and who is responsible for it The importance of meetings and positive group interactions cannot be ‘overemphasized. For the problem-solving process to function smoothly, group members must get along. In many instances, the success of the project will depend upon how well people communicate and interact with one another. CLOSURE This chapter began by emphasizing the importance of approaching the problem with a positive “can do” attitude and striving to develop the traits of expert problem solvers. Next, we discussed the importance of taking risks as you formulate atruly innovative solution. We presented a heuristic which will be our guide or road map through the process of problem solving. The reader may wish to use the heuristic as presented or use it asa basis to develop his orher own heuristic or strategy. Finally, ways of fostering the creativity that can generate these innovative solutions and develop a positive atmosphere were presented, as were ideas for successfully interacting with colleagues as you develop your solution. Meeting Agenda for 89°96 1. Oyen Mesias 2. Approve Minutes 5. Comment from the Chair 4. Commie Reports 5-04 Busines 6 New Basins 7 Set Nex Meeting 8. Adjoun24 Gertinc Startep = Cuap. 2 SUMMARY Practice The characteristics of expert problem solvers. The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People. Don’t be afraid to take the risks necessary to obtain the very best solution. Welcome change and paradigm shifts as opportunities to make inroads and advancements. Look for voids in your organization and try to provide a vision to fill those voids to move the organization forward. Look for ways to use the road map of the five building blocks of the problem-solving heuristic. Develop an atmosphere that encourages and fosters creativity in those you work with. Listen to your customers and work with them as a unit to develop creative solutions, REFERENCES 1. Whimbey, A., and J, Lochhead, Problem Solving and Comprehension; A Short Course in Analytical Reasoning, Franklin Press, Philadelphia, 1980. Wankat, P.C., and FS. Oreoviez, Teaching Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993. Matsen, J., How to Fail Successfully, Dynamo Publishing Co., Houston, TX, 1990. The Three Little Pigs, Anonymous. Barker, J.A., Discovering the Future, 2nd ed., ILI Press, St, Paul, MN, 1985. Woods, D.R., AIChE Symposium Series, 79 (228), 1983. Sculley, John, Odyssey, Pepsi to Apple...A Journey of Advertising Ideas and the Future, Harper & Row, New York, 1987, Weldon, Joel, Chemtech, 13, p, 517, 1983. 9. Scholtes, Peter R., The Team Handbook, Joiner Associates, Inc., Madison, WI, 1988. 10. Bouton, C., and Y. C. Garth (eds.), Learning in Groups, New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 14, Jossey-Bass Inc., San Francisco, 1983. 11. Millis, B. “Helping Faculty Build Learning Communities through Cooperative Groups,” To Improve the Academy: Resources for Student, Faculty, and Institutional Devleopment, 10, p.43-58, 1990. 12. Berquist, W. H., and S. R. Phillips (eds.), A Handbook for Faculty Development, p. 118-121 Council of Independent Colleges, Washington, DC, 1975, 13. Patton, Robert R., Solving Group Interaction, Harper & Row, New York, 1973. 14, Shaw, Marvin E., Group Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1976. roy aen FURTHER READING Gunneson, Alvin, *Communicating Up and Down the Parks,” Chemical Engineering, 98, p. 135, June 1991. Useful tips on how to improve your interactions with those employees above, at the same level, and below you in your organization.Cuap.2 EXERCISES 25 Raudsepp, Eugene, “Profits of the Effective Manager,” Chemical Engineering, 85, p. 141, March 27, 1978. Although it was written 15 years ago, these traits still apply to effective leadership. Phillips, Denise A., and A.E, Ladin Moore, “12 Commandments,” Chemteck, 21, p. 138, March 1991. Rules to help improve your communication skills. Strunk, W., and E. B. White, The Elements of Style, 3rd ed., Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, 1979. A concise treatise on grammar rules and writing style with many examples. Whimbey, A., and J. Lockhead, Problem Solving and Comprehension, A Short Course in Analytical Reasoning, 2nd ed., The Franklin Institute Press, Philadelphia, 1980. VanGundy Jr., Arthur B., Techniques of Structured Problem Solving, 2nd ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1988. Lumsdaine, E., and M. Lumsdaine, Creative Problem Solving, An Introductory Course for Engineering Students, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New York, 1990. EXERCISES 1. Make a list of the characteristics of expert problem solvers you would like to improve upon. A. 2. Choose three of the habits of highly effective people and explain how you will practice them during the coming weeks. A. Cc 3. Describe three risks you can take during the coming months that will help to make you more comfortable with risk taking. A26 