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Fundamentals of Ground
Improvement Engineering
Fundamentals of Ground
Improvement Engineering

Jeffrey Evans
Daniel Ruffing
David Elton
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Names: Evans, Jeffrey C., author. | Elton, David J., author. | Ruffing,
Daniel, author.
Title: Fundamentals of ground improvement engineering / Jeffrey Evans,
David Elton, Daniel Ruffing.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2021. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021002848 (print) | LCCN 2021002849 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367419608 (hbk) | ISBN 9780415695152 (pbk) | ISBN 9780367816995
(ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Soil stabilization.
Classification: LCC TA749 .E94 2021 (print) | LCC TA749 (ebook) | DDC
624.1/51363--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021002848
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ISBN: 978-0-415-69515-2 (pbk)
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Contents

Preface and Acknowledgments: Fundamentals of Ground

Improvement Engineering xv

1 Introduction to ground improvement engineering 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Improvements in soil behavior  2
1.2.1 Shear strength  3
1.2.2 Compressibility 3
1.2.3 Hydraulic conductivity  4
1.2.4 Liquefaction potential  5
1.2.5 Shrink/swell behavior  6
1.2.6 Variability 6
1.3 Overview of ground improvement techniques  8
1.3.1 Compaction: shallow methods  8
1.3.2 Compaction: deep methods  8
1.3.3 Soil mixing and injection methods  11
1.3.4 Stabilization and solidification  12
1.3.5 Grouting 13
1.3.6 Dewatering 14
1.3.7 Consolidation 15
1.3.8 Mechanically stabilized earth  15
1.3.9 In situ barriers  17
1.3.10 Future developments in ground improvement  18
1.4 Importance of construction  19
1.5 Problems 19
References 20

2 Geotechnical fundamentals 21
2.1 Definitions 21
2.1.1 Water content  22
2.1.2 Density, unit weight, density of solids, and specific gravity  23
2.2 Water flow in soil  24
2.2.1 Darcy’s law and one-dimensional flow  25
2.2.2 Flownets and two-dimensional flow  25

v
vi Contents

2.2.3 Quantity of water flowing through soil  26

2.2.4 Porewater pressure with water flowing through soil  27
2.2.5 Uplift pressures  29
2.2.6 Seepage force  29
2.2.7 Capillary rise of groundwater  30
2.3 Effective stress  31
2.3.1 Effective stress equation  31
2.3.2 Importance of effective stress  31
2.4 Shear strength  32
2.4.1 The concept of soil strength  33
2.4.2 Laboratory evaluation of shear strength  33
2.4.2.1 Direct shear testing  33
2.4.2.2 Triaxial testing  36
2.4.3 Shear strength summary  39
2.5 Lateral earth pressures  40
2.5.1 Active earth pressure  41
2.5.2 Passive earth pressure  43
2.5.3 At-rest (K0) earth pressure  44
2.5.4 Amount of movement to develop active,
passive, and at-rest earth pressures  44
2.6 Field investigations  46
2.6.1 Drilling methods  46
2.6.2 Sampling methods  47
2.6.3 In situ test methods  49
2.6.3.1 SPT 49
2.6.3.2 CPT 51
2.7 Problems 52
References 56

3 Fundamentals of geosynthetics in ground improvement 59

3.1 Introduction   59
3.1.1 Geotextiles 59
3.1.2 Geogrids 61
3.1.3 Geocells 62
3.1.4 Geofibers   63
3.1.5 Historical notes   63
3.2 Properties of geosynthetics  64
3.2.1 Tensile strengths  64
3.2.2 Permittivity (used in drainage)  64
3.2.3 Transmissivity (used in drainage)  65
3.2.4 Pore size determination (used in filtration)  66
3.2.5 Interface friction (used in mechanically stabilized
earth and steepened slope design)   67
3.2.6 Survivability and durability   67
3.3 Geotextile filter design  69
3.3.1 Introduction 69
 Contents vii

3.3.2 Design procedure  70

3.4 Summary 77
3.5 Problems 77
References 82

4 Compaction 85
4.1 Introduction 85
4.2 Theoretical underpinnings of compaction  85
4.3 Property improvements resulting from compaction  90
4.3.1 Strength 90
4.3.2 Compressibility 90
4.3.3 Hydraulic conductivity (permeability)  90
4.3.4 Optimizing compacted soil properties  91
4.4 Shallow compaction  91
4.4.1 Field compaction equipment  91
4.4.2 Construction aspects of shallow compaction  94
4.5 Rapid impact compaction  96
4.5.1 Introduction 96
4.5.2 Applications 97
4.5.3 Construction vibrations  97
4.6 Deep dynamic compaction   98
4.6.1 Introduction 98
4.6.2 Design considerations for dynamic compaction  98
4.6.3 Verification of compaction effectiveness  100
4.6.4 Applications of deep dynamic compaction  102
4.6.5 Construction vibrations  103
4.7 Deep vibratory methods   103
4.7.1 Introduction to deep vibratory methods  103
4.7.2 Vibrocompaction 104
4.7.3 Vibroreplacement 108
4.8 Aggregate piers  112
4.9 Problems 113
References 115

5 Consolidation 119
5.1 Introduction 119
5.2 Consolidation fundamentals  120
5.3 Stress distribution  122
5.4 Design approach  122
5.4.1 Time rate of consolidation  124
5.4.2 Preloading 127
5.5 Speeding consolidation with vertical drains  129
5.5.1 Introduction 129
5.5.2 Consolidation with vertical drains  129
5.6 Additional vertical drain considerations  133
viii Contents

5.6.1 Vertical drain types  133

5.6.2 Effect of PVD installation patterns  135
5.6.3 Effect of soil disturbance (smear)  136
5.7 Vacuum consolidation  136
5.8 Combined vacuum consolidation and preloading with vertical drains  138
5.9 Nature’s consolidation preloading  138
5.10 Summary 143
5.11 Problems 143
References 145

