FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND WATER ENGINEERING

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE CONVENOR: ENG S.T. NHANDARA

June - August 2021
Introduction
1. Geotechnical engineering is a speciality of Civil
Engineering which deals with the properties,
behaviour and use of soil and rock in engineering
works.
2. Geotechnical engineering is the design and
construction of structures that are founded in soil
and rocks
3. Geotechnical engineering is the art of burying
success

Geotechnical Engineering 2
Origin of geotechnical engineering
⚫ Based on the emphasis and the nature of study in the
area of geotechnical engineering, the time span
extending from 1700 to 1927 can be divided into four
⚫ major periods :
⚫ 1. Pre-classical (1700 to 1776 A.D.)
⚫ 2. Classical soil mechanics—Phase I (1776 to 1856 A.D.)
⚫ 3. Classical soil mechanics—Phase II (1856 to 1910
A.D.)
⚫ 4. Modern soil mechanics (1910 to 1927 A.D.)

Geotechnical Engineering 1 3
1. Pre-classical era (1700 to 1776 A.D)
⚫ This period concentrated on studies relating to natural
slope and unit weights of various types of soils as well
as the semi-empirical earth pressure theories.
⚫ In 1717 a French royal engineer, Henri Gautier (1660 –
1737), studied the natural slopes of soils when tipped
in a heap for formulating the design procedures of
retaining walls.
⚫ The natural slope is what we now refer to as the angle
of repose.
⚫ According to this study, the natural slopes of clean dry
sand and ordinary earth were 31° and 45°, respectively.
Geotechnical Engineering 1 4
⚫In 1729, Bernard Forest de Belidor (1694 –1761)
published a textbook for military and civil engineers in
France.
⚫ In the book, he proposed a theory for lateral earth
pressure on retaining walls
⚫ He also specified a soil classification system in the
manner shown in the following table.
⚫ A French Engineer Jean Rodolphe Perronet (1708–
1794), studied slope stability around 1769 and
distinguished between intact ground and fills

Geotechnical Engineering 1 5
Belidor soil classification system

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2. Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase I
(1776 –1856)
⚫ Most of the developments in the area of geotechnical
engineering came from engineers and scientists in
France in this era.
⚫In 1776, French scientist Charles Augustin Coulomb
(1736 –1806) used the principles of calculus for maxima
and minima to determine the true position of the sliding
surface in soil behind a retaining wall.
⚫ In this analysis, Coulomb used the laws of friction and
cohesion for solid bodies.

Geotechnical Engineering 1 7
⚫ In 1820, special cases of Coulomb’swork were studied
by French engineer Jacques Frederic Francais (1775–
1833) and by French applied-mechanics professor
Claude Louis Marie Henri Navier (1785–1836).
⚫ These special cases related to inclined backfills and
backfills supporting surcharge.
⚫ In 1840, Jean Victor Poncelet (1788–1867), an army
engineer and professor of mechanics, extended
Coulomb’stheory by providing a graphical method for
determining the magnitude of lateral earth pressure
on vertical and inclined retaining walls with arbitrarily
broken polygonal ground surfaces.
⚫ Poncelet was also the firs to use the symbol 𝜑𝜑 for soil
friction angle.
Geotechnical Engineering 1 8
⚫ He also provided the first ultimate bearing-capacity
theory for shallow foundations.
⚫ In 1846, Alexandre Collin (1808–1890), an engineer,
provided the details for deep slips in clay slopes,
cutting, and embankments.
⚫ Collin theorized that, in all cases, the failure takes
place when the mobilized cohesion exceeds the
existing cohesion of the soil.
⚫ He also observed that the actual failure surfaces could
be approximated as arcs of cycloids.

Geotechnical Engineering 1 9
⚫ The end of Phase I of the classical soil mechanics
period is generally marked by the year (1857) of the
first publication by William John Macquorn Rankine
(1820 –1872), a professor of civil engineering at the
University of Glasgow.
⚫ This study provided a notable theory on earth pressure
and equilibrium of earth masses.
⚫ Rankine’s theory is a simplificationof Coulomb’s
theory

Geotechnical Engineering 1 10
3. Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase II
(1856 –1910)
⚫ Several experimental results from laboratory tests on
sand appeared in the literature in this phase.
⚫ French engineer Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy (1803–
1858) published a study in 1856 on the permeability of
sand filters.
⚫ Based on those tests, Darcy define the term coefficient
of permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) of soil, a
very useful parameter in geotechnical engineering to
this day.

