Computational Fluid

Dynamics (CFD)
BTD3233 / BHA4532
Topic 3
Related Course Outcomes

BTD BHA
Lecture Outline

Governing Equations for CFD:

• Introduction
• The Continuity Equation
• The Momentum Equation
• The Energy equation
• The Additional Equations for Turbulent Flow
Introduction
• CFD is based on the governing equations of fluid flow
• Governing equations = mathematical statement of the conservation laws of physics
• These are the physical laws:
• Conservation of mass (continuity)
• Conservation of momentum
• Conservation of energy
• All of CFD is based in these equations
• Need to understand each term in the equations
• Able to properly interpret the result of CFD
How do we obtain these equations?
1. Choose appropriate fundamental physical principles:
i. conservation of mass
ii. conservation of momentum
iii. conservation of energy
2. Apply the physical principle to an appropriate model of the flow
3. Extract mathematical equation which represent the physical principle
Finite Control Volume infinitesimal fluid
fluid element element fluid element
A at time t0 fluid particles A at time t1

fluid element fluid element

B at time t0 B at time t1

• The governing eqs are usually defined for a

system
• For fluid this introduces the notion of a fluid
element
• Fluid element = a group of arbitrarily defined
fluid particles that is tracked around the flow
• Lagrangian approach

John, D., & Anderson, J. R. (1995). Computational fluid dynamics: the basics with applications. Mechanical Engineering Series.
Finite Control Volume
• In practice, we cannot track an infinite number
of fluid particles / elements (Lagrangian
approach)
• We fix a region in space and monitor how fluid
properties change (called Eulerian approach) Control volume (CV)
• fixed in space and time

Control surface (CS)

Finite Control Volume • The governing eqs are for a system (Lagrangian)
• We want to use the Eularian approach
• How do we write the eqs in Eularian form?
• If the CV is small enough that it assumes only
one velocity value, one pressure value and one
density value etc, then the fluid particle that
goes through the CV will assume those values Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT)

Control volume (CV)

• fixed in space and time

Control surface (CS)

Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT)

𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑑 𝑑
= න 𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉 = න 𝜌𝑏𝑑𝑉 + න 𝜌𝑏𝒖 ∙ 𝒏𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Total b in a Lagrangian Eulerian form

volume (element)

b: intensive property of a system

B: extensive property of a system
𝐵 = 𝑚𝑏
Conservation of mass

M: fixed amount of matter

Conservation of momentum
• Newton’s second law, F = ma
• For a system moving relative to an inertial reference frame

the sum of all

external forces = time rate of change of linear
momentum of the system
Physical interpretation of RTT

rate of change of the rate of change of the rate of property N

system extensive amount of property N exiting (and entering)
property N is the CV the surface of the CV

Evaluation of the dot product

Conservation of mass

Rate of change of Net rate of mass flux

mass in the CV out through the CS
Example: Mass flow at pipe junction

Answer: V2 = -4.5 m/s

 Conservation of momentum

surface forces body forces

*Note
• -ve sign means that pressure p is always
acting onto the CS
• even when the flow is outwards, the
pressure acts onto the CS
Conservation of momentum
Example:

Answer: F = 2.25 kN
Conservation of momentum
Example:

Find the force required to hold the plug in place at the exit of the water pipe. The flow rate is
1.5 m^3/s and the upstream pressure is 3.5 MPa.

Answer: F = 90.4 kN
Conservation of energy

Rate of work done by a control volume

work done work done other form

shaft work
by normal by shear of work
stresses at stresses at
the CS the CS

Tu, J., Yeoh, G. H., & Liu, C. (2018). Computational fluid dynamics: a practical approach. Butterworth-Heinemann.
Conservation of energy
Example:

Answer: 𝑚ሶ = 0.102 g/s

Surface forces acting on a CV How to read the indices?