6 Soil mixing 149

6.1 Introduction 149
6.2 History of soil mixing  150
6.3 Definitions, types, and classifications  151
6.3.1 Depth of soil mixing  152
6.3.2 Methods of mixing reagents  153
6.3.3 Equipment used for soil mixing  154
6.3.4 Treatment patterns  162
6.4 Applications 163
6.4.1 Shear walls  164
6.4.2 Aerial bearing capacity improvement  165
6.4.3 Hydraulic cutoff walls  165
6.4.4 Excavation support walls  166
6.4.5 Environmental soil mixing  168
6.4.6 Geoenvironmental soil mixing  169
6.5 Design considerations  170
6.5.1 Determine project needs  170
6.5.2 Select target design parameters  171
6.5.2.1 Strength 172
6.5.2.2 Hydraulic conductivity  175
6.5.2.3 Leachability 176
6.5.3 Reagent addition rates  176
6.5.4 Reagent (binder) types and selection  179
6.5.5 Develop and evaluate construction objectives  181
6.5.6 Construction 182
6.5.7 Sampling 185
6.5.8 In situ testing  187
6.6 Problems 187
References 189

7 Grouting 193
7.1 Introduction 193
7.2 History of grouting  196
7.2.1 History of suspension grouting  197
7.2.2 History of solution grouting  198
 Contents ix

7.3 Grouting types and classifications  199

7.3.1 Suspension grouts  199
7.3.2 Common grout mixtures for suspension grouting  199
7.3.3 Neat cement grout  199
7.3.4 Balanced stable grout  200
7.3.5 Microfine or ultrafine cement grouting  201
7.4 Solution grouts  201
7.4.1 Types of solution grouts  201
7.5 Permeation (penetration) grouting  202
7.6 Fracture grouting  203
7.7 Compensation grouting  203
7.8 Void grouting  203
7.9 Grout properties  204
7.9.1 Set (gel) time  204
7.9.2 Stability 204
7.9.3 Viscosity 204
7.9.4 Permanence 205
7.9.5 Toxicity 205
7.10 Applications 206
7.11 Design considerations  207
7.11.1 Understanding grout physics and preliminary planning  207
7.11.2 Geological conditions and site investigations  212
7.11.3 Interaction between grout and soil/rock  212
7.11.4 Grout mix design  213
7.12 Construction 213
7.12.1 Pre-grouting 213
7.12.2 Suspension and solution grouting  214
7.12.3 Drill rigs  215
7.12.4 Mixing (batch) plants  218
7.12.5 Pumping systems  218
7.12.6 Packers 219
7.13 Quality control  219
7.13.1 Flow measurements  219
7.13.2 Monitoring 221
7.13.3 Automated Monitoring Equipment  221
7.14 Void grouting, a special application  222
7.15 Problems 223
References 224

8 Slurry trench cutoff walls 227

8.1 Introduction and overview  227
8.1.1 Functions of slurry trench cutoff walls  228
8.1.2 History of slurry trench cutoff walls  228
8.1.3 Slurry trench cutoff walls as a ground improvement technique  229
8.2 SB slurry trench Cutoff Walls  229
x Contents

8.2.1 Excavation stability  231

8.2.2 Slurry property measurement  236
8.2.3 SB backfill design  238
8.2.4 Excavation techniques  243
8.3 CB slurry trench cutoff walls  244
8.3.1 CB mixtures and properties  245
8.3.2 Role of the bentonite in CB mixtures  247
8.3.3 Volume change behavior  249
8.4 Structural slurry walls (diaphragm walls)  250
8.5 Problems 253
References 254

9 Ground improvement using geosynthetics 257

9.1 Introduction   257
9.2 Geosynthetic ground improvement  257
9.2.1 Introduction   257
9.2.2 Geosynthetic types used in ground improvement   258
9.2.3 Geosynthetic applications in ground improvement   258
9.3 Properties of geosynthetics  263
9.3.1 Introduction 263
9.3.2 Tensile strength  263
9.3.3 Interface friction   264
9.3.4 Durability   265
9.3.5 Geotextile survivability  266
9.4 Road base stabilization (Corps of Engineers methods)  266
9.4.1 Introduction   266
9.4.2 Unpaved road improvement using geosynthetics  268
9.4.3 Paved road improvement using geosynthetics  275
9.4.4 Geofibers in roads  280
9.5 Embankments over soft ground  282
9.5.1 Introduction   282
9.5.2 Conventional construction of embankments  282
9.5.3 Geosynthetic usage in embankment construction  282
9.5.4 Design procedure  283
9.5.4.1 Slope stability  283
9.5.4.2 Sliding of soil on top of geosynthetic  284
9.5.4.3 Geosynthetic rupture due to sliding  284
9.5.4.4 Pullout of the geosynthetic  285
9.5.4.5 Bearing capacity  286
9.5.4.6 Settlement 286
9.5.4.7 Additional checks  287
9.5.5 Instrumentation 287
9.5.6 Construction guidance  289
9.5.7 Alternative procedures   289
9.6 Underfooting reinforcement with rolled geosynthetics  289
 Contents xi

9.6.1 Introduction 289
9.6.2 Design procedure  290
9.6.3 Construction 293
9.7 Underfooting reinforcement with geocells   293
9.7.1 Introduction 293
9.7.2 Ultimate load calculation  294
9.7.3 State of practice  295
9.7.4 Construction advice   295
9.8 Underfooting reinforcement with geofibers  296
9.8.1 Introduction 296
9.8.2 Design procedure for strength increase  297
9.8.3 Construction advice   297
9.9 Soil separation   298
9.9.1 Introduction   298
9.9.2 Design procedures  298
9.9.3 Construction advice  299
9.10 Problems 300
References 302

10 Reinforcement in walls, embankments on stiff ground, and soil nailing 307

10.1 Introduction 307
10.2 Mechanically stabilized earth walls  307
10.2.1 Introduction 307
10.2.2 Design philosophy  309
10.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of MSE walls  309
10.2.4 Design using geosynthetics  309
10.2.4.1 Sliding of the reinforced mass  311
10.2.4.2 Reinforcement breakage  312
10.2.4.3 Reinforcement pullout  313
10.2.4.4 Other failure modes  313
10.2.5 Design of internal components  314
10.2.6 External stability  317
10.2.7 Typical factors of safety  318
10.2.8 Inclusions in the backfill  318
10.2.9 Drainage 318
10.2.10 Other considerations  319
10.2.11 Construction guidelines  319
10.3 Mechanically stabilized earth walls using metal reinforcement  320
10.3.1 Introduction 320
10.3.2 Differences between metal and geosynthetic reinforcement  321
10.3.3 Failure modes and typical factors of safety  321
10.3.4 Inclusions in the backfill  322
10.3.5 Construction guidelines  322
10.4 Reinforced soil embankments on firm foundations
using geosynthetic and metal reinforcement  323
xii Contents