Geotechnical Engineering 1 11
4. Modern soil mechanics (1910 –
1927)
⚫ In this period, results of research conducted on clays
were published in which the fundamental properties
and parameters of clay were established.
⚫ The most notable publications are given in the
following table

Geotechnical Engineering 1 12
Important studies on clay 1920-1927
Investigator Year Topics
Albert Mauritz 1911 Consistency of soil that is: liquid,
Atterberg (1846-1916), plastic and shrinkage limits
Sweden
Jean Frontard (1884- 1914 Double shear tests (undrained)
1962), France in clay under constant vertical
load
Arthur Langtry Bell 1915 Lateral pressure and resistance of
(1874- 1956), England clay; Bearing capacity of clay,
Shear box test for measuring
undrained shear strength using
undisturbed specimen
Wolmar Fellenius 1918, 1926 Slip circle analysis of saturated
(1876- 19570), Sweden clay slopes
Karl Terzaghi (1883– 1925 Theory of consolidation for clays
1963), Austria Geotechnical Engineering 1 13
4. Modern Geotechnical Engineering post 1927
⚫ The publication of
Erdbaumechanik auf
Bodenphysikalisher
Grundlage by Karl
Terzaghi in 1925 gave
birth to a new era in the
development of soil
mechanics.
⚫ Karl Terzaghi is known
as the leader of modern
Geotechnical
engineering.
Karl Terzaghi (1883 -1963)

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⚫ The first conference of the International Society of Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (ISSMFE) was
held at Harvard University in 1936 with Karl Terzaghi
presiding.
⚫ It was through the inspiration and guidance of
Terzaghi over the preceding quarter-century that
papers were brought to that conference covering a
wide range of topics such as:
i. shear strength
ii. effective stress
iii. in situ testing

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i. Cone penetrometer test
ii. Consolidation settlement
iii. Elastic stress distribution
iv. Preloading for soil improvement
v. Frost action, expansive clays
vi. arching
vii. theory of earth pressure
viii. earthquakes

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Geotechnical Engineer

Geotechnical Engineering 17
1. Laboratory and Field techniques
 Laboratory tests
 Soil classification
 Consistency limits - Atterberg limits
 Compaction test
 Specific gravity test
 Shear strength – direct shear test, triaxial test

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Soil classification

Sieve analysis
Hydrometer analysis apparatus

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Consistency limits

Casagrande test Cone penetrometer

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Compaction test

Proctor method

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Specific gravity test

Small pycnometer method

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 Direct shear test

Sheared soil sample

Direct shear test equipment

Mohr- Coulomb failure envelope

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Field investigations

Standard penetration test

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 In-situ tests

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2. Slope stability analysis

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Geotechnical Engineering 27
Gabion wall – Gokwe, Zimbabwe

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 Slope reinforcement
⚫ Soil nails Geosynthetics

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3. Design and construction of soil
retaining structures

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 Basement

5 Storey Basement with a 6 storey hospital on top, London (2015)

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gravity wall cantilever wall

soldier pile sheet pile wall

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4. Design and construction of
tailings dams

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cyclone deposition

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5. Ground improvement
techniques

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stone columns vibro compaction

Geotechnical Engineering
dynamic compaction 36
5. Design of foundations

Geotechnical Engineering 37
Geotechnical Engineering 38
6. Rock engineering

Geotechnical Engineering 39
Geotechnical Engineering 40
Geotechnical Engineering 41
 Types of Rock Support Systems

Shepherd crooks
Split set

Rockbolt

Timber poles

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GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING

Geotechnical Engineering 43
Geotechnical Engineering – Course outline
Content
1 Ground improvement techniques
2 Slope stability analysis
3 Lateral earth pressure

Continuous Assessment % Contribution

1 Group Assignment 30
2 Software Assignment 30
3 Test 40

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Geotechnical Engineering - References
1. Das, B. M. 2007. “Fundamentalsof Geotechnical Engineering.” Chris
Carson ISBN-13: 978-0-495-29572-3.
2. Das, B. M. 2009. “Shallow foundations – Bearing capacity and
settlement”. CRC. New york.
3. Das B.M. and Sobhan. “Principlesof Geotechnical Engineering. 8th
Edition.” CRC. New york.
4. Craig R.F and Knappett J.A. 2012. “Craig’ssoil mechanics”
5. Singh A. “Modern geotechnical engineering 3rd Edition”
6. Whitlow R. “Basic soil mechanics .” Addison Wesley Longman
Limited. Essex

Geotechnical Engineering 45
1. GROUND IMPROVEMENT
TECHNIQUES

Geotechnical Engineering 46
Ground improvement …………….
It is the controlled alteration of the
state nature or mass behaviour of
ground materials in order to achieve an
intended satisfactory response to
existing or projected environmental and
engineering actions.

