Republic of the Philippines

Palompon Institute of Technology

College of Graduate Studies
Palompon, Leyte

FOUNDATIONS
OF NUMBER
THEORY
(WO
RKB
OOK)
Submitted by: Submitted to:
Mary
Grace S. Suan CHRISTIAN
Mary Joy CABEN M.
T. Etulle LARISMA
Mapple
Course Professor
Jelyn C. Elbiña
Marvin Jay
V. Elbiña
Ranil A.

Discovering the Arts of Mathematics

Foundations of Number Theory

By Group 1

Elbiňa, Mapple Jelyn C.

Elbiňa, Marvin Jay
Etulle, Mary Joy T.
Otida, Ranil A.
Suan, Mary Grace S.
 Preface
Mathematics is the queen of sciences
and arithmetic the queen of mathematics

Carl Friedrich Gauss

In this article, you will learn, relearn and refresh the basic concepts of number theory and provide a
description of the most important and basic theorems. This article will provide a brief, non-
comprehensive description, and if you are able to follow and understand this article then you will have a
solid foundation to understand the more advanced topics in the field. We will eventually see how number
theory is actually highly applied and has uses including in data science.

In the most basic terms, number theory is the study of the Integers. The integers are an extension of the
Natural Numbers, the basic numbers that are introduced in early childhood. The integers include those
basic natural numbers like 1,2 and 3. But the integers extend the idea to also include the negative numbers
such as -1,-2 and -3 and so forth. 0 is also included as an integer, but some people don’t consider 0 a
natural number (while others do).

Because the integers can be seen as the most ‘simple’ or ‘basic’ of numbers used in simple arithmetic, the
field has sometimes been ignored or even neglected. Historically, while heavily studied in antiquity,
number theory was often viewed as the most ‘pure’ branch of mathematics, in contrast with applied
mathematics (such as calculus). However, this turned out to be far from the case and the applications and
results of number theory are now vitally important to modern life.

The history of number theory is a great proof of why branches of mathematics that are currently seen as
‘useless’ or only pure, may nonetheless have important discoveries that are utilized in the future. The
number-theorist Leonard Dickson (1874–1954) said “Thank God that number theory is unsullied by any
application.” This would later become a famous quote as it turned out not to be the case. It is also a lesson
for us today, because there are currently areas of pure mathematics seen as useless that very well likely
become applied in the near or far future.
 Acknowledgement

The completion of this undertaking could not have been possible without the participation and
assistance of so many people whose name may not all be enumerated. Their contributions are sincerely
appreciated and gratefully acknowledged. However, the group would like to express their deep
appreciation and indebtedness particularly to the following:

Mr. Christian Caben M. Larisma, Mr. Geryl D. Cataraja, Ph.D. and Dr. Sonia A. Pajaron for their
endless support.

To all relatives, friends and others who in one way or another shared their support, either morally,
financially and physically, thank you.

Above all, to the Great Almighty, the author of knowledge and wisdom, for his countless love.

We thank you.

MAEd Major in Mathematics Students - Group 1

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface

Acknowledgement

Lessons
1 Axioms of Arithmetic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Proof by Contradiction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Mathematical Induction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4 Figurate Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5 Binomial Coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
6 Fibonacci Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7 Division Algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
8 Radix Representation of a number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Answers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Powerpoint Presentations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
 LESSON

1 Axioms of Arithmetic
One interesting question is where to start from. How do you prove the first theorem, if you don’t
know anything? Unfortunately, you can’t prove something using nothing. You need at least a
few building blocks start with, and these are called Axioms.

1.1 Definition. Arithmetic is the study of mathematics related to the manipulation of real numbers.
The set natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} and ω = {0} ∪ N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . }. The two fundamental
properties of arithmetic are addition and multiplication.

Axioms of The Operations Of Arithmetic

1. Addition Closure Axiom & Multiplication Closure Axiom

If a and b are real numbers, then a + b and a • b are unique real numbers.