Gettinc Startep Cuap. 2 Havinga Vision. Look around an organization of which you are a member for things that could be improved upon. Make a list of what is needed to make the organization aneven better and more effective one. A mone Which of the above changes would really alter the way the organization functions? What would need to be accomplished to produce a paradigm shift? How can you be aparadigm pioneer? Identify a group of people with which you frequently interact. Make alist of things you can do to become a better team member and to establish a creative environment, A mon» Write a paragraph discussing your thoughts of Matsen’s Failure 101 Class. Why is it important to learn how to contend with failure?Cuap.2 EXERCISES 27 8. Collect one or more anecdotes (along with appropriate documentation/references) of initial failures that turned into major success stories (e.g., Domino’ s Pizza). 9. You are in a group of four working as a team to define and solve a problem. Describe how you would handle each of the following situations: a. Someone starts to dominate the group discussion and directions. b. Two of the group members are good friends and seem to form a clique. c. One of the group is not carrying their load. 4d. One of the group continually makes mistakes in their part of the project. 10. Prepare a list of specific ideas that would establish a creative environment in your group. AL mon w 11, Develop an agenda for the first meeting of a, your colleagues to write a report for an undergraduate laboratory course. b. the floor of yourresidence hall to inform the new students of the rules, traditions, and other operations of the residence hall ¢. alocal interest group you are to lead. 12. Working in Teams. An instructor requested that students in the class form six-person teams, attempting to maximize diversity and selecting people to work with who were new to them, A team was formed that was composed of two white men, two white women, one African American man, and one Asian-American man. ‘They selected one of the white men as their team leader. During the first and second meetings of this tam, which took place during class time and in the classroom, the instructor noted that the African American man and the white man who was not the team leader sat almost outside the circle formed by the other team participants. Moreover, the white man who was the team leader, and one of the white women, appeared to do all the talking and to make all the suggestions about how to proceed. The other four people on the team looked uninvolved, at least as far as the instructor could observe. Questions: 1. What might be going on in this team? 2. Should the instructor intervene? Why? How? What would you do? 3. How might your own race/ethnicity and gender affect your options and choices about intervention? 4, What preparation, training, or instruction for teamwork might have helped this team? What training or instruction might be helpful to itnow? 5. What preparation or instruction in teamwork dynamics, supervision, or intervention might be helpful to you in this and similar situations? (Adapted from the FAIRTEACH Workshop with the University of Michigan's School of Engineering Faculty, M. L. King, Jr., Day, 1994)28 GertinG StarteD —CHap. 2 13, Match the icon to the proper habit of highly effective people.3 PROBLEM DEFINITION The mere formulation of a problem is far more often essential than its solution, which may be merely a matter of mathematical or experimental skill. To raise new questions, new possibilities, t0 regard old problems from a new angle requires creative imagination and marks real advances in science. - Albert Einstein Often, the most difficult aspect of problem solving is understanding and defining the real problem (sometimes also referred to as the underlying or root problem). In Chapter 1, we presented a number of true examples of incorrectly defined problem statements that demonstrate how competent, conscientious people can define the wrong problem and waste considerable time looking in the wrong direction for a solution. In this chapter we address the first part of the heuristic, problem definition. A study that we conducted of experienced problem solvers in industry revealed some common threads that run through their problem definition techniques. We have classified these common threads into.a number of steps that can help you understand and define the real problem. 3.1 THE FIRST FOUR STEPS The first four steps used by experienced problem solvers to understand and define the real problem are given in Table 3-1. You will observe that the first four steps focus on gathering information. TABLE 3-1: What Experienced Problem Solvers Say 1. Collect and analyze information and data. 2. Talk with people familiar with the problem. 