Geotechnical Engineering 47
Course objectives
⚫ To gain an understanding of the concepts behind a
range of ground improvement techniques
⚫ Describe advantages, disadvantages and limitations for
each ground improvement method discussed
⚫ Ability to identify appropriate techniques for a range
of ground and site conditions
⚫ Locate criteria to determine the applicability of each
ground improvement method for a specific project and
soil condition under consideration.

Geotechnical Engineering 48
Introduction
⚫ Where poor ground conditions make traditional forms
of construction expensive, it may be economically
viable to attempt to improve the engineering
properties of the ground before building on it. This
can be done by:
1. Reducing the pore water pressure
2. Reducing the volume of voids in the soil
3. Adding stronger material

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 What to do when available
conditions are difficult?
⚫ Select a new site
⚫ Remove the inadequate soil and replace with ‘better’
soil
-sometimes the best option (e.g shallow peat layers)
- Often usually tooexpensivedue to quantityordepth of inadequatesoil
⚫ By pass problem soil altogether
-transferfoundation loads down through the inadequate layer to stronger
layer underneath using piles or similar
⚫ Soil improvement

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 What to do? When soil is:
⚫ Too loose – densify it (dynamiccompaction, vibro
compaction
⚫ Too permeable – inject grout/ binder into the soil
pores to reduce the permeability
⚫ Impermeable – install wick drains, stone columns
⚫ Too compressible – preload the site to reduce the
settlement that will be experienced by the structure
⚫ Too soft- mix with cement or lime to make it stronger.
Reinforce the soil to strengthen it by using
geosynthetics, soil nails etc

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When is ground improvement needed?
Ground improvement is needed when working with
difficult soils or conditions:

 Compressible / soft soils

 Collapsible soils
 Expansive soils
 Liquefaction potential
 Subsurface cavities – dolomites
 Contaminated land

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Why do we need ground
improvement
i. To increase shear strength – increased shear
strength or relative density improves bearing
capacity or provides sufficient support for
excavations or tunnels
ii. To reduce compressibility to minimize total or
differential settlement of buildings or structures.
iii. To reduce permeability – to seal out ground water
from flowing into basements or to prevent water
damage on isolated zones

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Why do we need ground
improvement
iv. To improve drainage – improved drainage can assist
with preloading or surcharge techniques.
v. To prevent liquefaction – prevent liquefaction or
reduce lateral spreading beneath or near structures
during earthquakes, by densification, replacement
or improved drainage.
vi. To control ground movements which arise from
excavation or tunnelling

Geotechnical Engineering 54
Types of ground improvement techniques
1. Ground improvementwithoutadmixture in coarse grained
soils:
⚫ Vibro compaction
⚫ Dynamic compaction
2. Ground improvementwithoutadmixture in fine grainedsoils:
⚫ Preloading
⚫ Vertical drains
3. Ground improvementwithadmixtureor inclusions
⚫ Vibro replacement Stone columns
⚫ Rigid inclusions
4. Ground improvementwithgrouting typeadmixtures
⚫ Jet grouting
⚫ Deep soil mixing
5. Earth reinforcement
⚫ Geosynthetics
⚫ Soil nails

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1.1 Vibrocompaction

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 Vibrocompaction
The vibro- compaction system was
invented in 1934 in Germany by S.
Steuermann and W.L Degen

An early vibro compaction system taken in 1938

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 Vibrocompaction
⚫ Vibro compaction is a process whereby granular soils
are compacted by depth vibrators
⚫ Natural depositsas well as artificially reclaimed sands
can be compacted to a depth of 70m
⚫ The intensity of compaction can be varied to meet
bearing capacity criteria
⚫ Other improvement effects such as reduction of both
total and differential settlement are also achieved
⚫ The risk of liquefaction in an earthquake prone area is
also drastically reduced

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 Vibro compaction process
⚫ The compaction process consists of a floatation of the soil
particles as a result of vibration.
⚫ This then allows for rearrangement of the particles into a
denser state.
⚫ The following diagrams illustrate the compaction process.

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Vibro compaction process
⚫ By definition vibro compaction is a process where the density of
clean loose cohesionless sands is improved by vibrations
produced by high energy vibroflots
⚫ The vibroflot is a long steel tube which consists of two parts: a
large cylindrical vibrator and extension tubes
⚫ Vibro compaction equipment consists of the vibroflot, a
supporting crane power supply and a water pump when required.
⚫ The vibrator is suspended from a crane and lowered to the
desired depth by using its own weight or under pressure
generated by water jetting
⚫ The purpose of the crane is to insert the poker into depths which
are deeper than those achieved by surface compaction. At that
level the vibroflot is rotated in a direction perpendicular to the
long axis of the probe (horizontal plane) thus inducing
vibrations.