We describe the surface forces that acts on a CV using the stress tensor 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝜎𝑖𝑗
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧 Stress in the 𝑗 direction
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧 acting on a surface that is
𝜎𝑧𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 normal to the 𝑖 direction

𝜎𝑥𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧𝑧 : normal stress (pressure + viscous stresses) 𝜎𝑦𝑦

𝜎𝑦𝑥
𝜎𝑥𝑦 , 𝜎𝑥𝑧 etc : shear stress (viscous stress only) 𝜎𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑥𝑦

𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥
Surface force acting on a differential surface element: 𝜎𝑧𝑥
𝜎𝑥𝑧
𝑑𝑭𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 = 𝜎𝑖𝑗 ∙ 𝒏𝑑𝐴
𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧
Total surface force acting on a CS:
𝑥
𝑭𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 = න 𝜎𝑖𝑗 ∙ 𝒏𝑑𝐴 𝑧
Components of the stress tensor on the right,
𝐶𝑆
top and front faces
Surface forces acting on a CV (fluid at rest)
-ve sign means that pressure always acts inward

𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧 −𝑃 0 0

Fluid at rest: 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧 = 0 −𝑃 0
𝜎𝑧𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 0 0 −𝑃

hydrostatic thermodynamics
pressure
=
pressure

• Hydrostatic 𝑃 is the same as thermodynamic pressure

• 𝑃 is related to temperature and density through some type
of equation of state
• Pressure always act normal to the surface
Surface forces acting on a CV (moving fluid)
Thermodynamic pressure

𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧 −𝑃 0 0 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧

Moving fluid: 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧 = 0 −𝑃 0 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧
𝜎𝑧𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 0 0 −𝑃 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜏𝑧𝑧

pressure acts inward and viscous stresses exist

normal to the surface (viscous stress tensor)

1
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = − 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧𝑧 also called “mean pressure”
3
2
= 𝑃 − 𝜆 + 𝜇 ∇𝑽
3
For incompressible flow ∇𝑽 = 0, thus 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃

𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ≠ 𝑃, but.. For most cases ∇𝑽 is really small so we can assume 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ≈ 𝑃
2
Stokes’ hypothesis (1845): 𝜆 + 3 𝜇 = 0 (Stokes assumes away the problem)
What is a Field Variable? properties of the fluid
element at 𝑡 = 𝑡1
• In the Eulerian approach, we defined a CV
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 , 𝑡1
• We do not track each particle flowing in and out fluid element at
𝒂𝟏 = 𝒂 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 , 𝑡1
• Instead, we define field variables within the CV 𝑡 = 𝑡1
𝜌1 = 𝜌 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 , 𝑡1
• Field variables are functions of space (x, y, z) and time (t) 𝑃1 = 𝑃 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 , 𝑡1
• At a particular space and time within the CV, there is a
particular value for a variable for whichever fluid particle that 𝑽𝟏
is occupying the location at that time

Example field variables in a flow field:

𝑽 = 𝑽 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 velocity field (vector field variable)

𝒂 = 𝒂 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 acceleration field (vector field variable)

𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 density field (scalar field variable) the same

fluid element at
𝑃 = 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 pressure field (scalar field variable) 𝑡 = 𝑡2 𝑽𝟐
properties of the fluid
element at 𝑡 = 𝑡2
𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 , 𝑡2
*When you perform differentiation on a field 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 , 𝑡2
variable, you have to use Substantial Derivative 𝜌2 = 𝜌 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 , 𝑡2
𝑃2 = 𝑃 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 , 𝑡2
What is Substantial Derivative? (1/3)
vector velocity field: 𝑽 = 𝑢ⅈ + 𝑣𝒋 + 𝑤𝒌
𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
scalar velocity
𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
components:
𝑤 = 𝑤 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
scalar density field: 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡

At point 1: 𝜌1 = 𝜌 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 , 𝑡1

At point 2: 𝜌2 = 𝜌 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 , 𝑡2

If we expand 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 about point 1 using Taylor’s expansion:

𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
𝜌 = 𝜌1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥1 + 𝑦 − 𝑦1 + 𝑧 − 𝑧1 + 𝑡 − 𝑡1 + higher order terms
𝜕𝑥 1
𝜕𝑦 1
𝜕𝑧 1
𝜕𝑡 1
What is Substantial Derivative? (2/3)
Evaluate at point 2 and rearrange (ignore higher order terms):

𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
𝜌2 = 𝜌1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 + 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 + 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝜕𝑥 1
𝜕𝑦 1
𝜕𝑧 1
𝜕𝑡 1

𝜌2 − 𝜌1 𝜕𝜌 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝜕𝜌 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝜕𝜌 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 𝜕𝜌
=+ + + +
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝜕𝑥 1
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝜕𝑦 1
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝜕𝑧 1
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝜕𝑡 1
average time rate of the
change of density as the
fluid element moves
from point 1 to point 2

