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75% found this document useful (4 votes)
4K views161 pagesAmici Red Notes Volume 4
AMICI Review Center Red Notes Reviewer
Uploaded by
KrammieyeppCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 161
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. CRIMINOLOGY
CRIM 2: THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
CRIM 3: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY
‘CRIM G: DISPUTE RESOLUTION AND.
CRISIS/INCIDENT MANAGEMENT 7 be
Il. CORRECTIONAL ADMINISTRATION
(CA3: THERAPEUTIC MODALITIES
page 65
IIL. LAW ENFORCEMENT ADMINISTRATION
LEA 5: CFLM LEADERSHIP, DECISION MAKING,
MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION ..
LEA 6: CFLM 2: CHARACTER FORMATION,
NATIONALISM AND PATRIGTISM.
Amici Review Center CRIM 2: THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
CAUSES OF CRIMES
Causes of lime may be environmental, hereditery or
psychological. Environmental causes are ruled out as
independent causes of crimes. But psychological
conditions are sald to be determinant of an individual's
reaction to persuasive environmental influence.
CCriminologist says thet certain offenders are bom to
create crimes in the environment. Other cause may be
the poverty. Due to low condition of thelr living, they ere
enforced to commit crimes. Discrimination against
minorities may become the cause of crimes. Emotional
disorders are also cause of cies.
‘THEORIES OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIME
UNDERSTANDING AND EXPLANATION OF SOME
MAJOR THEORIES AND CAUSATION OF CRIME
AND ITS INSIGHTS
1, BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Biological theories focus on aspects of the physical body,
such as inherited genes, evolutionary factors, brain
structures, oF the role of hormones in influencing
behavior. Biological theories about the causes of crime
fon the idea that the physical body, through inherited
genes, evolutionary factors, brain structures, or the role
of hormones, has influence on an individual's
involvement in criminal behavior.
Growing understanding of these mechanisms suggests
that certain biological factors, such as particular genes,
neurological defcits, low serotonin activity; malautrition,
and environmental pollutants may all affect @ person's
biological propensity of criminal of antisocial behavior.
The challenge for biological theories of crime IS to
adequately represent the complex Interplay between
Inherited characteristics and environment.
2. DEVELOPMENTAL LIFE-COURSE THEORY
Developmental life-course theories focus.on_ human
development and bow individual and social. factors
interact in diferent ways and at different developmental
stages to influence individual propensity for criminal
behavior. Developmental life-course explanations soe
crime as the result of a development process that starts
before birth and continues throughout a persor‘s Ife. It
seeks to understand the interaction betvieen individual
factor euch az genetics and personalty, ard sodal
factors cuch ae family and community wellbeing.
3. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES Psychological
theories focus on human cognition and its development,
‘and how this relates to criminal behavior. Psychology
presents a number of perspectives on the causes of
crime. Of partiaular importance are theories exploring
the relationship between crime and individual
personality, socal factors, cognition and developmental
factors. These psychological theories have different
degrees of focus on individual, famiy, group and societal
psychology.
Psychological Iterature shows that a key variable
identified in the development of individual
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Characteristics, and any criminal propensities, isthe role
played by parents, in terms of factors such as child-
rearing practices, attachment, neglected, abuse,
supervision, and the parents own anti-social or criminal
behavior.
4, SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES Sociological theories
focus on the influence of the organization of society and
social conditions. Sociology encompasses a very wide
range of theoretical perspective, but generally regards
ime as a social phenomenon, and emphasizes the
cultural and social elements of criminal behavior. Some
sociological theories emphasize the relationship between
social suuctures, such as language, ettniity and dass,
and criminal behavor. Other theories emphasize the
effect of social conaitions on an individual's propensity
to become imolved in crime.
‘5. GEOGRAPHIC THEORIES
Geographic theories focus on the location of crime ard
how physical environments promote or discourage
imal behavior. Geographical theories of crime focus
fen analyzing data about the geographic distribution of
ime, modifying the physical environment to reduce the
lWcelioed of crime and targeting initiatives to geagraphic
‘areas with high rater of offending. Using data about the
geographic distribution of crime, it is possible to fird
patterns that can be used to inform crime prevention
projects, Geograahic theories of crime prevention that
focus on the physical environment tend to focus on such
things as how urban planning, building design and the
design of public space: affed cime, and also on how
phydeal environments can be modified to make
businesses and residences mere resistant to cime
(cometimes called “situational creme prevention”).