10.4.1 Introduction 323
10.4.2 Philosophy of how reinforcement for steepened slopes works  324
10.4.3 Engineering properties needed  324
10.4.4 Design notes  325
10.4.5 Construction procedure  326
10.4.6 Inclusions in the backfill 326
10.4.7 Internal stability: pullout and breakage, internal slope stability  327
10.4.8 External stability: bearing capacity, sliding, and settlement  327
10.4.9 Slope face stability: veneer instability,
erosion control, and wrapped faces  328
10.4.10 Drainage  328
10.5 Soil nailing  328
10.5.1 Introduction 328
10.5.2 Applications 330
10.5.3 Applicable sites  331
10.5.4 Components of a soil nail system  332
10.5.5 Methods of installing soil nails  333
10.5.6 Design of soil nailed walls  333
10.5.6.1 Failure modes  333
10.5.6.2 Design calculations  334
10.5.7 Construction of soil nailed walls  347
10.5.8 Nail testing  349
10.5.9 Corrosion protection  349
10.5.10 Instrumentation  349
10.5.11 Launched soil nails  351
10.6 Problems 351
References 354

11 Additional techniques in ground improvement 357

11.1 Jet grouting  358
11.1.1 Introduction to jet grouting 358
11.1.2 Environmental considerations  360
11.1.3 Design considerations in jet grouting  362
11.2 Ground freezing  365
11.2.1 Introduction to ground freezing  365
11.2.2 Fundamentals of ground freezing  367
11.2.3 Properties of frozen ground  370
11.2.4 Containment of contaminated soils  373
11.2.5 Limitations of ground freezing  374
11.2.6 Conclusions regarding ground freezing  374
11.3 Secant pile walls  375
11.4 Compaction grouting  376
11.4.1 Introduction and history  376
11.4.2 Uses 377
11.4.3 Design 379
11.4.4 Construction 380
 Contents xiii

11.5 Explosives in ground improvement  381

11.5.1 Introduction 381
11.5.2 Applications of explosives  381
11.5.3 Ground conditions favorable to explosives for compaction  382
11.5.4 Construction practice for compaction by explosives  382
11.5.5 Post explosion evaluations  383
11.5.6 Collateral concerns with the use of explosives  383
11.5.7 Case studies  384
11.6 Problems 384
References 385

12 The future of ground improvement engineering 389

12.1 Introduction 389
12.2 Biogeotechnical methods for Ground improvement  390
12.2.1 Biocementation 391
12.2.2 Bioclogging to reduce hydraulic conductivity  393
12.2.3 Bio-methods for liquefaction mitigation  394
12.3 New materials for ground improvement  394
12.3.1 MgO cement  395
12.3.2 Polymers 395
12.3.3 Smart and self-healing materials  395
12.4 Technology developments in ground improvement:
drones, sensors, and artificial intelligence  396
12.5 Equipment developments  397
12.6 Sustainability in ground improvement  398
12.6.1 Introduction to sustainable ground improvement  398
12.6.2 Sustainable materials  399
12.7 Crossover information in ground improvement  400
12.8 Summary of future developments in ground improvement  401
12.9 Problems 401
References 401

Index 405
Preface and Acknowledgments: Fundamentals
of Ground Improvement Engineering

OVERVIEW

Engineers have long known that the properties of soil and rock can be improved. The mod-
ern field of ground improvement began to coalesce in the 1960s and has since grown enor-
mously. This textbook synthesizes ground improvement literature and practice in a way
that allows students to begin their studies of ground improvement engineering and helps
professionals dig deeper into specific topics of relevance to their work.
Fundamentals of Ground Improvement Engineering is intended to explain key topics
and fundamentals of ground improvement engineering and construction for students and
professionals. This book is structured to broadly introduce each topic and then delve into
the details. The authors approach the topic from the balanced viewpoints of both academics
and professional practice.
Overall, this book provides a comprehensive introduction to the field of ground improve-
ment to provide readers with sufficient background to understand and apply the techniques
presented. It is the intention of the authors to provide the users of this book with both the
current practices in ground improvement as well as the fundamental understanding of the
principles to allow users to adapt to inevitable new developments in the field.
Readers are expected to already have an understanding of basic geology, the fundamen-
tals of soil mechanics, and the mathematical and natural science training that accompanies
the first few years of undergraduate education in civil engineering. In order to accomplish
the objectives, this book contains the following elements:

• Balanced presentation of academic and practical aspects of ground improvement

engineering.
• Example problems with solutions and practice problems so readers can see the applica-
tion of theory.
• Information to meet needs in both university and professional markets.

From the perspective of the student, the book provides:

• A new, up-to-date, comprehensive text which blends the study of current ground
improvement technologies with theoretical principles and applicable design and con-
struction information.
• Example problems with solutions, and practice problems for additional learning
opportunities.
• Improved ground improvement courses and offerings as faculty adopt a well-prepared
textbook with instructor resources.

xv
xvi Preface and Acknowledgments: Fundamentals of Ground Improvement Engineering

From the perspective of practicing professionals, the book provides:

• A resource allowing practicing professionals to understand and select ground improve-

ment techniques with confidence.
• Up-to-date and thorough reference lists, enabling practicing engineers to access origi-
nal materials used to evaluate alternatives and prepare designs.
• Photos to enable practitioners to use this material in presentations to clients allowing
improved communications about ground improvement in the engineering and indus-
trial/commercial environments.

PEDAGOGY

This new book, Fundamentals of Ground Improvement Engineering, has been written for
advanced undergraduate and graduate students and practicing professionals. Most topics
are organized on the basis of construction methods rather than a theoretical or analytical
organization. In this manner, the goals and means of construction are first presented fol-
lowed by the underlying geotechnical engineering principles and design considerations. This
method of presentation is adopted under the ideology that most people learn best when the
material is presented from the general progressing to the specific. This book also includes
thorough and up-to-date literature citations as well as an abundance of graphics including
photographs, schematics, charts, and graphs.