3. Ifat all possible, view the problem first hand. 4. Confirm all findings. Step 1. Collect and analyze information and data, Learn as much as you can about the problem. Write down or list everything you can think of to describe the problem. Until the problem is well defined, anything might be important. Determine what information is missing and what information is extraneous. The information should be properly organized, analyzed and presented. It will then serve as the basis for subsequent decision making. Make a simple sketch or drawing of the situation. Drawings, sketches, graphs of data, ete. can all be excellent communication tools when used correctly, Analyze the data to show trends, errors, and other meaningful information. Display numerical or quantitative 29 Generate = = a =< “Start with an open mind.” Decide Implement Evaluate “Don't jump to conclusions.” “Look at the big picture.” “Review the obvious.”30 Prostem Derinition Cap. 3 data graphically rather than in tabular form. Tables can be difficult to interpret and sometimes misleading. Graphing, on the other hand, is an excellent way to organize and analyze large amounts of data. Methods for plotting data to reveal trends are given in Appendix 2. The Case of the Dead Fish provides an interesting example of the use of graphical data to solve problems. The Case of the Dead Fish Research and information gathering are great tools in problem solving. We consider the case of a chemical plant that discharges waste into a stream that flows into a relatively wide river. Biologists monitored the river as an ecosystem and reported the following data of the number of dead fish in the river and the river level: NUMBER OF DEAD FISH EACH DAY 50 RIVER LEVEL EACH DAY. Upper Limt (Food Stage) 40 River Level 10 Lower Limit 615 71 715 81 BNE Seq ene 7A nN tS Date Date Graphs of the type shown above are called time plots and control charts. A. time plot shows trends over a period of time (e.g., the level of a river over several days or weeks). A control chartis a time plot that also shows the acceptable limits of the quantity being displayed. For example, in the control chart of the river level, the upper and lower acceptable water levels would also be shown. If one of the acceptable limits is exceeded, this occurrence may yield some information about the timing of the problem and possible causes of it. We can then examine time plots of other pertinent quantities and look for additional clues about the problem, From the graphs we see that the acceptable level of dead fish was exceeded on August 1 and 15. We look for anything that might have occurred on or between July 15th and August 1. We discover that on July 29 there was a large amount of chemical waste discharged into the river. Discharges of this size had not caused any problems in the past. Upon checking other factors, we see that there has been little rain and that the water level in the river, measured on August 1, had fallen so Jowit might not have been able to dilute the plant's chemical waste. Consequently, the low water level, coupled with the high volume of waste, could be suggested as a possible cause for the unusually large number of dead fish. However, to verify this, we would have to carry the analysis further. Specifically, we shall soon use ‘one or more of the problem definition techniques discussed later in this chapter.Sec. 3.1 THE First Four Steps 31 Step 2. Talk with people familiar with the problem. Find out who knows about the problem. Ask penetrating questions by * Looking past the obvious * Challenging the basic premise + Asking for clarification when you do not understand something Ask Insightful Our experience shows that seemingly naive questions (often perceived as “dumb” |" Questions questions) can produce profound results by challenging established thinking patterns. This act of challenging must be an ongoing process. ‘You should also talk to other people about the problem. Verbalizing the problem to someone else helps clarify in your own mind just what itis you are trying todo, Try to find out who the experts in the field are and talk to them. Nonexperts are also a rich source of creative solutions, as evidenced by the following example. Seeking Advice Joel Weldon, in his tape “Jet Pilots Don’t Use Rearview Mirrors,” described a problem encountered by a major hotel a number of years ago. Since the hotel had become very popular, the elevators were very busy, and frequently caused backups in the lobby area. The manager and assistant manager were lamenting ‘the problem in the lobby one day and were brainstorming about how to increase the elevator capacity. Adding additional elevator shafts would require removal of a number of rooms and a significant loss of income. The doorman, overhearing their conversation, casually mentioned that it was too bad they couldn't just add an elevator on the outside of the building, so as not to disturb things inside. A great idea! tt occurred to the doorman because he was outside the building much of the time, and that was his frame of reference. Notice, however, that