At the limit 𝑡2 → 𝑡1 :
𝐷𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
=𝑢 +𝜈 +𝑤 +
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
What is Substantial Derivative? (3/3)
𝐷𝜌 𝜕𝜌
*The terms 𝐷𝑡 and 𝜕𝑡 are numerically
𝐷𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 and physically different quantities
=𝑢 +𝜈 +𝑤 +
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

substantial convective local

derivative derivative derivative

time rate of change of density time rate of change of density

of a given fluid element as it at a specific point in space (for
time rate of change of density of a given fluid example point 1)
moves through space
element due to its movement from one We fix our eyes at one location (we
We fix our eyes at moving fluid
location to another in the flow field where the don’t follow the fluid element)
element (we follow the fluid
element) flow properties are spatially different

Substantial derivative can be used for any field variable:

𝐷𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝐷𝜙 𝜕𝜙
=𝑢 +𝜈 +𝑤 + = + 𝑽 ∙ 𝜵𝜙
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Conservation of mass ෡
𝑽 = 𝑢𝒊Ƹ + 𝜈 𝒋Ƹ + 𝑤𝒌
Derivation using the divergence theorem
𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
This is the continuity eqn. from the RTT: 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
𝜕 𝑤 = 𝑤 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
න 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 + න 𝜌𝑽 ⋅ 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 = 0 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Apply Gauss’s divergence theorem:

Gauss’s Divergence Theorem
𝜕
න 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 − න ∇𝜌𝑽 𝑑𝑉 = 0 Relationship between the flux of a vector field through a
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑉 closed surface to the divergence of the field in the volume
enclosed
𝜕𝜌
඲ + ∇ ⋅ 𝜌𝑽 𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝜕𝑡 න ∇ ∙ (𝜌𝑽) 𝑑𝑉 = − න 𝜌𝑽 ⋅ 𝒏 𝑑𝑆
𝐶𝑉
𝑉
𝑆
This eqn. must hold for any CV regardless of its shape. Volume integral of
This is only possible if the integrand is identically zero: Surface integral of
the divergence = a vector field over
over the region
𝜕𝜌 a closed surface
+ ∇ ⋅ 𝜌𝑽 = 𝟎 inside the surface
𝜕𝑡
continuity Time rate of change Net mass flux out of
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤 equation of the mass in the CV the CS
+ + + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Conservation of mass (1/3)
Model of an infinitesimally small element fixed in space
𝜕 𝜌𝑣
𝜌𝑣 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
Net mass flow out Time rate of 𝜕𝑦
of the CV through = decrease of mass
surface S inside the CV
𝜌𝑤 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
෡
𝑽 = 𝑢𝒊Ƹ + 𝜈𝒋Ƹ + 𝑤 𝒌

𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 rate of mass flow

𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 through the left face
𝑤 = 𝑤 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝜕 𝜌𝑢
𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝜌𝑢 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥
kg m 2
kg
∙ ∙ m = rate of mass flow through
𝑑𝑦 m3 s s the right face
Look at the units!
y • velocity and density are functions of
spatial location
𝑑𝑧 • so the values of mass flux is different
𝜕 𝜌𝑤 on the left and right faces (due to
𝑑𝑥 𝜌𝑤 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑧 different spatial location)

x 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
z infinitesimally small element
Conservation of mass (2/3)
Model of an infinitesimally small element fixed in space

*if we assume the net outflow to be +ve

Net outflow in the x-direction:
Net mass flow out
𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑢 of the CV through
𝜌𝑢 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 − 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 surface S
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Net outflow in the y-direction:

𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤
𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 + + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜌𝑣 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

Net outflow in the z-direction:

𝜕 𝜌𝑤 𝜕 𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑤 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜌𝑤 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
Conservation of mass (3/3)
Model of an infinitesimally small element fixed in space

Time rate of Net mass flow out Time rate of

decrease of mass of the CV through = decrease of mass
inside the CV surface S inside the CV

𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤 𝜕𝜌
𝜕𝜌 + + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑡

volume of the 𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤
fluid element + + + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
continuity
kgൗ equation
m3 ∙ m3 = kg
𝜕𝜌
s s + ∇ ⋅ 𝜌𝑽 = 𝟎
Look at the units!
𝜕𝑡
Example 3.1
Momentum equation
Derivation using the divergence theorem