- e . g . , Let a = 9 and b = 8

- then a+b = 9+8 = 17 and a • b = 9 • 8 = 72

2. Addition Commutative Axiom & Multiplication Commutative Axiom

If a and b are real numbers, then a + b = b + a and a • b = b • a

- e . g . , Let a = 6 and b = 4

then a + b = 6 + 4 = 10 = 4 + 6 = b + a

that is, a + b = b + a

also a • b = 6 • 4 = 24 = 4 • 6 = b • a

that is, a • b = b • a

3. Addition Associative Axiom & Multiplication Associative Axiom

If a, b and c are real numbers

then a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a • (b • c) = (a • b) • c

- e . g . , Let a = 2, b = 3 and c = 4

then a +(b + c)= 2+(3+4)= 2 +(7) = 9 = (5)+4 =(2+3)+4 = (a + b)+ c

 that is, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c

also, a • (b • c)= 2 • (3 • 4)=2 • (12)= 24 =(6) • 4 =(2 • 3) • 4= (a • b) • c

that is, a • (b • c) = (a • b) • c

4. Distributive Axiom of Multiplication w/ Respect to Addition

If a, b and c are real numbers

then a(b + c) = ab + ac

- e . g . , Let a = 3, b = 4 and c = 5

then a(b + c) = 3(4 +5) = 3(9) = 27 = 12+15 = 3 • 4 + 3 • 5 = ab + ac

that is, a(b + c) = ab + ac

5. Axiom of Zero & Axiom of One

For any real number a, there exists an additive identity (0) and multiplicative identity (1).

that is, a + 0 = a = 0 + a and a(1) = a = (1)a

- e . g . , Let a = 2

then a=a+0=2+0=2=0+2=0+a=a

that is, a+0=a=0+a

also a = a(1) = 2(1) = 2 = (1)2 = (1)a = a

that is, a(1) = a = (1)a

6. A. Axiom of Additive Inverse

For any real number a, there exists a real number called the opposite of a (additive inverse) denoted
by – a .

that is, a – a = 0 = – a + a

e . g . , Let a = 3 then the opposite of 3 is – 3 .

so a – a = 3 – 3 = 0 = – 3 + 3 = – a + a

6. B. Axiom of Multiplicative Inverses

 For any real number a, except 0, there exists a real number called the reciprocal of a (multiplicative
1
inverse) denoted by .
a

1 1
that is, a ( ¿ = 1 = ( )a
a a

1
e . g . , Let a = 5 then the reciprocal of 5 is .
5

1 1 5 5 1 1
so, a ( ¿ = 5 ( ¿ = =1= =( )5=( ¿a
a 5 5 5 5 a

LESSON

2 Proof by Contradiction
One of the most powerful types of proof in mathematics is proof by contradiction or an indirect
proof. It is powerful because it can be used to prove any statement, in several fields of mathematics. The
structure is simple: assume the statement to be proven is false, and work to show its falsity until the result
of that assumption is a contradiction.

2.1 Definition. Proof by contradiction in logic and mathematics is a proof that determines the truth of a
statement by assuming the proposition is false, then working to show its falsity until the result of that
assumption is a contradiction

2.2 Steps. Lets break it down into steps to clarify the process of proof by contradiction. We follow these
steps when using proof by contradiction

1.Assume your statement to be false.

2. Proceed as you would with a direct proof.

3. Come across a contradiction.

4. State that because of the contradiction, it can't be the case that the statement is false, so it must be true.

2.3 Proof By Contradiction Example

Proposition: If a , b ∈ Z ,then a2−4 b ≠ 2.

Proof:

Suppose this proposition is false

If a , b ∈ Z ,then a2−4 b=2.

 From this equation we get
2
a −4 b=2 (1)

a 2=4 b+2

a 2=2 (2 b+1 ) , so a2 iseven .

Since a 2 is even, it follows that a is even, so a=2 c for some integer c .

Now, substitute a=2 c into the equation (1)

2
(2 c) −4 b=2
2
4 c −4 b=2 divide both sides by 2
2
2 c −2 b=1

1=2( c¿ ¿2−b)¿

Since c 2−b ∈ Z , it follows that 1 is even.

Since we know 1 is not even, then there is a contradiction.

The assumption to
the proposition is false, therefore the proposition “If
2
a , b ∈ Z ,then a −4 b=2 “ is TRUE.

2.4 Summary. This was a challenging lesson. You may well benefit from rereading it several times, but
once you do, you should feel more confident in your understanding of proof by contradiction. Now you
can to recognize and apply proof by contradiction in proofs, develop a logical case to show that the
premise is false, until your argument fails by contradiction, and recognize the contradiction in your
argument that demonstrates the validity of the original premise.
 LESSON

3 Mathematical Induction
Mathematical induction, is a technique for proving results or establishing statements for natural
numbers. This part illustrates the method through a variety of examples.