6. ECONOMIC THEORIES
Economic theories focus on how offending is influenced
by incentives. The economic theory is based on the
‘notion that individuals respond rationally to the costs and
benefits of criminal opportunities. Thus, factors that
increase the expected costs of crime (such as increasing
the Ikelhood of zpprehension or severity of punishment)
oF reduce the expected benefts (such as improved
educational or’ job opportunities) can reduce the
Incidence of crime. The economic framework can also
encompass other theories of crime that provide a richer
Understanding of rationality and decision-making (such
as the biological basis of impulsivity), the costs of crime
(Guch the social capital in anti-social peer netwosks) and
the benefits of crime (such as local ecoromic conditions).
‘THE THEORIES COVERED CAN BE CATEGORIZED
INTO TWO (2) MAIN APPROACHES:
1) Biological theories
2). Sociological theories
LOMBROSO AND BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM
In the 19th Century, Iallan prison psychiatrist Cesare
Lombroso drew on the ideas of Charles Darwin and
suggested that criminals were atavistic: essentially
“evolutionary throwbacks'. He suggested that their brains,
ere mal-developed or not fully developed. In his review of prisoners, he found that they shered 2 number of
common physical zttributes, such as sloping foreheads
and receding chins. In so doing, Lombroso suggested
that involvement in crme was a product of biology and
biological characteristics: criminals were born that wey.
Lombroso's theory is essentially @ theory of biological
posttivsm.
POSITIVISM -Influenced by the scietific discoveries of
the 18th and 19th centuries, postivsm is a research
tragition that seeks to establish objective causes of
individual behavior. Lombraso's work has long since
fallen out of favor. However, bioogical theores have
continued to develop. Rather than measuring physical
features of the body, contemporary approaches FOCUS
On:
1, Blochemical conditions (@g, linked to poor det or
hormone mbalance)
2. Neurophysiological conditions (e.g. leeming
disebilties caused by brah damage)
3. Genstic inheritance andjor abnormality
4. Inteligence
‘These attempts, to locate the causes of crime within the
individual, suggest that there are identifiable diferences
between offenders and non-offenders. In other words,
the criminal is “othe: in some way different or zbnormal
to everyone else.
2) SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES Sociological
approaches suggest that crime is shaped by factors
‘external to the indvidual: their experiences within the
neighborhood, the peer group, and the family.
THE CHICAGO
DISORGANIZATION THEORY,
‘SCHOOL/SOCIAL,
Sodal disorganization theory grew out of research
conduct by socioiogsts atthe University of Chicago in
the 1920s and 1930s. It key propanents were Clifford
R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay (1942), who used
spatial mapping to examine the residential locatcns of
Juveniles referred to court. Shaw and Mekay found that
patterns of delinquency were higher” in areas
characterized by poor housing, poor health, soco-
economic disadvantage and transient populations. This
led them to suggest that crime was a function. of
neighborhood dmamics and not due to individual actors
and their adions. Staw and Mekay explained these
patterns by reference to the problems thet accompanied
immigration to Chicago at this time. They daimed that
areas setied by newly arived immigrants experiences a
breakdown of socal norms due to ethnic dversty and
competing cultural traditions. Conventional institutions
of social control were therefore weakened and unable to
regulate the behavior of local youths.
ANOMIE/STRAIN THEORY Anomie is a concept
developed by one of the founding fathers of sociclogy,
EMILE DURKHEIM, to explain the breakdown of socal
norms thet often accompanies rapid social change.
AMERICAN SOCIOLOGIST ROBERT MERTON
(1957) drew on this Idea to explain criminality and
deviance in the USA. His theory argues that crime occurs
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when there is a gap between the cutural goals of a
society (e.g. material wealth status) and the stucural
means to achieve these (e.g. eduction, employment)
This strain between means and goals results in
frustration and resentment, end encourages some
people to use llegtimate o: legal means to secure
success. In shor, strain theory posts that the cutural
values and social structures of society put pressure on
individual citizens to comnit crime.