LIMITATIONS

Each and every topic in this text is the subject of hundreds of technical papers published in
journals, conferences, or even other textbooks. As a result, each topic could easily be the
subject of a complete text. The authors encourage readers interested in a given topic to delve
more deeply into the literature and citations provided in this text.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank their supportive wives and families. Without encouragement and support
on the home front, an undertaking such as this simply could not have happened. Thank you,
Laurel Evans, Megan Ruffing, and Linda Elton.
Bucknell University, Geo-Solutions, Inc. and retirement from full-time teaching all pro-
vide an atmosphere where the scholar can flourish. For this, the authors are grateful.
The authors have enjoyed working with, and appreciate the assistance of, numerous
Bucknell University students that have contributed to this work. Students who reviewed
and edited various chapters include Jeff Ayers, E. J. Barben, Landon Barlow, Tim Becker,
Mark Beltamello, Bradley Bentzen, Dan Bernard, Paul Bortner, Conner Briggs, Jeremy
Byler, Minwoo Cho, John Conte, Michael Cortina, Kate Courtein, Loujin Daher, Akmal
Daniyarov, Louis DeLuca, Ben Downing, Jonathan Eberle, Sarah Ebright, Johnna Emanuel,
Jack Foley, Jake Hodges, Orman Kimbrough IV, Roger Knittle, Chris Kulish, Rich LaFredo,
Muyambi Muyambi, Rachel Schaffer, Chandra Singoyi, Matthew Geiger, Jason McClain,
Matthew McKeehan, Kelsey Meybin, Ryan Orbison, Brendan O’Neal, Nolan O’Shea,
Michael Pontisakos, Max Pucciarello, Melissa Replogle, Kyle Rindone, Shelby Roberts, Joe
Sangimino, Joseph Scalia, Brian Schultz, John Skovira, Ben Stodart, Michael Stromberg,
 P reface and Acknowledgments: Fundamentals of Ground Improvement Engineering  xvii

Benjamin Summers, Brendan Swift, Dan Tischinel, Curtis Thormann, Kirsten Vaughan,
Brian Ward, Nathaniel Witter, Nikki Woodward, Seungcheol Yeom, Gregory Zarski, and
Tyler Zbytek. Special thanks go to Zach Schaeffer and Jeremy Derricks for their contribu-
tions. We offer apologies for students overlooked in this listing.
The authors also appreciate the review and assistance of Geo-Solutions employees Ken
Andromalos, Nathan Coughenour, Wendy Critchfield, and Mark Kitko for their contribu-
tions to this effort.
The authors also appreciate the assistance of James Pease of McCrossin Engineering, Inc.,
Paul Marsden and Richard Holmes of Keller UK, Greg Stokkermans of GFL Environmental
Inc., and Paul Schmall of Keller NA. Special thanks go to Jennifer A. E. Shields of Cal Poly
San Luis Obispo for her work on the cover collage.
Many of the figures in this text are original art created by the authors. Some were prepared
with the assistance of those contributors listed above. Some photographs were provided by
industry professionals as credited in the text. The authors appreciate their willingness to
contribute to our efforts. Photographs and artwork not attributed to others are products of
the authors and their student assistants.
Lastly, the authors are appreciative of the undying patience and guidance of the pub-
lishers/editors: Tony Moore, Siobhan Poole, Scott Oakley, Gabriella Williams, and Frazer
Merritt of Taylor and Francis.

Jeffrey C. Evans, P. E., Professor Emeritus,

Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, USA

Daniel G. Ruffing, P. E., Vice-President,

Geo-Solutions, New Kensington, Pennsylvania, USA

David J. Elton, P. E. Professor Emeritus,

Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information,

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Chapter 1

Introduction to ground
improvement engineering

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Ground modification in the constructed environment is not a new idea. For instance, the
method of wattle and daub has been used for thousands of years to provide tensile reinforce-
ment to clayey materials in buildings. The process of adding straw to clay and baking it in
the sun improved the strength properties of the clay creating a building material that has
been used for thousands of years. In another ancient application, the Romans used timber
as a base layer for roads. In modern times, inclusions (such as geogrids and geotextiles)
are commonly employed for ground improvement. Similarly, the addition of lime to clay
(a chemical admixture in modern terminology) has long been used to create a weak binder
in stone foundations. The Roman road, Via Appia, now in modern-day Italy, is the earliest
known example of the use of lime in ground improvement engineering (Berechman 2003).
The terms ground improvement, ground modification, and similar terms are lexicon of
the late 20th century. The first conference on the subject was “Placement and Improvement
of Soil to Support Structures” and was held in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1968, spon-
sored by the Division of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering of the American Society
of Civil Engineers (ASCE 1968). The first comprehensive textbook on the subject was by
Hausmann (1990). University courses on the subject began at about the same time. In many
ways, ground improvement engineering is a relatively new field within geotechnical engi-
neering. New developments are occurring at a rapid pace and no doubt will have occurred
throughout the life of this book. Thus, this book focuses on fundamentals, enabling the user
to understand and adapt to the latest ground improvement developments.
How might ground modification/improvement be defined? In the proceedings on the
Conference on Soil Improvement (ASCE 1978), the introduction succinctly states that one
of the alternatives available when poor soil conditions are encountered is to “treat the soil
to improve its properties.” Moseley and Kirsch (2004) in the second edition of their book,
Ground Improvement, note that

All ground improvement techniques see to improve those soil characteristics that match
the desired results of a project, such as an increase in density and shear strength to aid
problems of stability, the reduction of soil compressibility, influencing permeability to
reduce and control groundwater flow or to increase the rate of consolidation, or to
improve soil homogeneity.

Schaefer et al. (2017) define ground modification as “the alteration of site foundation condi-
tions or project earth structures to provide better performance under design and/or opera-
tional loading conditions.” For the purposes of this book, ground improvement is defined as
the application of construction means and methods to improve the properties of soil.

1
2  Fundamentals of ground improvement engineering

Note that some improvements are of the first order. For example, compaction will increase
the density of soil. However, density increases can lead to second order effects such as
increased strength and reduced compressibility. Finally, these second order improvements
can result in third order effects such as increased bearing capacity and reduced settlement
and/or improved liquefaction resistance. By beginning with the fundamentals of ground
improvement engineering, the text is designed to provide an understanding of both the fun-
damental first-order effects as well as those second- and third-order effects that are often
the actual desired outcome of the application of ground improvement. As there are many
definitions of ground improvement and further much gray area within each definition, the
authors used this definition as a guide to define the scope of this book.
Finally, for the purposes of the selection of the content in this book, the authors use
the term ground improvement rather than ground modification. Ground modification is a
neutral term meaning the modification could either improve or worsen the ground whereas
ground improvement is unambiguous.
Prior to in-depth study of ground improvement, what are the alternatives to ground
improvement? Imagine a site where the subsurface conditions are not suitable for the antici-
pated project. While ground improvement is the option to be considered in detail in this
book, what are the alternatives? Some common alternatives to the application of ground
improvement include:

1. Avoid the site or area: There are many circumstances where the owner/developer has
options regarding the location of the proposed facility and finding an alternative site
or a different area of the same site is a viable option.
2. Remove and replace: If the unsuitable materials are limited in aerial and/or vertical
extent, the best (and most economical) option may be to simply excavate the unsuit-
able soils and replace them with more suitable materials having more predictable prop-
erties, such as crushed stone. This is a commonly chosen alternative when a localized
fill is encountered.
3. Transfer load to deeper strata: The use of deep foundations, such as piles or drilled
shafts, has long been the option of choice in locations where unsuitable bearing materi-
als are present near the ground surface. Deep foundations affect load transfer through
the use of stiff structural members placed between the structure and competent bear-
ing materials found at deeper depths. Although significantly more sophisticated today,
this technique has existed for centuries with ample evidence including ancient Roman
bridges supported on timber piles.
4. Design structure accordingly: Some sites and structures, in combination, may lend
themselves to structural redesign to accommodate the site conditions. For instance, it
may be possible to stiffen the structure to redistribute stresses within the structure and
minimize differential movement. In a specific application, sinkhole prone areas such
as solution-prone geologic settings, grade beams can be used to connect spread foot-
ings in order to redistribute loads in case of loss of support beneath any single footing.
Likewise, structures can incorporate construction joints, allowing some differential
settlement without causing distress.

1.2 IMPROVEMENTS IN SOIL BEHAVIOR

Ground improvement may be viewed from the perspective of system performance. For
example, it may be necessary to improve the ground to increase the allowable bearing value
of a footing supported on the soils beneath a structure. From the system perspective, ground
 Introduction  3

improvement alternatives would be evaluated for their ability to increase bearing capacity
and decrease settlement, i.e. increase the allowable bearing value. More precisely, the allow-
able bearing value can be increased by:

1. increasing the stiffness of the soil (decreases settlement),

2. increasing the shear strength of the soil (increases bearing capacity), and/or
3. decreasing soil property variability (decreases differential settlement).

Densifying granular materials or consolidating cohesive materials can increase soil strength
and stiffness.
Using these definitions, there are many ways ground improvement can be viewed. For
the purposes of understanding ground improvement, this text will focus on a fundamental
understanding of the interactions between ground improvement techniques and the result-
ing changes in soil and/or soil system behavior. This text also provides insight into the
means and methods used by contractors to implement ground improvement techniques with
most of the chapters and information segmented by construction techniques.
In this chapter, it is useful to articulate the improvements in soil behavior that may result
from the ground improvement methods employed. These fundamental soil behavior charac-
teristics include shear strength, compressibility, hydraulic conductivity, liquefaction poten-
tial, shrink and swell behavior, and reduction in variability in any of the aforementioned
behavioral characteristics. Details of soil behavior principles related to ground improvement
are provided in Chapter 2.

1.2.1 Shear strength
Shear strength is a fundamental engineering property of soils that can be increased through
the application of numerous ground improvement techniques. Shear strength is a measure
of the soil’s ability to resist failure under the application of a load that induces shear stresses
in the soil. Shear strength can be increased through ground improvement techniques that
decrease the void ratio (Chapters 4, 5, and 11), and/or adding a cohesive (cementing) com-
ponent (Chapter 6 and 7). There are many applications that benefit from improved shear
strength including increased bearing capacity, improved slope stability, and reduced lique-
faction potential.
The shear strength of soils is a sophisticated concept. There are entire texts devoted solely
to this topic. Unconfined compression tests (see Figure 1.1) are a common means to quanti-
tatively judge the benefit of ground improvement efforts. For some projects, more sophisti-
cated testing may be needed. Principles of shear strength, both drained and undrained, are
reviewed in Chapter 2.

1.2.2 Compressibility
Soil stiffness is a measure of the deformation of soils associated with the application of
a load. Compressibility is not a unique value, since it depends on the nature of the load
application and the initial stress state of the soil. The soil stiffness can be increased, i.e.
decreased compressibility, through ground improvement techniques that reduce void ratio
or add a cohesive or cementing component. Cohesive soil stiffness can be increased by
compaction (Chapter 4) and consolidation (Chapter 5). Granular soil stiffness is generally
increased by densification (Chapter 4). Cohesive and granular material compressibility can
also be reduced via increasing cohesiveness through soil mixing (Chapter 6) or grouting
(Chapter 7).
4  Fundamentals of ground improvement engineering

Figure 1.1 Unconfined compressive shear strength apparatus.

One of the most well-known cases of excessive deformation (aka settlement) is the cam-
panile (bell tower) in Pisa (see Figure 1.2), aka the “Leaning Tower of Pisa.” Differential
movement of the ground below the tower has been the subject of numerous studies and there
have been multiple attempts to stabilize the tower. The differential movement results from
non-uniform subsurface conditions and is exacerbated by the uneven load application once
tilting began. In Figure 1.2, notice the cables extending outward from the left side of the
tower. This photograph was taken in 1999 at which time a pulley and counterweight system
were in place coupled with lead weights placed directly on the foundation acting as a coun-
terweight employed as an emergency measure to stabilize the tower. Subsequently, ground
extraction beneath the high side of the tower proved successful in arresting the movements
(Burland et al. 2009). This famous landmark remains a reminder that controlling defor-
mation and preventing strength failures are two key performance criteria for geotechnical
engineering projects.

1.2.3 Hydraulic conductivity
In most cases, improved ground is ground that is modified to produce a zone of reduced
permeability in order to control the detrimental effects of groundwater. For example, flow
beneath a dam can lead to soil particle movement (piping) and/or instability. Construction
 Introduction  5

Figure 1.2 The Leaning Tower of Pisa.

projects also frequently require construction below grade and often below the water table.
In these cases, construction dewatering is needed. Ground improvement in such cases might
include dewatering, installation of a low permeability vertical barrier (Chapter 8), or reduc-
tion in permeability by grouting (Chapter 7). As is often the case in practice, hydraulic con-
ductivity and permeability are used interchangeably in this book.