3.1 Definition. THE NATURAL NUMBERS are the counting numbers:  1, 2, 3, 4, etc. Mathematical
induction is a technique for proving a statement -- a theorem, or a formula -- that is asserted
about every natural number.

By "every", or "all," natural numbers, we mean any one that we name.

For example,
1 + 2 + 3 + .  .  .  + n = ½n(n + 1).
This asserts that the sum of consecutive numbers from 1 to n is given by the formula on the
right.  We want to prove that this will be true for n = 1, n = 2, n = 3, and so on.  Now we can test the
formula for any given number, say n = 3:
1 + 2 + 3 = ½· 3· 4 = 6
-- which is true.  It is also true for n = 4:
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = ½· 4· 5 = 10.
But how are we to prove this rule for every value of n?
The method of proof is the following. We show that if the statement -- the rule -- is true for any
specific number k (e.g. 104), then it will also be true for its successor, k + 1 (e.g. 105). We then show
that the statement will be true for 1. It then follows that the statement will be true for 2. Therefore it
will be true for 3. It will be true for any natural number we name.
This is called the principle of mathematical induction.

   If

1) when a statement is true for a natural number n = k,

then it will also be true for its successor, n = k + 1;

and

2) the statement is true for n = 1;

then the statement will be true for every natural number n.

To prove a statement by induction, we must prove parts 1) and 2) above.

The hypothesis of Step 1) -- "The statement is true for n = k" -- is called the induction
assumption, or the induction hypothesis.  It is what we assume when we prove a theorem by induction.
 Example 1.    Prove that the sum of the first n natural numbers is given by this formula:
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + .  .  .  + n  = .
     2
Proof.  We will do Steps 1) and 2) above.  First, we will assume that the formula is true for n = k; that
is, we will assume:
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + .  .  .  + k   = .                   (1)
     2
This is the induction assumption.  Assuming this, we must prove that the formula is true for its
successor, n = k + 1.  That is, we must show:
(k + 1)(k + 2)
1 + 2 + 3 + .  .  .  + (k + 1)   = .         (2)
         2
To do that, we will simply add the next term  (k + 1)  to both sides of the induction
assumption, line (1):

This is line (2), which is the first thing we wanted to show.

Next, we must show that the formula is true for n = 1.  We have:
1 = ½· 1· 2
-- which is true.  We have now fulfilled both conditions of the principle of mathematical induction.
The formula is therefore true for every natural number.

Example 2.  The sum of consecutive cubes.   Prove this remarkable fact of arithmetic:

13 + 23 + 33 + . . . + n3 = (1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n)2.
"The sum of n consecutive cubes is equal to the square
 of the sum of the first n numbers."
In other words, according to Example 1:
n²(n + 1)²
13 + 23 + 33 + . . . + n3 =
     4
 Proof.   For convenience, we will denote the sum up to n by S(n).  We assume, then, that the formula
is true for n = k; that is, that

k²(k + 1)²
S(k)  =        (1)
      4

        We must now show that the formula is also true for n = k + 1; that

(k + 1)²(k + 2)²

S(k + 1)  =        (2)
          4

        To do that, add the next cube to S(k), line (1):

S(k + 1)  = S(k) + (k + 1)3

k²(k + 1)²
 =   + (k + 1)3
      4

k²(k + 1)² + 4(k + 1)³

 =
                4

(k + 1)²[k² + 4(k + 1)]

 =
                4

-- on taking (k + 1)2 as a common factor,

(k + 1)²(k² + 4k + 4)

 =
                4

(k + 1)²(k + 2)²

 =
           4
This is line (2), which is what we wanted to show.
Finally, we must show that the formula is true for n = 1.

1²· 2²
13   =
   4

1· 4
1  =
  4
-- which is true.  The formula therefore is true for every natural number.

LESSON

4 Figurate Numbers
FIGURATE NUMBERS
 are those numbers that can be represented in the form of arrangements like regular
geometrical figures by equally spaced elements. These elements could be points, triangles,
squares or any other 2D or 3D shapes and they represent units.