STATUS FRUSTRATION - Is associated with the work
(oF Abert Cohen (1955), who conducted research into
group offending by young, lower-class men. Cohen
argued that lower-class youths could not aspire to
rmidéle-tass cultural goals and so, frustrated, they
rejected them to create their own subaultural system of
values. In school, for example, they gan status and
respect by meeting the expectations of peers not
teachers, engaging in delinquent activties such as
‘smoking, tuanting, and acting up in class.
RICHARD CLOWARD AND LLOYD OHLIN (1960) -
Built on these ideas, pointing to the differential
‘opportunity structures available to lower-class young
people in different neighborhoods: criminal (making 2
living from crime), confict (territorial violence and gang
fighting) and retreatist (drugs and alcohol).
SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY Strictly speaking control
theory does not address the causes of crime, but rather
focuses on why people obay the law. In ether words, it
‘explains conformity rather than deviance. Iti primarily
associated with the work of TRAVIS HIRSCHT (1969),
‘an America social scientist who proposed that people
‘general conform to social nerme due to strong social
bonds. Conversely, they engage in delinquant acts when
these bonds are broken or weak.
‘THE KEY COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL BONDS ARE:
41. ATTACHMENT: How strong or weak isan individual's
relationship with others? Do these others expect cetain
kinds oF behavior (such as obeying the law) from this
indivdal? The stronger the attachment and the stronger
the expectations, the more likely it is thatthe individual
will conform.
2. COMMITMENT: The more an individual commits
hhs/herself to a particular lifestyle (for example, being
‘marie being a parent, having ajo), the more he/she
‘has to lose if he/she becomes involved in crime (and so
deviate from the itestye).
3. INVOLVEMENT: This component comes down to
tne - the more time the individual spends engaging In
law abiding behavior, the less time he/shehas to engage
In law breaking behavier.
4. BELIEF: this rolates to upbringing. If an individual
has been brought up to be law abiding, they are lees
licely to become involved in crime, Control theory is one
oF the most frequently used ard tested criminological
theories.
RIGHT REALISM/RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY This branch of criminology sees individuals as rational
actors: indivduals are capable of making their own
choices, which includes choosing tocommit crime. In any
course of acton, individuals weigh up the likely benefits
and disadvantages of each action. Right realism emerged
in the USA and the UK around the 1980s, in response to
tising crime rates and a perceived fallure of sociological
approzches to adequately address the real causes of
crime. Prominent right realists such as James Q.
Wilson (1975) and Charles Murray (1990) come
from political backgrounds and claim that criminological
theory should inform criminal justice policy. One of the
key theories to emerge from this branch of criminology
is rational choice theory, associated with the werk of.
Comish and Clarke (1986). According to-this theory,
individuals not only decide to commit crime, but decide
when and where to commit crime.
AAs Walklate cbserves, this theory lends tse to the range
of policy initiatives known as situation crime
prevention, sometimes referred to as designing cut
crime. This isthe umbrella term for a range of strategies
that are used to reduce the opportunities to. commit
crime.
REALISM - Realist criminology terds to be writen from
2 particular Ideological position, Le. it is poltically right
fr let. Beth approaches attempt to get Yeal’ about the
problem of crime: beating itasa serious sodal issue.
EXAMPLES OF THIS STRATEGY INCLUDE:
1 Increasing formal surveillance measures such as CCTV
‘and alarms, and the Neighborhood Watch scheme
2. Increasing ratural survellance”Such a Improving
street lighting
3. Concealing or removing ‘targets’ e.g. High valle”
‘goods such as mobile phenes, cash and Jewelry
LEFT REALISM/RELATIVE DEPRIVATION.
Left realm fea branch ofertcal criminology (eee SCOR
what ie erme?) that developed in the UK and the USA in
the 1980s. It cuggests that crime disproportionately
affects the lives of the poor and disadvantaged. Key
proponents include Lea and Young (1984) and Elbot
Currie (1985). One of the key concepts of let realism is
relative doprivation. Closely associated with anomie
theory, relative deprivation suggests that crime happens
when individuals or groupe see themselves as being
unfairly disadvantaged compared to other individuals oF
‘groups who they sce as being similar to themselves.
Since the disadvantage ie perceived and determined by
an individual, it's a subjective assessment.