the doorman’s creativity alone was not enough to solve the problem. Knowledge of design techniques was necessary to implement his original idea. A new outside elevator ‘was born, and the rest {s history. External elevators have since become quite popular in major hotels. Information, good ideas, and different perspectives on the problem can come from all levels of the organization. (Chemtech., 13, 9, p..517, 1983) When equipment matfunctions, itis a must to talk to the operators because they know the “personality” of the equipment better than anyone. Most organizations have employees who have “been around a long time” and have a great deal of experience, as illustrated in the following example.32 ProsLem Derinirion = Cuap. 3 GoTalkto George Remember the leaking flowmeter discussed in Chapter 1? The solution that the company adopted was to replace the flowmeter at regular intervals. Let’s consider similar situation in which, immediately upon replacement, the flowmeter began to leak. List in order four people you would talk to. * the person who installed the meter * the technician who monitors the flowmeter the manufacturer's representative who sold you the flowmeter * George Who's George? Every organization has a George. George |s that individual who has years of experience to draw upon and also has street smarts. George is an excellent problem solver who always seems to approach the problem from a different viewpoint~ one that hasn't been thought of by anyone else. Be sure to tap this rich source of knowledge, when you are faced with a problem. Individuals such as George can often provide a unique perspective on the situation. Mor eanney] Step 3. View the problem first hand, Tot just by While it is important to talk to people as a way to understand the problem, looking.” __] you should not rely solely on their interpretations of the situation and problem. If at ~Yogi Berra | 311 possible, go inspect the problem yourself. Viewing the Problem Firsthand In the mid 1970s.a company in the United Kingdom completed a plant to produce a plastic product (PVC). The main piece of equipment was a large reactor with a cooling jacket through which water passed to keep the reactor cool. When the plant was started up, the plastiowas dark, nonuniform, and way off design specifications. The engineers in charge reviewed their design, They reworked and refined their model and calculations. They analyzed the procedure from every point of view on paper. They had the raw material fed to the reactor analyzed. However, they all came up with the same results- that the product should definitely meet the design specifications. Unfortunately, nobody examined the reactor firsthand. Finally after many days, one of the engineers decided to look into the reactor. He found that a valve had been carelessly switched to the wrong position, thereby diverting cooling water away from the reactor so that virtually no cooling took place. As a result the reactor overheated, producing a poor quality product. Once the valves were adjusted properly, a high quality plastic was produced. ~ continued -Sec. 3.1 Te First Four Steps 33 Step 4. Confirm all key findings. Verify that the information that you collected is correct. Cross check and cross reference data, facts, and figures. Search for biases or misrepresentation of facts. Confirm all important pieces of information and spotcheck others. Distinguish between fact and opinion. Challenge assumptions and assertions. Confirm All Allegations The authors of this book were involved in a consulting project for a pulp and paper company_we will call Boxright. Several years ago, Boxright had installed a new process for recovering and recycling their “cooking” chemicals used in the papermaking process. Two years after the installation, the process had yet to operate correctly. Tempers flared and accusations flew back and forth between Boxright and Courtland Construction, the supplier of the recycling equipment. Courtland claimed the problem was that Boxright did not know how to operate the process correctly, while the company contended that the equioment was improperly designed. Boxright finally decided to sue Courtland for breach of equipment performance. Much data and information were presented by both sides to support their arguments. ‘Courtland presented data and information from an article in the engineering fiterature that they claimed proved Boxright was not operating the process correctly. At this point it looked like Courtland had cooked our goose by presenting such data. However, before conceding the case we needed to confirm this claim. We analyzed this key information in detail, and to our glee found in the last few pages of the article it was stated that the data would not be expected to apply to industrial-size equipment or processes. When this information was presented, the lawsuit was settled in favor of the pulp and paper company, Boxright.