Triangular Numbers
is a number that can be represented by an arrangement like a triangle by equally spaced
elements.
n(n+1)
Formula: T n=
2

Square Numbers
is a number that can be represented by an arrangement like a square by equally spaced elements.
Formula: Sn=n2

Tetrahedral Numbers
is a number that can be represented by an arrangement like a tetrahedron by equally spaced 3D
elements.
n ( n+1 ) (n+2)
Formula: T n=
6

Octahedral Numbers
is a number that can be represented by an arrangement like a octahedron by equally spaced 3D
elements.
n(2 n¿¿ 2+1)
Formula: O n= ¿
3

Cubic Numbers
is a number that can be represented by an arrangement like a cube by equally spaced 3D
elements.
3
Formula: C n=( n)

LESSON

5 Binomial Coefficient
Definition of Binomial Coefficient
For nonnegative integers n and r with n ≥ r the expansion (read as “n above r” or “n choose
n!
r”) is called a binomial coefficient and is defined by nCr = = .
r ! ( n−r ) !
 Evaluating Binomial Coefficient
Example:
Find the Binomial Coefficient of the following
1. 2.
Solution:
6! 8!
1. = 2. =
2! ( 6−2 ) ! 0 ! ( 8−0 ) !
6! 8!
= =
2! ( 4 ) ! (8) !
6∗5∗4 !
= =1
2 !(4 )!
30
= or 15
2

Expanding Binomial
The theorem that specifies the expansion of any power (a+b) n of a binomial (a+b) as a certain
sum of products
We can easily see the pattern on the x’s and the a’s but what about the coefficient? Make a guess
and then as we go well see how you did.
(x + a)0 = 1
(x + a)1 = x + a
(x + a)2 = x2 + 2ax + a2
(x + a)3 = x3 + 3ax2 + 3a2x + a3
(x + a)4 = x4 + 4ax3 + 6a2x2 + 6a2x2 + a4
(x + a)5 = x5 + _ax4 + _a2x3 + _a3x2 + _a4x + a5

Pascal’s Triangle
 • Each row of the triangle begins with a 1 and ends with a 1
• Each number in the triangle that is not a 1 is the sum of the two numbers directly above it (one to
the right and one to the left)
• Numbering the rows of the triangle 0, 1, 2, . . . . starting at the top, the numbers in row n are the
coefficients of xn , xn-1y, xn-2y2 , xn-3y3 . . . yn in the expansion of (x+y)n.

Binomial Theorem
• The a’s start out to the nth power and decrease by 1 in power each term. The b’s start out to the 0
power and increase by 1 in power each term.
• The binomial coefficients are found by computing the combination symbol. Also, the sum of the
powers on a and b is n.
(a+b)n = nC0 anb0 + nC1 an-1b1 + nC2 an-2b2 + . . . . + nCn a0bn
Example:
1. Write the binomial expansion of (x+y)7
Solution: Use the binomial theorem
a=x; b = y; n=7
(x+y)7 = x7 + 7C1 x6y1 + 7C2 x5b2 + 7C3 x4y3 + 7C4 x3y4 + 7C5 x2y5 + 7C6 x1y6 + y7
Answer:
= x7 + 7x6y1 + 21x5b2 + 35x4y3 + 35x3y4 + 21x2y5 + 7x1y6 + y7

2. (2x – y)4
Solution: Use the binomial theorem
a = 2x; b = -y; n=4
(2x-y)4 = 4C0(2z)4(-y)0 + 4C1(2z)4-1(-y)1 + 4C2(2z)4-2(-y)2 + 4C3(2z)4-3(-y)3 + 4C4(2z)4-4(-y)4
= 1(64x4)(1) + 4(8z3)(-y) + 6(4z2)(y2) + 4(2z)(-y3) + 1(1)(y4)
= 64x4 - 32z3y + 24z2y2 - 8z-y3 + y4
3. (11)5 = (10 + 1)5
Solution: Use the binomial theorem
a = 10; b = 1; n=5
(10 + 1)5 = 5C0(10)5(1)0 + 5C1(10)5-1(1)1 + 5C2(10)5-2(1)2 + 5C3(10)5-3(1)3 + 5C4(10)5-4(1)4 + 5C5(10)5-5(1)5
= (10)5 + 5(10)4 + 10(10)3 + 10(10)2 + 5(10)1 + (1)5
= 100,000 + 5(10,000) + 10(1,000) + 10(100) + 5(10) + 1
= 161,051
General Term in a Binomial Expansion
• For n positive numbers we have
• (a+b)n = nC0 anb0 + nC1 an-1b1 + nC2 an-2b2 + . . . . + nCn a0bn
• According to this formula we have
The first term = T1 = nC0 anb0
The second term = T2 = nC1 an-1b1
The third term = T3 = nC2 an-2b2
So, any individual terms, let’s say the ith term in a binomial
• Expansion can be represented like this: Ti = nC(i-1) an-(i-1)b(i-1)
Example:
1. Find the 4th term in expansion of (2 + x)7
n = 7; a = 2; b = x; i=4
T4 = 7C(4-1) 27-(4-1)x(4-1)
T4 = 7C3 27-3x3
T4 = 35(24x3)
T4 = 35(16x3)
T4 = 560x3