1.2.4 Liquefaction potential
Loose granular materials below the groundwater level can be subject to liquefaction (see
Figure 1.3) upon the application of a dynamic load, such as during an earthquake. During
shaking, loose granular soil deposits generally decrease in volume (i.e. loose soils densify).
If these loose soils are located below the water table, drainage would be needed for the soils
to actually densify. This drainage requires sufficient time, which for granular materials, is
normally not a problem during static loading. However, during earthquake loading, there is
insufficient time for drainage which results in an increase in porewater pressure and a reduc-
tion in the effective shear strength of the granular soil. These principles of shear strength and
liquefaction potential are presented in more detail in Chapter 2. The most common mitiga-
tion of this risk is to densify the soils, which reduces their liquefaction potential. Common
tools for densifying granular materials are described in Chapter 4. Other ground improve-
ment techniques to reduce liquefaction potential include groundwater control (Chapters 7
and 8) and in situ mixing (Chapter 6).
6  Fundamentals of ground improvement engineering

Liquefaction of road foundation in New Zealand (photo courtesy National Environmental

Figure 1.3 
Satellite, Data, and Information Service).

1.2.5 Shrink/swell behavior
Soils containing smectitic clays are subject to substantial volume changes in response to
cycles of wetting and drying. The shrink/swell behavior of these expansive soils can have
detrimental effects and can progressively damage a building or cause a retaining wall to fail.
Figure 1.4 illustrates road damage due to expansive soils. Understanding clay mineralogy
and the resulting expansive behavior (Chapter 2) prior to selecting and designing ground
improvement methodologies is important. Ground improvement, through the use of admix-
tures and in situ mixing (Chapter 6), can minimize the propensity for these materials to
change volume with wetting and drying.

1.2.6 Variability
Physical and engineering properties of soils are naturally variable. At times, this variability
can affect the performance of a planned structure. For example, if the compressibility var-
ies enough from location to location, an excessive differential settlement could be expected.
Ground improvement can modify the properties of subsurface materials to provide a more
uniform performance. For example, consider the settlement sensitive structure shown in
Figure 1.5. Here, the depth to bedrock increased in the downslope direction along the axis
of the building. Overlying the bedrock were unconsolidated materials of increasing thickness
 Introduction  7

Figure 1.4 Structural damage due to expansive soils (photo courtesy of Anand Pupala).

Figure 1.5 Settlement sensitive brick structure with variable subsurface conditions.

from one end of the building to the other. Unsurprisingly, concerns with differential settle-
ment arose and a deep foundation system was chosen for the structure (drilled shafts into
pinnacled limestone). However, the chosen foundation system was very costly. This short
case study serves to illustrate that, under variable site conditions, ground improvement
could reduce site variability, permitting an inexpensive shallow foundation system rather
than requiring an expensive deep foundation system. For this site, vibro methods (Chapter
5) could have both densified the soils and reduced variability in compressibility across the
site. In cases such as this, ground improvement can prove to be significantly less costly and
provide performance equivalent to a deep foundation system.
8  Fundamentals of ground improvement engineering

1.3 OVERVIEW OF GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Ground improvement principles have certain fundamental mechanistic characteristics that

are used to develop a classification system for ground improvement. Accordingly, this book
uses four defining principles, in order of increasing complexity:

1. control of water – removal or control of groundwater,

2. mechanical modification – rearrangement of soil or water particles,
3. modification by additives – addition of chemicals and,
4. modification by inclusions or confinement – system behavior modification through
rigid or flexible element inclusion or soil confinement.

Assigning a particular ground improvement technique to a particular category is imperfect

since some techniques possess multiple behavioral characteristics or provide improvement
via multiple principles. This results in some techniques having characteristics from more
than one category. Nonetheless, such classification system is useful in understanding how
particular techniques work on a fundamental level. Based upon how a given ground modifi-
cation technique improves the soil, this book is structured according to Figure 1.6.
Some of the important principles, engineering considerations, and construction methods
that are the focus of this book are discussed further in the subsections below.

1.3.1 Compaction: shallow methods

Compaction is the densification of soils at constant water content. Consolidation, in contrast,
is differentiated from compaction by the decrease in water content due to the application of
load to a saturated soil. Compaction (densification) is achieved through the application of
mechanical energy to soil such that the air void volume is decreased, increasing soil density.
Surface compaction with equipment, such as the pad foot self-propelled roller pictured in
Figure 1.7, has long been used to increase strength, reduce compressibility, and reduce the
permeability of soils. Examples of ground improvement techniques that use mechanical
energy as the principal means to improve soil behavior include surface compaction, deep
dynamic compaction, and rapid impact compaction. These are all surface applications of
mechanical energy that dissipate with depth. In doing so, the mechanical energy causes a
rearrangement of the soil structure into a denser configuration. Shallow (surface) methods
of compaction for ground improvement are presented in Chapter 4.

1.3.2 Compaction: deep methods

Occasionally, the effective depth of surface compaction is insufficient compared to the depth
of material targeted for compaction. Here, deep compaction methods, which apply mechan-
ical energy below the surface, are needed. In most cases, deep compaction methods also
employ vibration and often involve the addition of stone, grout, or concrete during the pro-
cess to fill the space created by the densification. Depending upon the details of the process
and the contractor completing the work, various names are given to these deep methods.
Such names include, but are not limited to, vibroflotation, vibrocompaction, vibroreplace-
ment, Geopiers®, and rammed aggregate piers® (RAP). For example, Figure  1.8 shows a
vibrator used for deep vibrocompaction or vibroreplacement and Figure 1.9 shows the hop-
per being filled with sand during a vibrocompaction project.
These techniques evolved from work done over 70 years ago by the Keller Company
(Kirsch and Kirsch 2016). Deep compaction techniques began to flourish in the 1950s and
Figure 1.6 Organization of the book.
Introduction 
9
10  Fundamentals of ground improvement engineering

Figure 1.7 Soil compaction with a pad foot compactor.

Figure 1.8 Vibrator used for deep vibratory compaction (courtesy of Keller North America).
 Introduction  11

Figure 1.9 Adding sand to the hopper for vibrator during deep vibratory compaction.

1960s. Early projects used large, torpedo-like vibrators operating between 1,500 rpm and
3,000 rpm and that developed horizontal forces in the range of 100 kN to 150 kN to effec-
tively compact loose sands. Initially, sand was added at the surface to compensate for the
volume change resulting from the densification of the in situ sand. As time passed, bottom-
feed vibrators were developed for the addition of sand or stone, enabling the construction of
stone columns. For a more detailed history, particularly European history, of the develop-
ment of deep vibratory technics, see Kirsch and Kirsch (2016). Deep compaction methods
are addressed in Chapter 4.