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Vibro- compaction process
1 – Penetration
The vibroprobe penetrates to the
required depth by vibration and jetting
action of water and/or air

2 – Compaction
The vibro-probe is retracted in 0.5m
intervals. The in-situ sand or gravel
f lows towards the vibroprobe

3 – Completion
After compaction the working platform
needs to be levelled and eventually
roller compacted

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Vibroprobe / Vibrofloat
A vibroprobe/ vibrof loat is typically 0.4m in
diameter, however, its size is determined by its
ability to penetrate the ground.
As technology evolves a variety of vibrators have
been manufactured.
The table below presents specifications of some of
the most commonly used vibrators

Manufacturer Bauer Bauer Keller Keller Keller Keller Vibro Vibro

Machine Name TR13 TR85 M S A L V23 V32

Length (m) 3,13 4,20 3,30 3,00 4,35 3,10 3,57 3,57

Diameter (mm) 300 420 290 400 290 320 350 350

Weight (kg) 1 000 2 090 1 600 2 450 1 900 1 815 2 200 2 200

Motor (KW) 105 210 50 120 50 100 130 130

rpm 3 250 1 800 3 000 1 800 2 000 3 600 1 800 1 800

Displ. Amp (mm) 6 22 7,2 18 13,8 5,3 23 32

Dynamic Force (KN) 150 330 150 280 160 201 300 450

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Vibroprobe /
Vibrofloat

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Vibro-compaction effects
⚫ The sand and gravel particles rearrange into a denser
state
⚫ The shear strength and bearing capacity is increased
significantly
⚫ The permeability of the soil is reduced 2 to 10 fold
depending on many factors
⚫ The friction angle increases by up to 8 degrees
⚫ Enforced settlements of the compacted soil mass are in
the range of 2% to 15%
⚫ The stiffness can be increased 2 to 4 fold

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Vibro compaction functions
⚫ Densify existing soils
⚫ Improve bearing capacity
⚫ Increase shear resistance and stiffness
⚫ Induce settlement
⚫ Accelerate drainage
⚫ Reduce risk of liquefaction

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Vibro compaction – suitable soils
⚫ Vibro compaction cannot be used on all soil types
hence it is important to ascertain whether the soil
characteristics are compatible with the use of vibro
compaction.
⚫ As illustrated coarse material such as sand and gravel
can be treated with vibro compaction while fine
material such as silt and clay cannot
⚫ Materials with fines content which exceeds 10% are not
suitable for vibro compaction.

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Vibro compaction – suitable soils

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Vibro compaction – spacing of
compaction points
⚫ The spacing of compaction points is determined by
the soil’s ability to densify under the vibratory action
of the vibrofloat.
⚫ Soil properties chief lycohesion and permeability
affect the soil densification.
⚫ Cohesion is most pronounced in silt and clay and
typically increases as the percentage of fines increases.
⚫ Coarsegrained material is more permeable than fine
grained material due to the larger voids that permit
water to f low more readily.
Geotechnical Engineering 68
Vibro compaction – spacing of
compaction points
⚫ If the soil is cohesive the forces generated by the
vibrof lotwill not penetrate radially and this demands a
much closer spacing of the compaction areas,
⚫ when the soil has low permeability; pore water
pressure will not dissipate when it is vibrated
⚫ It is both futile and uneconomic to use vibro
compaction on cohesive soils as this will demand the
compaction points to be very close to each other.

Geotechnical Engineering 69
Vibro compaction – spacing of
compaction points
Vibro compaction points can be spaced using a square or
a triangular pattern
Square pattern

Triangular pattern

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 Vibro compaction – depth of
treatment
⚫ Vibro compaction relies on the improved in-situ soil
properties to support the structures.
⚫ As such the depth of treatment becomes a significant
factor because the soil treatment will only be effective
if it is done up to an adequate depth
⚫ The use of boring logs which reveal the soil profile
becomes important in determining the treatment
depth because the treatment depth should penetrate
into a strong underlying soil layer by at least 1m
⚫ This ensures that the load is transferred to the stronger
incompressible underlying layers.
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 Vibro compaction- Monitoring
and control
⚫ it is very important to monitor how the soil responds to the
specific technique being employed to treat the ground
⚫ The most commonly used vibro compaction performance
assessment methods are the Standard Penetration Test
(SPT), the Cone Penetration Test (CPT) and Pressure-
meter tests (PMT)
⚫ A comparison of the SPT and CPT graphs before and after
vibro-compaction with the aid of correlation charts and
appropriate equations can be used to evaluate the change
in soil density and strength and the liquefaction potential.