2 8
2. Find the 5th term in expansion of (x2 + )
x
2
n = 8; a = x2; b= ; i=4
x
2 (5-1)
T5 = 8C(5-1) (x2)8-(5-1)
x
24
T5 = 8C4 (x2)8-4
x
16
T5 = 70x8
x4
16( 70 x 8 )
T5 =
x4
T5 = 1120x4
 Middle Term
• The number of terms in the expansion of (a+b)n depends on the index n is either even or odd.

• ( n+22 )
When n is even Ti = th term

When n is odd T = (
2 ) ( n+32 )
n+1
• i
th term
and th term

Example:
1 7
1. Find the middle term in the expression (x3 + )
x2

Ti = ( 7+12 ) term = 4 term

th th

1
n = 7; a = x3 ; b = ; i=4
x2
1 (4-1)
T4 = 7C(4-1) (x3)7-(4-1)
x2
1 3
T4 = 7C3 (x3)4( )
x2
12
x
T4 = 35 ( )
x6
T4 = 35 x6

Ti = ( 7+32 ) term = 5 term

th th

1
n = 7; a = x3 ; b = ; i=5
x2
1 (5-1)
T4 = 7C(5-1) (x3)7-(5-1)
x2
1 4
T4 = 7C4 (x3)3( )
x2
9
x
T4 = 35 ( 8 )
x
T4 = 35 x6
Find the 4th term in expansion of (2 + x)7
n = 7; a = 2; b = x; i=4
T4 = 7C(4-1) 27-(4-1)x(4-1)
 T4 = 7C3 27-3x3
T4 = 35(24x3)
T4 = 35(16x3)
T4 = 560x3

LESSON

6 Fibonacci Numbers
Fibonacci Numbers

In mathematics, the Fibonacci numbers, commonly denoted F n , form a sequence, the

Fibonacci sequence, in which each number is the sum of the two preceding ones. The sequence
commonly starts from 0 and 1, although some authors omit the initial terms and start the
sequence
from 1 and 1 or from 1 and 2.

The Fibonacci Sequence is defined by the recursive formula: F n= F n−1+ F n−2 Where F 1= F 2
=1

Example: F n= F n−1+ F n−2

F 7= F 7−1+ F 7−2
F 7= F 6+ F 5
F 7= 8+5
F 7= 13

N th Term of Fibonacci Sequence

n n
(1+√ 5) −(1−√ 5)
Formula: F n= n
2 √5

Example: If n=12
(1+√ 5)12−(1−√ 5)12
F 12= 12
2 √5
(1+2.2360679775)12−(1−2.2360679775)12
F 12=
4.096(2.2360679775)
12 12
F 12= (3.2360679775) −(−1.2360679775 )
9,158.93443584
1,318,899.2793814−12.720619582
F 12=
9,158.93443584
1,318,866.5587618
F 12=
9,158.93443584
 F 12= 144.000000 or 144

LESSON

7 The Division Algorithm

The Division Algorithm
Given any two integers a and b with a > 0, there exist unique integers q and r, such that b
= qa + r with 0 ≤ r < a.

Example:
Let b = 49, and a = 9

49 = 5(9) + 4
S = {b − 𝒒𝒂│𝒃 −𝒒𝒂 ≥𝟎, 𝒒 ∈ℤ}
S = {𝟒, 𝟏𝟑, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟑𝟏, 𝟒𝟎,, 𝟓𝟖 …}

Proof: (Existence)
S = { b -  qa|b−qa ≥ 0 , q ∈Z }

Well-Ordering Principle
Every non-empty set of positive integers contains a least element.
Case 1: b ≥ 0. Let x = 0  b ∈ S.
Case 2: b ¿ 0. Let x = b.
b – ba = b(1-a)  b – ba ∈ S

Let r be the least element in the set r = b – qa, and r ≥ 0.