This is the momentum eqn. from the RTT:

𝜕
𝑭𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = න 𝜌𝒈 𝑑𝑉 + න 𝜎𝑖𝑗 ⋅ 𝒏 𝑑𝐴 = න 𝑽𝜌 𝑑𝑉 + න 𝜌𝑽 𝑽 ⋅ 𝒏 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Divergence theorem

𝜕
𝑭𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = න 𝑽𝜌 𝑑𝑉 + න ∇ ∙ 𝜌𝑽𝑽 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑉

𝜕
=඲ 𝜌𝑽 + ∇ ∙ 𝜌𝑽𝑽 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡
𝐶𝑉
Momentum equation
Model of an infinitesimally small element
fixed in space • Apply 𝑭 = 𝑚𝒂 to the model of the flow
• Force is divided into
• Body forces
• acts on the element “at a distance”
• gravitational, electric, magnetic etc
• Surface forces
• acts on the surface of the element directly
• only two sources
i. pressure distribution acting on the surface
ii. shear and normal stress distribution acting on the surface

𝑭 = 𝑚𝒂

Body forces Surface forces

Pressure Viscous

𝑃
Normal Shear
𝜏𝑖𝑖 𝜏𝑖𝑗
Momentum equation 𝜏𝑦𝑥 +
𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦
Surface forces in the x-direction surface area
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥
𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝜏𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥

surface area
= 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

surface area
= 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

𝜕𝑝
𝑝𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑝+ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥
surface area
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥
𝜏𝑧𝑥 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑧
Momentum equation
Total force in the x-direction

Net surface force in the x-direction:

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥
𝑝− 𝑝+ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝜏𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 − 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝜏𝑦𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥
+ 𝜏𝑧𝑥 + 𝑑𝑧 − 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝐹𝑥,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝜕𝑧

Body force in the x-direction: 𝐹𝑥,𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓𝑥 𝜌(𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧)

𝑓𝑥 : body mass per unit mass
acting on the fluid element

Total force in the x-direction: 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥,𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 + 𝐹𝑥,𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥

𝐹𝑥 = − + + + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓𝑥 𝜌(𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Momentum equation
Total force in the x, y, z-direction
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝑢
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌(𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧)
𝐷𝑡

𝐷𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥

𝜌(𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧) = − + + + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑓𝑥 𝜌(𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧)
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝐷𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥

Total force in the x-direction: 𝜌 =− + + + + 𝑓𝑥 𝜌
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝐷𝑣 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑦

Total force in the y-direction: 𝜌 =− + + + + 𝑓𝑦 𝜌
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝐷𝑤 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑧

Total force in the z-direction: 𝜌 =− + + + + 𝑓𝑧 𝜌
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Momentum equation 𝐷𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
Total force in the x, y, z-direction 𝜌 =𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐷𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
Evaluate the substantial derivatives: 𝜌 =𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐷𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
𝜌 =𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥

𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =− + + + + 𝑓𝑥 𝜌
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑦

𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =− + + + + 𝑓𝑦 𝜌
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑧

𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =− + + + + 𝑓𝑧 𝜌
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Momentum equation
Model of an infinitesimally small element
moving in a velocity field For an infinitesimal system of mass dm

Since the mass dm is moving in a velocity field:

Surface forces acting in the x-direction:

Momentum equation
Simplify the equation:

Assume the only body force that is acting on the fluid element is gravity:

Total force in the x-direction:

Total force in the y-direction:

Total force in the z-direction:

Momentum equation
This is the equation that we get:

We still need suitable expressions for the stresses expressed in terms of velocity and pressure fields.
Momentum equation Introduce these stress terms into the equation:

For Newtonian fluid:

Stokes (1984)

𝑝 : local thermodynamic pressure

This is the Navier-Stokes equation.
The thermodynamic pressure is related to the
density and temperature by the equation of state.
Newtonian Fluid
• A fluid in which its shear stress 𝜏 is proportional to the time
rate of strain (velocity gradients)
• Fluids in which 𝜏 is not proportional to the velocity gradients
is called non-Newtonian fluid

For Newtonian fluid:

∂𝑢 ∂𝜈 ∂𝑢
𝜏𝑥𝑥 = 𝜆 ∇ ⋅ 𝑽 + 2𝜇 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = 𝜇 +
∂𝑥 ∂𝑥 ∂𝑦