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 Vibro compaction- Monitoring
and control
⚫ The improvement factor Id is a parameter which is
used to assess the perfomance of any soil improvement
technique
⚫ It is based on the CPT resistances qc

⚫ The improvement index can be applied on any in-situ

quality control parameter by measuring the specific
soil property before and after the improvement
method
Geotechnical Engineering 73
Vibro compaction- Projects
Year Location Project description
1971 Collini-Centre, Mannheim, Germany Vibro-compaction up to a depth of 12m

1975 Las Palmas, Grand Canary Vibro-compaction of 250 000m3 of the Picon material;

a volcanic slag

1978 Thuwal, Saudi Arabia Vibro-compaction of 160 000lin.m for a new harbour

1995 Delta Port, Vancouver, Canada Vibro-compaction of 1,5M m3 of fill up to a depth of 31m

1999 Schleuse, Hohenwarte, Germany Vibro-compaction of 28 000 lin.m up to a depth of 30m

2004 Palm Jumeirah, Dubai, UAE Vibro- compaction of 500 000 m3

2005 Peribonka dam, Canada Vibro-compaction of 700 000m3 of fill up to a depth of 35m

2009 Cleveland Clinic, Al Sowah , UAE Vibro-compaction of 90 000m2 up to a depth 10m

2012 Davao City, Philippines Vibro-compaction of 100 000 lin.m up to a depth of 18m

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Vibro compaction – Case study
Project title Extension of TATA fertiliser plant
Project location North India
Client TATA Chemicals Ltd
Design engineers Keller Ground Engineering
Contractor Keller Ground Engineering

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Vibro compaction – Case study
TATA Chemicals is a fertilizer plant in North India which has
been operating for more than two decades. The factory was
constructed on ground that had been reinforced with stone
columns. In order to increase the working area and
accommodate automations it was decided to make the
following refurbishments and extensions:
⚫ Expand the Wagon Loading Platform(WLP) by an area of
375.0m length and 18.0m width
⚫ Extend the Motor Control Centre (MCC) room by an area
21.0m long and 12.5m wide

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 Case study: Layout drawing

Wagon Loading Platform(WLP) – 375 m length x 18m width

MotorControl Centre(MCC) room - 21.0m long x 12.5m wide

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 Case study: Site geology
⚫ The project is located in an area classified under high
seismic zone with Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) of
0.24g (where g is the acceleration due to gravity
usually taken as 9.81m/s2) and an earthquake Richter
scale magnitude of 7
⚫ the Standard Penetration Tests (SPTs) and Electronic
Cone Penetration Tests (ECPT) were conducted to
determine the site’s geology
⚫ The testing involved two boreholes BH1 and BH2
which were drilled to a depth of 16m for the SPT and
three ECPTs namely CPT2, CPT3 and CPT4 which
were inserted up to a refusal depth of 11m.

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Case study: Site geology
The top 1m consists of clays of low
plasticity (CL) with a liquid limit of 50%
or less followed by 1-2.5m layer of low
plasticity silts and clays and silty sands
(CL, ML and SM).
From 2.5m to 12m there is a layer of
saturated poorly graded sands which are
clean sands with no fines or a fines
content of less that 5% and silty sands
(SP-SM).
Beneath this, there is stiff to hard silty
clay to clayey silt / dense to very dense
sand up to termination depth.
Groundwaterwas encountered at a
depth 3.0 to 3.2m below the ground
surface
Geotechnical Engineering 79
 Case study: Problem definition
⚫ The subsoil is predominantly composed of loose saturated
cohesionless soil.
⚫ Generally clean loose saturated sands have a high
susceptibility to liquefaction
⚫ Liquefaction is a process whereby the soil loses its strength
and stiffness due to a sudden increase in pore water
pressure due to earthquake shaking causing it to behave
like a liquid
⚫ From the given soil profile it was necessary to conduct a
liquefaction potential analysis .
⚫ Liquefaction occurs when the estimated cyclic stress ratio
(CSR) based on shear stress caused by a seismic event
exceeds the estimated cyclic resistant ratio (CRR) based on
resistance offered by the particular soil strata (Tejas et al,
2013)..