LEFT REALISTS ALSO SUPPORT TWO (2) OTHER
KEY THEORIES TO EXPLAIN CRIME:
1. MARGINALIZATION - Some groups experience
marginalization and at diferent levels (socal, political
‘and economic). These groups are on the periphery of
socety. Lacking politcal representation, these groups
represent themselves and their ways of taking political
action include the commission of crime and violence.
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2. SUB-CULTURES: Narginalized individuals and
groups may come into contact with ethers who share
these experiences, and who then may form their own
‘sub cultures in which crime and violence may feature.
FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES/GENDER Feminist
perspectives share a concern with gender inequality,
pointing to the fact that crime is clsproportonately
committed by men. Feminist criminologists such 2s
ELIZABETH STANKO (1985) have paid particular
attention to male violence against women, explaining its
occurence by reference to wider structures of
oppression - as well as gendered norms regarding
“appropriate” masculine and feminine behavior.
(One concept Used by feminist perspectives to explain the
rmaleness of crime is hegemonic masculinty: the set of
eas, values, rearesentations and practices associated
with "being male’ which is commonly accepted as the
dominant posttion in gender relations in a society at a
particular historical mement (JEFFERSON, 2006, SAGE
DICTIONARY OF CRIMINOLOGY).
Jn contemporary Western society, the dominant or
hhagemonic masculnity is expressed through paid
employment (perhaps being the "bread winner’ in the
household); being heterosexual; and subordinating
women, Criminologist JAMES W. MESSERSCHMIOT
(1992) argues that for some men, incattaln groups, men
do masculinity (that is, express their! masculinity)
through the engagement and commission of crime.
DETERRENCE AND RATIONAL CHOICE THEORIES
(TERMINOLOGY)
1. DETERRENCE THEORY - A core principle of dassical
school and rational choice theories, this theory states
that cime can be controlled through the use of
punishments. that combine the proper degrees of
Certainty, severity, and celerity. Deterrence is a key
tlement in the US. justice system,
‘A. ABSOLUTE DETERRENCE - Ths refers to the
‘amount of crime thet has been prevented simply due to
the fact that'a formal system is in place so that an
indiaval could be legally punished for committing a
ciminal act.
'B. GENERAL DETERRENCE - General deterrence isthe
‘octine that a community or a society of people can be
detered from committing a criminal act after having
witnessed the punishment of an indvidual or individuals
for having committed that act.
. SPECIFIC DETERRENCE - This style of deterrence
[is usod with a specific offender in mind. The bali is that
if an individual ic punished fer a criminal act, then that
individual will be less likely to vielate the law in the
future.
D. PERCEPTUAL DETERRENCE - This concept applies
to an individual offender, and refers to what he or she
believes the Ikelhond of arrest to be, and how severe
he or she believes the punishment fora crime will be if
‘aught. The perceptions of the individual are often very
ferent from the actual reality experienced. E. RETRIBUTION - Making the punishment ft the
crime. It also referred to as “an eye for an eye.”
‘THREE (3) ELEMENTS OF DETTERENCE THEORY
A. CELERITY - one ofthe three elements of deterrence.
Celerity refers to how quickly en individual is punished
after commiting a crime.
B. CERTAINTY - One of the three elements of
deterrence. Certainty refers to how likely it is that an
individual wil be caught and punished for 2 crime that
he or she has committed. Certainty is the most important
of the three elements.
. SEVERITY - One of the three elements ofdéterrence.
Severity refers to how harsh the punishment for a crime
will be. In classical criminology, it is important to
remember that a punishment must fit the crime. If a
punishment is not severe enough, & wil nat deter crime.
If itis too severe, itis unjust and can lead to more crime.
2. CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY - A schoo! of thought
based upon utlitarian notions of free will and the
(greatest good for the greatest number. At ts core,
classical criminology refers to a belief that a crime is
committed after an individual weighs the pros and cons.
The decision to commit a crime isa rational decision, and
is best countered through a deterrence-based system.
3. CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH
ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN (CPTED) - This refers to
a set of practices designed to meke potential criminal
targets less attractive. The belief that crime is @ rational
acts used to make a potential tarcet less attractive to a
criminal, and thus not a “rational” target.
4. EXPECTED UTILITY PRINCIPLE - Economic theory
which states that people will ad in 2 manner that:
increases thelr benefits and reduces thier losses. This
ties In dosely with classical ciminoiogy and, _by