Assume r ≥ a.
 b – qa ≥ a
 b – qa – a ≥ 0
 b – a(q + 1) ≥ 0
But b – a(q + 1) < b – aq = r.
r<a
Proof (Uniqueness)
Suppose b = qa + r and b = q’a + r’
0 ≤ r < a , 0 ≤ r’ < a
r = b – qa , r’ = b – q’a
 r – r’ = a (q – q’)
- a < -r ≤ 0, 0 ≤ r’ < a
 -a < r’- r < a
 |r ' −r|<a .
r’ – r = a(q – q’) and |r ' −r|<a
 |r ' −r|=|a| |q−q '|< a
 |r ' −r|=a|q−q '|<a
 |q−q '|<1
 0 ≤ |q−q '|<1
 |q−q '|=0  q = q’
 r = r’

DIVISION of ALGORITHM EXAMPLE

Problem 1 :
Divide 300 by 7, list out dividend, divisor, quotient, remainder and write division
algorithm.
Solution:
Let us divide 300 by 7 using long division as given below.
From the above long division, we have
Dividend = 300 Divisor = 7
Quotient = 42 Remainder = 6
Division algorithm for the above division:

Problem 2 :
Divide 258 by 9, list out dividend, divisor, quotient, remainder and write division
algorithm.
Solution:
As we have seen in problem 1, if we divide 258 by 9 using long division, we get:
Dividend = 258 Divisor = 9
Quotient = 28 Remainder = 6
Division algorithm for the above division is:
258 = 28(9) + 6

LESSON
Radix Representation as a
8
Number
Radix is a Latin word for “root”. Root can be considered a synonym for base, in the arithmetical
sense. In a positional numeral system, the radix or base is the number of unique digits, including the digit
zero, used to represent numbers. For example, for the decimal/denary system (the most common system
in use today) the radix (base number) is ten, because it uses the ten digits from o through 9. In any
standard positional numeral system, a number is conventionally written as (x) y with x as the string of
digits and y as its base, although for base ten the subscript is usually assumed.

Types of Number System in Terms of Radix

1. Decimal
 Having 10 distinct symbols: 0 to 9.
 In writing decimal number system when we reach 9, repeat 0-9 with 1 in front and so on.
For example; 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22
until we reach 99. Then repeat everything with a 1 in the next position:
100,101,102,103,104,105, ….

2. Binary
 Having only 2 distinct symbols: 0,1.
 In writing binary number system when we reach 1, repeat 0-1 with 1 in front and so on.
For example; 0, 1, 10, 11 then repeat everything with a 1 in the next position 100, 101,
110, 1000, …
3. Octal
 Having 8 distinct symbols: 0 to 8
 In writing octal number system when we reach 8, we repeat 0-8 with 1 in front and so on.
For example: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 until we reach 77. Then
repeat everything with a 1 in the next position: 100,101,102, …
4. Hexadecimal
 Having 16 distinct symbols: 0-9, A-F.
 In writing hexadecimal number system when we reach 9, continue until F and repeat with
1 in front. For example: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
16, 17, 18, 19, 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E, 1F, 20, 21 until we reach FF. Then repeat everything
with a 1 in the next position: 100, 101, 102, 103, …, 109, 10A, …, 10F, …

Number System Conversions

 Decimal to Any Other Number System - a successive division to respective base of number system
and then copy the remainder from bottom to top.

Example: Convert 2810 to any other number system.

 Decimal to Binary

2810 = 111002 2 28

2 14 - 0

2 7- 0

2 3- 1

1- 1
  Decimal to Octal
2810 = 348 8 28

3- 4
 Decimal to Hexadecimal
2810 = 1C16 16 28

1- 12

 Any Other Number System to Decimal: NR = (D1 x R0) + (D2 x R2) + … + (Dn x Rn)
 Hexadecimal to decimal
 Formula: N16 = (D1 x 160) + (D2 x 162) + … +(Dn x 16n)
Example: Convert 1D16 to decimal

1D16 = 2810 1D16 = (13 x 160) + (1 x 161)

= 13 + 16
= 2910

 Octal to decimal
 Formula: N8 = (D1 x 80) + (D2 x 82) + … + (Dn x 8n)
Example: Convert 348to decimal

348 = 2810 348 = (4 x 80) + (3 x 81)