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Case study: Liquefaction potential analysis
⚫ Liquefaction occurs when the estimated cyclic stress ratio
(CSR) caused by a seismicevent exceeds the estimated cyclic
resistant ratio (CRR)
Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR) -The CSR is a function of the
adopted PGA value (for this project the PGA is 0.24g),
the total and effective overburden stresses at various
depths and correction factors used in equations.
Cyclic Resistant Ratio (CRR) can be computed from the SPT
N values normalized to an effective overburden pressure and
other correction factors applied.
The CRR can also be computed from the normalized cone
penetration resistance qc

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Case study: Liquefaction potential analysis
(Pre ground improvement)

CSR – CRR vs Depth Pre Soil

Improvement based on SPT CSR – CRR vs Depth Pre Soil
Improvement based on ECPT
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Case study: Soil bearing capacity (Pre
ground improvement)
⚫ The table below presents the bearing capacity of the in-situ
material as well as the required bearing pressure for 25mm
settlement.

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Case study: Ground treatment
objectives
⚫ The two main treatment objectives were:
i. To reduce the liquefaction potential of the in-situ
material, this would mitigate structural failure in the
event of an earthquake shaking occurring.
ii. To increase the soil bearing capacity; this would
prevent excessive settlement

Geotechnical Engineering 84
Case study: Ground treatment factors
a)Soil type - It had been determined that the site was underlain with
looseclean sand. Possibleground improvement techniqueswere dynamic
compaction, vibro compaction, stone columns or piles.

b)Material availability – Sand deposits were readily available at the site

whilestoneaggregateswere located 150 to 200km away from the site. As a
results installing stone columns would be too costly while vibro
compaction which uses sand backfill was more appropriate.

c)Time – The project was time constrained hence it was deemed that
vibro compaction would be a betteroption because it is time effective
compared to driven piling which takes a longertime and is more costly.

In lightof the above factors it was decided that the ground would be
treated using the vibrocompaction method.

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Case study: Vibrocompaction process
⚫ The compaction points were spaced in a square grid of
2.75m x 2.75m
⚫ The treatment depth was 12m and the spacing of the
vibration was designed at every 0.5m vertically
⚫ On the MCC room a combination of vibro compaction
with vibro stone columns was used to increase stiffness
of the fine grained material for the top 1m below
ground level.

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Case study: Vibrocompaction process

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Liquefaction potential after ground
improvement

CSR – CRR vs Depth Post Soil CSR – CRR vs Depth Pre Soil
Improvement based on SPT Improvement based on ECPT

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Bearing capacity after ground
improvement
⚫ The bearing capacity after ground improvement was assessed
using Plate Load Tests. The test was performed at a load of
240KPa which is up to two times the design load intensity of
120KPa
1. Wagon Loading Platform – Settlements was in the range of
2.42 – 2.91mm
2. Motor Control Centre room – Settlement was 1.42mm

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 Plate load tests

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Vibrocompaction : Palm Jumeirah
Island; Dubai

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Liquefaction potential analysis

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Liquefaction
⚫ Liquefaction occurs generally due to rapid loading during
seismic events where there is not sufficient time for
dissipation of excess pore-water pressures through natural
drainage.
⚫ Rapid loading situation increases pore-water pressures
resulting in cyclic softening in fine-grained materials.
⚫ The increased pore water pressure transforms granular
materials from a solid to a liquefied state.
⚫ Shear strength and stiffness of the soil deposit are reduced
due to increase in porewater pressure.
⚫ Liquefaction is observed in loose, saturated and clean to
silty sands.

Geotechnical Engineering 93
Factors that influence Liquefaction
i. magnitude of earthquake
ii. intensity and duration of ground motion
iii. the distance from the source of the earthquake,
iv. Site specific conditions
v. ground acceleration
vi. type of soil; relative density, grain size distribution,
permeability
vii. fines content, plasticity of fines, degree of saturation
viii. thickness of the soil deposit,,
ix. confining pressure
x. position and fluctuations of the groundwater table
xi. Reduction of effective stress
Geotechnical Engineering 94
In-situ tests
⚫ Several field tests can be used to determine the
liquefaction potential of a site which include:
Standard penetration test (SPT)
Cone penetration test (CPT)
Shear wave velocity (Vs)
The SPT-based simplified empirical procedure is widely
used for evaluating liquefaction resistance of soils.

Geotechnical Engineering 95
Liquefaction potential
Input parameters:
⚫ Standard Penetration Test N (SPT N)
⚫ Fine content FC
⚫ Ground water levels
⚫ Liquid limit
⚫ Earthquake magnitude and duration

Geotechnical Engineering 96
Application of SPT N for liquefaction
determination
⚫ The SPT N values are used to determine the liquefaction
resistance of sandy soils.
⚫ The measured SPT N values (Nm) are corrected for:
a) Overburden stress
b) Energy ratio
c) Diameter of boreholes
d) length of sampling rod
e) Type of sampler
(N1)60 is the corrected Nm value
⚫ The subscript 60 is used because it is assumed that 60% of
the energy is transferred from the falling hammer to the
SPT sampler.