∂𝑣 ∂𝑢 ∂𝑤
𝜏𝑦𝑦 = 𝜆 ∇ ⋅ 𝑽 + 2𝜇 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜇 + Stokes (1845)
∂𝑦 ∂𝑧 ∂𝑥

∂𝑤 ∂𝑤 ∂𝑣
𝜏𝑧𝑧 = 𝜆 ∇ ⋅ 𝑽 + 2𝜇 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 𝜇 +
∂𝑧 ∂𝑦 ∂𝑧

2
𝜆=− 𝜇 Stokes’ hypothesis
𝜇: viscosity 3
𝜆: viscosity coefficient
Momentum equation
Simplify this by introducing incompressibility with constant viscosity:
Example
A liquid flows down an inclined plane surface in a steady, fully developed laminar film of thickness ℎ. Simplify the
continuity and Navier-Stokes equations to model this flow field. Obtain expressions for the liquid velocity profile,
the shear stress distribution, the volume flow rate, and the average velocity. Relate the liquid film thickness to the
volume flow rate per unit depth of surface normal to the flow. Calculate the volume flow rate in a film of water
ℎ = 1 mm thick, flowing on a surface 𝑏 = 1 mm wide, inclined at 𝜃 = 15°to the horizontal.

Answer:
1/3
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑦2 3𝜇𝑄
𝑢 = 𝜌𝑔 ℎ𝑦 − ℎ=
𝜇 2 𝑏𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ℎ − 𝑦 𝑄 = 0.846 L/s

𝑏𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ℎ3
𝑄=
𝜇 3
𝑄 𝑏𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ℎ3
𝑉ത = =
𝑏ℎ 𝜇 3
Pressure
Fluid at rest • The only stress acting on the fluid element is the hydrostatic pressure P
• P always acts inward
• P is the same as thermodynamic pressure
• P is related to T and 𝜌 through the equation of state

Moving fluid
• P acts inward
• Viscous stresses also exist

If the fluid is incompressible, 𝜌 = constant and there is

no equation of state
• P is defined as mechanical pressure
Energy equation (1/11)
Model of an infinitesimally small element
moving in a velocity field

Time rate of change Net rate of heat Net rate of work done on
of energy in the = added into the fluid + the fluid element due to
fluid element element body and surface forces

𝑑𝐸
= 𝑄ሶ 𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑊ሶ 𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Energy equation (2/11)
Model of an infinitesimally small element Net rate of work done on
moving in a velocity field Let’s consider this term first: the fluid element due to
body and surface forces

time 𝑡
force 𝑭
𝒅𝒓
𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 Work done on the body
𝑊 = 𝑭 ∙ 𝒅𝒓
in time interval 𝑑𝑡
position vector 𝒓𝟏
𝒅𝒓
𝒓𝟐 Rate of work done 𝑊ሶ = 𝑭 ∙
𝑑𝑡
=𝑭∙𝑽
Rate of work done on a moving
body by external force 𝑭
Similarly, rate of work done by body
force acting on a fluid element = 𝜌𝒇 ∙ 𝑽 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
Energy equation (3/11)
Model of an infinitesimally small element
moving in a velocity field

How do we deal with work done by the surface forces?

Energy equation (4/11) Net work done by pressure, shear stresses
Model of an infinitesimally small element and normal stresses in the x-direction
moving in a velocity field 𝜕𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑥
𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦
surface area
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝜕𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑥
𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥

surface area
= 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑢𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
surface area
= 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

𝜕𝑝
𝑢𝑝𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑢𝑝 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥
surface area
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥
𝑢𝜏𝑧𝑥 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑧
Energy equation (5/11)
Model of an infinitesimally small element
moving in a velocity field

Net rate of work done on the 𝜕𝑢𝑝 𝜕𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝜏𝑧𝑥

fluid element by surface forces = −
𝜕𝑥
+
𝜕𝑥
+
𝜕𝑦
+
𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
in the x-direction