= 4 + 24
= 2810

 Binary to decimal
 Formula: N2 = (D1 x 20) + (D2 x 22) + … +(Dn x 2n)
Example: Convert 111002 to decimal
111002 = 2810 111008 = (0 x 20) + (0 x 21)+ (1 x 22) + (1 x 23)22 + (1 x 24)
= 0 + 0 + 4 + 8 + 16
111008 = 2810

 Octal to binary and vice versa: 3 bits, (4,2,1)

 Octal to binary
Example: Convert 168 to binary

168 = 111010 1 6

4 2 1 4 2 1

0 0 1 1 1 0
  Binary to Octal
Example: Convert 1110112 to octal
1 1 1 0 1 1
1110112 = 738
4 2 1 4 2 1

7 3

 Hexadecimal to binary and vice versa: 4 bits, (8,4,2,1)

 Hexadecimal to binary
Example: Convert 2F16 to binary
2 F=15
2F16 = 1011118
8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1

 Binary to hexadecimal
Example: Convert 1110112 to octal

101101112 = B716
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

11 7

 Octal to hexadecimal and vice versa: Convert first the number system into binary.
 Octal to hexadecimal
Example: Convert 218 to hexadecimal
2 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
218 = 1116
4 2 1 4 2 1 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

 Hexadecimal to octal
Example: Convert 3F16 to octal

3F16 = 778 3 F=15

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

4 2 1 4 2 1

7 7
 EXERCISES
Activity no. 1 (Axioms of Arithmetic)
Name: Course: Score:______________
Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer. (2pts each)

1. What is the Addition Closure Axiom?

a. If A & B are real numbers, then A+B=B+A
b. If A & B are real numbers, then A+B is a unique real number.
c. There is a unique real number, symbolized “0”, such that for any other real number, “A”.
d. For every real number “A” there is a unique real number, symbolized “-A” such that A+(-A)=0 &
(-A)+A=0

2. Which axiom is this an example of? 4(6+2) = 4 • 6 + 4 • 2

a. Commutative Law
b. Associative Laws
c. Closure Laws
d. Distributive Law

3. Which axiom is this equation an example of? 8+6 = 4 • 6 + 8

a. Addition Commutative Axiom
b. Addition Closure Axiom
c. Addition Commutative Associative Axiom
d. Addition Axiom of Zero
4. 4(6 • 2) = (4 • 6)2, is an example of which axiom?
a. Closure Axiom of Multiplication
b. Commutative Axiom of Multiplication
c. Associative Axiom of Multiplication
d. Axiom of Multiplicative Inverses
5. What is the Addition Axiom of Additive Inverses?
a. If A & B are real numbers, then A+B=B+A
b. If A & B are real numbers, then A+B is a unique real number.
c. There is a unique real number, symbolized “0”, such that for any other real number, “A”.
d. For every real number “A” there is a unique real number, symbolized “-A” such that A+(-A)=0
& (-A)+A=0

Activity no. 2 (Proving by Contradiction)

Name: Course: Score:______________

Direction: Answer the following questions.
1. What is the method of proving where we assume that what we want to prove is not true, and then
show that the consequences of this are not possible?
2. What are the different steps in proving by contradiction?
3. What is the contrapositive of the statement “The sum of a rational number and irrational number
is irrational”?
4. Prove by contradiction: For all integers n, if n3 +5 is odd then n is even.
5. Prove by contradiction: √ 2+ √ 6< √ 15.
6.

Activity no. 3 (Mathematical Induction)

Name: Course: Score:______________

Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer. (2pts each)

1. Let S(n) = 2n – 1. Evaluate: a) S(k) b) S(k+1)

a. a) S(k) = 2k-1
b) S(k+1) = 2n+1
b. a) S(k) = 2k+1
b) S(k+1) = 2k+1
c. a) S(k) = 2k-1
b) S(k+1) = 2k+1
 2. 1+3+5+7+… +(2n-1) = n2 On the basis assumption, [The statement is true for n=k:
1+3+5+7+… +(2k-1) = k 2 ] What must we show?
a. The statement is true for n=k+1: 1+3+5+7+… +(2k-1) (2k+1) = (k +1 ¿ ¿2
b. The statement is true for n=k 1+3+5+7+… +(2k-1) = k 2
c. The statement is true for n=1: 2x1 – 1= 12
.
3. The second part (If the statement is true for n=k, then it will be true for its sucessor, k+1)
contains the induction hypothesis. What is it?
a. If the statement is true for n=k, then it will be true for its successor, k+1.
b. The statement is true for n=k.
c. The statement is true for n=k+1.