Geotechnical Engineering 97
SPT N corrected value
⚫The corrected (N1)60 is calculated as
(N1)60 = NmCNCECBCRCS
CN is a factor to normalize Nm to a common reference
effective overburden stress ≤ 1.7
CEis correction for hammer energy ratio (ER)= 0.6
CBis correction factor for borehole diameter = 1.0
CRis correction factor for rod length and is a function of
the depth
CS is correction for samplers with or without liners= 1.1

Geotechnical Engineering 98
⚫ Rod length correction with respect to depth (CR) at
each borehole location is corrected as

Geotechnical Engineering 99
Example 1
(a)Determine the corrected SPT (N1)60 for the following
measured SPT N values
1. Nm of 4 at a depth of 2.1m
2. Nm of 18 at a depth of 5.5m
3. Nm of 12 at a depth of 22m

Geotechnical Engineering 100

Cyclic Resistance Ratio CRR
⚫ The CRR is a ratio of stresses that resist liquefaction
𝑁𝑁1 60𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑁1 60𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 2 𝑁𝑁1 60𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 3 𝑁𝑁1 60𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 4
( 14.1 + 126 − 23.6 + 25.4 −2.8)
𝐶𝐶𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑒𝑒

Where (N1)60 is the SPT blow count normalized to an

overburden pressure of approximately 100kPa.

(N1)60 is applicable to clean sands where the Fines

Content FC is less than 5%

Where the % of fines exceeds 5% the equivalent clean

sand (N1)60 which is (N1)60cs should be calculated
Geotechnical Engineering 101
Clean sand (N1)60CS
𝑁𝑁1 60𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 = 𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽 𝑁𝑁1 60`

For FC≤5% 𝛼𝛼 =0 , 𝛽𝛽=1

(1.76−1902 ) 𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶 1.5

For 5%<FC<35% 𝛼𝛼=𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶 , 𝛽𝛽= 0.99 +
1000

For FC≥35% 𝛼𝛼=5 , 𝛽𝛽=1.2

Geotechnical Engineering 102

Example 1 continued
(b)Calculate the Cyclic Resistance Ratio (CRR) given
that the % of fines is
i. 62% at 2.1m
ii. 25% at 5.5m
iii. 3% at 22m

Geotechnical Engineering 103

Cyclic Stress Ratio CSR
⚫ It is a ratio of the stresses that cause liquefaction
𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝜎
𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑅𝑅 = 0.65𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑
𝑔𝑔 𝜎𝜎′
Where
amax-is the peak horizontal acceleration
g-acceleration due to gravity
𝜎𝜎-overburden stress 𝜎𝜎 = 𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑥𝑥𝐻𝐻
𝜎𝜎′- effective overburden stress σ ′ = 𝜎𝜎 − 𝑢𝑢
u- pore water pressure 𝑢𝑢 = 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤𝐻𝐻
rd is the stress reduction coefficient
z<9.15m; rd= 1 - 0.00765z
Z>9.15m; rd= 1.174 - 0.0026z
Geotechnical Engineering 104
(c) Given that the peak ground acceleration is 0.16g and
the water table level is at a depth of 4.3m as shown below
determine the Cyclic Stress Ratio CSR at the 2.1m, 5.5m
and 22m depth
depth SPT N FC 𝜸𝜸
0m
Layer 1 4 62% 18.4kN/𝑚𝑚3
2.1m
Layer 2
4.3m wtl
18 25% 21kN/𝑚𝑚3
5.5m

Layer 3

12 3% 21.2kN/𝑚𝑚3
22m Geotechnical Engineering 105
Liquefaction potential Safety Factor
⚫ The liquefaction potential safety factor
𝐶𝐶𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑆𝑆𝐹𝐹 =
𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑅𝑅
If the SF is less than 1 there is a high risk of liquefaction
and if it is more than 1 the ground has no liquefaction
risk.
A layer may liquefy during an earthquake, even for
FS>1.0. A factor of safety of 1.2 at a particulardepth is
considered as the threshold value for the layer to be
categorized as non-liquefiable.