1.3.3 Soil mixing and injection methods

Soil mixing methods, such as those described in Chapter 6, are methods of ground improve-
ment wherein the soil properties are improved in situ via the addition of one or more
reagents. Injecting or mixing in reagents such as lime, portland cement, slag cement, or
combinations of reagents, can result in increased shear strength, reduced compressibility,
and reduced hydraulic conductivity. In addition to understanding the means and methods
of soil mixing and injection, an understanding of the mechanisms by which the additives
work is critical to the successful choice and use of any particular soil mixing and injection
method. For example, reagents can be added in a dry mix method (Figure 1.10) or a wet
mix method (Figure 1.11). The process of selecting the best method, mix designs, and field
configurations depends on the knowledge of soil conditions and the desired outcomes. To
12  Fundamentals of ground improvement engineering

Figure 1.10 Soil mixing using dry mix method.

Figure 1.11 Soil mixing using wet mix method.

this end, common materials and the mechanisms of addition along with construction and
testing methods to verify performance are presented in Chapter 6.

1.3.4 Stabilization and solidification

The improvement of the ground at contaminated land and hazardous waste sites involves
additional considerations, materials, and methods beyond those that might be used for
ground improvement for geotechnical purposes. Much of the equipment and many of the
construction methods are the same as, or similar to, those discussed in Chapter 6. For
 Introduction  13

Figure 1.12 Stabilization/solidification of a contaminated site.

example, Figure 1.12 shows stabilization and solidification of a contaminated site. Like
many contaminated sites, multiple methods of site remediation were employed as a system
to contain the contaminants and mitigate the risk to public health and the environment. At
this site, stabilization and solidification were used for the upper portion of the area of the
disposal pits along with a vertical cutoff (Chapter 8) to control and contain the remaining
contaminated soil, sludge, and groundwater.
The special nature of contaminated ground as well as the protection of public health
and the environment requires additional reflection. For these applications, topics such as
contaminant transport and bonding mechanisms need to be coupled with traditional con-
siderations such as strength, permeability, and compressibility. These topics are presented in
Chapter 2 and discussed in Chapters 6 and 8.

1.3.5 Grouting
Grouting, as a means of ground improvement, consists of injecting, usually under pressure,
a fluidized material (grout) into the subsurface. The grout then either fills pore space or
displaces soil, producing stronger a soil formation. Grouting techniques include permeation
grouting, fracture grouting, compaction grouting, and jet grouting (a form of soil mixing).
Mechanistically, each technique is different, using different materials, methods, and design
methodologies.
Grout materials often “set” or harden after injection. Chemical grouts, such as silicate
grouts, can have low viscosities and penetrate small void spaces. Most cement grouts, par-
ticularly those made with ordinary portland cement, cannot penetrate small voids but work
well in rock containing open fractures and voids. Successful grouting programs are devel-
oped with an in-depth understanding of the rheological properties of the grout (viscosity, set
time, and stability) to predict the movement of the grout in the subsurface.
Compensation grouting is of special importance in urban areas. For example, the construc-
tion of the CrossRail project in London included the construction of new railway tunnels
14  Fundamentals of ground improvement engineering

and stations in an already crowded subsurface environment. Given the above-ground envi-
ronment that includes many historic and aesthetic structures along the route, techniques
to avoid damage to existing structures were required. Excavations for tunnels and stations
below grade would inevitably cause surface movements if not for the ability to “compen-
sate” for the subsurface movements via grouting. Thus, surface movements are regularly
anticipated, monitored, and corrected by subsurface compensation grouting. Figure  1.13
schematically illustrates the benefits of compensation grouting to the minimization of the
settlement of buildings along a tunnel alignment. Analysis of monitoring data to detect
movements can lead to the decision to inject grout under pressure at specified locations to
compensate for the detected movements. Compensation, and other types of grouting, are
discussed in Chapters 7 and 11.

1.3.6 Dewatering
There are times that ground is unstable only because groundwater is present or flowing in
such a way as to destabilize the soil. While grouting (Chapter 7) and cutoff walls (Chapter 8)
are two ground improvement methods that can reduce hydraulic conductivity and improve
stability, there are numerous occasions when dewatering may be a better choice. Without
proper groundwater control, flowing groundwater can result in bottom heave, unstable
slopes, and difficult or impossible working conditions. Figure 1.14 shows an excavation
below the water table in a stratigraphy of sand overlying silt of lower permeability. Even
with deep dewatering wells, three meters on center, seepage between the wells at the inter-
face between the sand and the silt resulted in localized and progressive slope instability.
Ground improvement by dewatering is a widely used, but often difficult, technique that
requires detailed knowledge of subsurface conditions, theoretical understanding of ground-
water flow, and experience. Dewatering is well covered in many texts, including Powers
et al. (2007).

Figure 1.13 Compensation grouting to minimize settlement during tunneling.

 Introduction  15

Figure 1.14 Improperly dewatered excavation.

1.3.7 Consolidation
While compaction (Chapter 4) is densification at constant water content, consolidation is
densification at decreasing water content (Chapter 5). As a result, consolidation is a time-
dependent process, as it takes significant time for water to leave clay. During consolidation,
soils gain strength and their compressibility is reduced. Soft, compressible, fine-grained soils
are prime candidates for ground improvement by consolidation. Soft cohesive soils gener-
ally have low hydraulic conductivities and, since the time-rate of consolidation depends
upon soil permeability, the time required to consolidate soft cohesive soil may exceed the
time available in the construction schedule. In these cases, consolidation can be enhanced
by inserting vertical drains. Traditionally sand drains were installed to shorten the drainage
path and speed up the consolidation process. Prefabricated vertical drains are now more
commonly used. Figure 1.15 shows schematically a typical use of vertical drains to speed
consolidation of soft ground beneath an embankment. Consolidation, to improve the prop-
erties of ground using techniques such as vertical drains, preloading, and vacuum consolida-
tion, is discussed in Chapter 5.

1.3.8 Mechanically stabilized earth

For thousands of years, masonry structures were built in such a way as to impart compressive
stresses on the stone building materials. Arches were commonly used to span openings as this
configuration assured the masonry materials were in compression. This building approach
16  Fundamentals of ground improvement engineering

Figure 1.15 Vertical drains to speed consolidation of soft ground.