II. By the Principle of mathematical induction, prove the following:

n(n+1)
4. 1+2+3+…+n = n ∈N
2
5. 23 +4 3+63 +…+(2n ¿ ¿3 = 2n2 ( n+1)2

Activity no. 4 (Figurative Numbers)

Name: Course: Score:______________

Direction: Identify the following numbers sequence as either TRIANGULAR, SQUARE,
TETRAHEDRAL, OCTAHEDRAL or CUBIC Numbers.

1. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49

2. 1, 4, 10, 20, 35, 56
3. 1, 8, 27, 64, 125
4. 1, 6, 19, 44
5. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21

Activity no. 5 (Binomial Coefficient)

Name: Course: Score:______________

Direction: Answer the following.
 A. Find the binomial coefficient of the following.
1. ( ) 2. ( )) 3. ( ))

B. Write the binomial expansion of the expression

4. (x2 + 5)8

C. Find the 5th term of the expression

5. (2x + 5y2)10

Activity no. 6 (Fibonacci Numbers)

Name: Course: Score:______________

Direction: Given the recursive formula for the Fibonacci Sequence F n= F n−1+ F n−2, find the following :

a. F 3 b. F 4 c. F 5 d. F 6 e. F 7

Activity no. 7 (The Division Algorithm)

Name: Course: Score:______________
Direction: Solve the following Problem:
Problem 1:
Divide 400 by 8, list out dividend, divisor, quotient, remainder and write division algorithm.

Problem 2:
Divide 1675 by 13, list out dividend, divisor, quotient, remainder and write division algorithm.

Problem 3:
What is dividend, when divisor is 17, the quotient is 9 and the remainder is 5?

Problem 4:
When the integer n is divided by 8, the remainder is 3. What is the remainder if 6n is divided by
8?

Problem 5:
 On dividing 12401 by a certain number, we get 76 as quotient and 13 as remainder. What
is the divisor?

Activity no. 8 (Radix Representation as a Number)

Name: Course: Score:______________
Direction: Answer the following. (2pts each)

A. Convert 478 into the following.

1. Decimal
2. Binary
3. Hexadecimal

B. Convert the following into hexadecimal.

1. 328

C. Convert the following into octal number system.

1. F316
 References
1 Axioms of Arithmetic
Arithmetic - Axioms Of The Operations Of Arithmetic - Multiplication, Real, Addition, and
Property - JRank Articles

axioms of arithmetic - YouTube

2 Proof by Contradiction
Proof by Contradiction (Definition, Examples, & Video) // Tutors.com

3 Mathematical Induction
Mathematical induction - Topics in precalculus (themathpage.com)

Mathematical Induction (mathsisfun.com)

Mathematical Induction Practice Problems - YouTube

4 Figurate Numbers
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FigurateNumber.html

http://mathforum.org/workshops/usi/pascal/images/triang.dots.gif

Patterns, Functions and Algebra: Figurate Numbers - YouTube

Figurate Numbers | Triangular Numbers | Square Numbers | Cubic Numbers | MATHCULUS | By

Zahid Abbas - YouTube

figurate numbers - YouTube

5 Binomial Coefficient
Binomial Coefficient -- from Wolfram MathWorld

Binomial Theorem Expansion, Pascal's Triangle, Finding Terms & Coefficients, Combinations,
Algebra 2 - YouTube

6 Fibonacci Numbers
Fibonacci Sequence - YouTube

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD - YouTube

What is the Fibonacci Sequence & the Golden Ratio? Simple Explanation and Examples in Everyday
Life - YouTube

7 Division Algorithm
Number Theory: The Division Algorithm - YouTube

Division Algorithm (uncg.edu)

The Division Algorithm (mathsmutt.co.uk)

8 Radix Representation of a number

https://en.m.wikipedia.org>wiki

Introduction to Number System & base or radix – Youtube

Decimal to any Number System Conversion – Youtube

Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion - Youtube

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION SLIDES
1 Axioms of Arithmetic
2 Proof by Contradiction
3 Mathematical Induction
4) Figurate Numbers

4 Figurate Numbers
5 Binomial Coefficient
6 Fibonacci Numbers
7 Division Algorithm
8 Radix Representation of a number