Net rate of work done on the 𝜕𝑢𝑝 𝜕𝑣𝑝 𝜕𝑤𝑝 𝜕𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝜏𝑦𝑦
ቈ− + + + + + + +
fluid element by surface forces = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
in all directions 𝜕𝑣𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜕𝑤𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝑤𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝑤𝜏𝑧𝑧
+ + + + ቉ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Net rate of work done on 𝜕𝑢𝑝 𝜕𝑣𝑝 𝜕𝑤𝑝 𝜕𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝜏𝑦𝑦
ቈ− + + + + + + +
the fluid element due to = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
body and surface forces 𝜕𝑣𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜕𝑤𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝑤𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝑤𝜏𝑧𝑧
+ + + + ቉ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝒇 ∙ 𝑽 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Energy equation (6/11)
Model of an infinitesimally small element The heat flux is due to:
moving in a velocity field i. volumetric heating such as absorption or emission of radiation
ii. heat transfer across the surface due to temperature gradients
Net rate of heat (thermal conduction)
Let’s consider this term: added into the fluid
element
1 volumetric heating of element = 𝜌𝑞𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
ሶ

thermal conduction
Net heat transferred due 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑥 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑥
to thermal conduction in 𝑞ሶ 𝑥 − 𝑞ሶ 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
the x-direction 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕 𝑞ሶ 𝑥
𝑞ሶ 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑞ሶ 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥

2 Net heat transferred due 𝜕 𝑞ሶ 𝑥 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑦 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑧

heat transfer due to thermal to thermal conduction in − + + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
conduction in the x-direction all directions
Energy equation (7/11)
Model of an infinitesimally small element
moving in a velocity field
Net rate of heat 𝜕 𝑞ሶ 𝑥 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑦 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑧
added into the fluid = 𝜌𝑞ሶ −
𝜕𝑥
+
𝜕𝑦
+
𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
element

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
Fourier’s law of heat conduction: 𝑞ሶ 𝑥 = −𝑘 𝑞ሶ 𝑦 = −𝑘 𝑞ሶ 𝑧 = −𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
thermal conductivity: 𝑘

Net rate of heat 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇

added into the fluid = 𝜌𝑞ሶ +
𝜕𝑥
𝑘
𝜕𝑥
+
𝜕𝑦
𝑘
𝜕𝑦
+
𝜕𝑧
𝑘
𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
element
 *We use “e” for internal energy instead
Energy equation (8/11) substantial derivative since the element is
moving in the velocity field
of the conventional “u” so we don’t
confuse it with velocity “u”
Model of an infinitesimally small element
moving in a velocity field
What about potential
Time rate of change 𝐷 𝑽2
Let’s consider this term: of energy in the = 𝜌
𝐷𝑡
𝑒+
2
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 energy?
Potential energy is
fluid element considered in the work by
body force term.
internal kinetic
Put all the terms together: energy energy

𝐷 𝑽2 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑢𝑝 𝜕𝑣𝑝 𝜕𝑤𝑝

𝜌 𝑒+ = 𝜌𝑞ሶ + 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑘 − + +
𝐷𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜕𝑤𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝑤𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝑤𝜏𝑧𝑧
+ + + + + + + + + + 𝜌𝒇 ∙ 𝑽
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

This is the non-conservation form of the energy equation

Energy equation (9/11)
Model of an infinitesimally small element
moving in a velocity field
Recall:
Energy equation (10/11)
Model of an infinitesimally small element
moving in a velocity field

After some manipulation, this is the energy equation in non-conservation form completely in
the terms of the field variables:

2
𝐷𝑒 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜈 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑞ሶ + 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑘 −𝑃 + + +𝜆 + +
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

2 2 2 2 2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜈 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝜈 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜈
+𝜇 ൥2 +2 +2 + + + + + + ൩
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

• There are many other forms of the energy equation

• They all are the same equation expressed differently
• Different forms serve different purpose
Energy equation (11/11)
If the flow is incompressible and the thermal conductivity coefficient is assumed to be constant:

𝐷𝑒 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑞ሶ + 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑘 +Φ
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

energy diffusion
(conduction)
rate of internal viscous
heat generation dissipation

viscous dissipation: represents the rate at which mechanical energy is

Dissipation function:
expended in the process of deformation of the fluid due to viscosity
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜈 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝜈 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜈
Φ=𝜆 + + + 𝜇 ൥2 +2 +2 + + + + + + ൩
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Vector identity for the divergence of the
product of a scalar times a vector

∇ ⋅ 𝜌𝑢𝑽 = 𝑢∇ ⋅ 𝜌𝑽 + 𝜌𝑽 ⋅ ∇𝑢

Rearrange: 𝜌𝑽 ⋅ ∇𝑢 = ∇ ⋅ 𝜌𝑢𝑽 − 𝑢∇ ⋅ 𝜌𝑽