Figure 1.16 Mechanically stabilized earth (courtesy of Robert Barrett, GeoStabilization International).

was used because stone has little tensile strength but large compressive strength. Similarly,
soils have negligible tensile strength but large compressive strength. Soils work well to sup-
port structures and serve as earthen structures when in compression. The introduction of
tensile reinforcement, first popularized as Reinforced Earth™, in the 1960s, opened the door
to a wide range of applications including the now widely used mechanically stabilized earth
(MSE) retaining walls. The enormous benefit of reinforcement is illustrated in Figure 1.16.
Not only can a vertical face of fill be achieved but a reverse batter as well.
The benefit of reinforcing is further illustrated to students via the ASCE GeoChallenge,
a student competition. Shown on the left side of Figure 1.17 is a sheet of construction
paper (the retaining wall face) with strips of brown wrapping paper attached (the rein-
forcement). Shown on the right side of Figure 1.17 is the completed retaining wall 0.5 m
high supporting a sandy backfill and a 22 kg surcharge. This laboratory experiment dem-
onstrates the important improvement in granular soil strength by the addition of even
modest tensile reinforcement. Chapter 10 discusses the forms and uses of geosynthetic
reinforced soil.
 Introduction  17

Figure 1.17 Laboratory-scale mechanically stabilized earth wall during load testing.

Figure 1.18 Herbert Hoover Dike cutoff wall.

1.3.9 In situ barriers

In situ vertical barriers (cutoff walls) have been used for over 40 years to control the horizon-
tal flow of groundwater in the subsurface. Improving the ground conditions, by reducing the
flow in the horizontal direction, has been commonly used for dewatering to improve slope
stability and reduce water flow into excavations. In the 1980s, these same barriers came
into widespread use for environmental applications to control contaminant transport in the
subsurface. Engineers also know and acknowledge that many of the dams and levees con-
structed over the last 100 or more years need improvement. Issues with seepage and stability
jeopardize their performance, particularly during flood events. Thus, in situ barriers (cutoff
walls) have found widespread use to improve the properties of the underlying materials and
improve the properties of the dam or levee.
The Herbert Hoover Dike in Florida, USA, is a prime example of the use of a barrier wall
for levee rehabilitation in response to seepage and piping problems. In order to cut off seep-
age through and beneath the dam, a cutoff wall was installed (Figure 1.18). The wall, 0.7 m
18  Fundamentals of ground improvement engineering

wide and averaging 22 m deep, penetrated the dike and the underlying layers of peat, sand,
and limestone. As a result, existing piping paths were cut off, the seepage path was length-
ened, and exit gradients were reduced.
There are myriad materials that may be used in cutoff walls and numerous ways to con-
struct them. The desired final product is usually a cutoff wall that is homogeneous and has
a low permeability (hydraulic conductivity). Often there is a moderate strength requirement
as well. Special considerations of compatibility between the barrier and the contaminants
are needed when these barriers are used to control contaminant transport around waste or
contaminated land sites. Materials, methods, designs, and analyses of cutoff walls are dis-
cussed in detail in Chapters 6, 7 and 8.

1.3.10 Future developments in ground improvement

While many ground improvement techniques are tried and proven, there are continuous
developments in design, equipment, and construction techniques for these established
­methods. No doubt there will be new publications reporting on these developments coinci-
dent with and after the completion of this text. This text aids in understanding, evaluating,
and adopting new developments.
In addition to emerging developments and improvements to existing technologies, some
pending developments may prove to be entirely new approaches to ground improvement.
One excellent example might be termed biogeotechnical ground improvement. There is a
rich microbial environment in soils. Microbes participate in biogeochemical reactions, con-
tinuously reproducing and dying off. The ways microbes can affect soil behavior include,
but are not limited to, mineral precipitation, mineral transformation, and biofilm growth.
Mineral precipitation can result in stronger, stiffer soils, yielding improved bearing capacity,
liquefaction resistance, and reduced compressibility. Biofilms can also reduce permeability,
forming subsurface barriers.
Figure 1.19 shows an idealized cross-section showing various biogeotechnical ground
improvements including stabilization of ground surrounding a tunnel, improved slope

Figure 1.19 Biogeotechnical ground improvement.

 Introduction  19

stability, low permeability barrier to control subgrade water, and improved erosion
control.
In addition to developments like biogeotechnical ground improvement, the future is likely
to reveal the development and use of existing materials and methods in ways that are not
currently used. While not in widespread use, mixing plastic fibers to increase the strength of
sand (Park and Tan 2005; Gray and Ohashi 1983) and the use of geofoam to reduce earth
pressures on retaining walls (Horvath 2010; Dasaka et al. 2014) are gaining use. The ben-
efits of reusing a variety of waste materials, such as recycled gypsum (Ahmed and Issa 2014)
and electrokinetics for the stabilization of soft clay (Lamont-Black et al. 2012; Malekzadeh
and Sivakugan 2017), are being studied.
It is likely that the future of ground improvement will provide for explicit consider-
ations of sustainability when deciding what, if any, ground improvement method to employ.
Historically, geotechnical engineers were primarily concerned with (1) providing an adequate
factor of safety against failure of soil; (2) controlling settlements and movements of the
ground; and (3) cost. Environmental and sustainability considerations are an important part
of the decision process. Considerations of noise, historically or architecturally important
structures, archeological finds, and inconvenience to the public are essential considerations
when employing ground improvement. At the time of this writing (2021), it is clear that
future projects will need to explicitly consider sustainability and legacy effects in the decision
process.

1.4 IMPORTANCE OF CONSTRUCTION

There is a common thread that weaves through this chapter and this book: the design and
performance of ground improvement is inextricably linked to construction. One cannot
“design” a ground improvement program without a full understanding of the construction
means and methods. In fact, credit for the development of ground improvement techniques
lies largely with innovative contractors. Many of the experts in the field of ground improve-
ment are or were contractors.

1.5 PROBLEMS

1.1 Are ground improvement techniques more sustainable than traditional alternatives
such as deep foundations? Justify your answer.
1.2 Choose a ground improvement technique and prepare a 10-slide presentation appro-
priate for secondary school students to increase their interest in the fields of science,
technology, engineering, or mathematics.
1.3 How are improvements in soil strength and stiffness fundamentally different?
1.4 Compare and contrast consolidation and compaction.
1.5 Using principles of sustainability, compare the use of ground improvement with more
traditional deep foundation methods.
1.6 Ground improvement problems are largely those of soil-structure interaction. Explain.
1.7 The water content and degree of saturation will significantly impact the efficacy of
certain ground improvement techniques. Relate your experiences on the beach build-
ing sandcastles to the effect of water content and degree of saturation.
1.8 Specialty contractors are more likely than geotechnical consultants to develop new
and improved techniques in ground improvement. Why would this be the case?
20  Fundamentals of ground improvement engineering

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