Geotechnical Engineering 106

Example 1 continued
(d) Determine the Factorof Safety for each soil layer
(e) What conclusion can you draw

Geotechnical Engineering 107

Liquefaction Potential Index (LPI)
⚫ (LPI) is evaluated at each borehole location from the
obtained factors of safety (FS) to predict the potential
of liquefaction to cause damage at the surface level at
the site of interest.
⚫ The FS shows the liquefaction potential of a soil layer
at a particular depth in the subsurface, it does not
show the degree of liquefaction severity at a
liquefaction-pronesite.
⚫ The liquefaction potential index (LPI) quantifies the
severity of liquefaction

Geotechnical Engineering 108

Liquefaction Potential Index (LPI)
𝑛𝑛

𝐿𝐿𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼 = ∑ 𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝐻𝐻𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1
Where
i denotes a soil layer
w- weight factor:
w = 10−0.5z for z < 20 m
w = 0 for z > 20 m
F- severity factor:
F = 1−FS for FS <1.0
F = 0 for FS > 1.0
H- thickness of soil layer
Geotechnical Engineering 109
Liquefaction Potential Index (LPI)
The level of liquefaction severity

LPI Severity
0 None
0-5 Low
5-15 Medium
>15 High

Example1 continued
(f ) Determine the Liquefaction potential Index and its
severity

Geotechnical Engineering 110

1.2 Stone columns

Geotechnical Engineering 111

 Stone columns
Stone columns are also termed vibro stone columns or
vibro replacement. They are used for the ground
improvement of fine grained soils (clays and silts).

Geotechnical Engineering 112

 Stone columns - Introduction
⚫ Stone columns or vibro replacement is a method
whereby large sized columns of coarse granular
material are installed in the soil.
⚫ Contrary to vibro compaction which involves the in-
situ compaction of cohesionless soil, vibro
replacement is applicable to cohesive soil.
⚫ Stone columns are constructed for load bearing
purposes and are well compacted by means of special
depth vibrators

Geotechnical Engineering 113

Stone columns

Geotechnical Engineering 114

Stone columns- Construction procedure
⚫ A hole is created in the ground to the required depth
which is typically the depth of the stiffer material
⚫ Granular fill material is deposited in intervals
(approximately 0.5m) into the hole, vibrated and
compacted by special vibrators.
⚫ The deposition of the granular stones can be through
the bottom of the vibrator using the dry method or at
the top of the vibrator using the wet method.

Geotechnical Engineering 115

Stone columns: Wet top feed method
•In the wet top-feed process, the vibrator
penetrates to the design depth using the
vibrator’s weight and vibrations, as well as water
jets located in the tip.
•The stone is then added at the ground surface
to the annular space around the vibrator
created by the jetting water.
•The stone falls through the space to the
vibrator tip, and fills the void created as the
vibrator is lifted several feet.
•The vibrator is lowered, densifying and
displacing the underlying stone.

Geotechnical Engineering 116

Stone columns: Dry bottom feed method
⚫The dry bottom-feed process is similar,
except that no water jets are used and
the stone is fed to the vibrator tip through
an attached feed pipe.

Geotechnical Engineering 117

Stone columns – construction procedure

Top crust of stone column is left

exposed for dissipation of pore
water pressure

Geotechnical Engineering 118

Objectives in using stone columns
⚫ Increase shear strength
⚫ Increase ground stiffness
⚫ Facilitateconsolidation by providing radial drainage

Geotechnical Engineering 119

 Applications of stone columns
⚫ Footings: Pads or raft
⚫ Railways
⚫ Tanks
⚫ Embankments
⚫ Ports - offshore

Geotechnical Engineering 120

 Application of stone columns
⚫.

Pad footings
Tank foundations

Geotechnical Engineering 121

Application of stone columns

Railways

Geotechnical Engineering 122

Application of stone columns

Offshore - Marine

Geotechnical Engineering 123

Application of stone columns

Power station
cooling tower,
Chennai

Geotechnical Engineering 124

 Application of stone columns
Storage tank in New
Delhi

Geotechnical Engineering 125

 Design of stone columns
⚫ Introducing stone columns will result in an
improvement factor
⚫ The improvement factor indicates increase in
compression modulusand the extent to which the
settlement is reduced by the column ground
improvement.
⚫ The design is basis is that the installation of stone
columns densifies the soil between.

Geotechnical Engineering 126

Design of stone columns – Priebe’s
method
⚫ The design of Stone Columns using Heinz J. Priebes
method
⚫ The following idealized conditions are assumed in the
design:
 The column is based on a rigid layer
 The column material is uncompressible
The column can not fail in end bearing and any
settlement of the load area results in a bulging of the
column which remains constant all over its length

Geotechnical Engineering 127

Design of stone columns – basic
improvement factor no
⚫ The first step is tocalculate the Basic improvement factor no

A poisson’s ratio of is adequate in most cases and this reduces the

expression to:

Geotechnical Engineering 128

Design of stone columns – basic
improvement factor no
⚫ The first step is to calculate the Basic improvement
factor no

Geotechnical Engineering 129

Design of stone columns – column
compressibility n1
⚫ The compressibility of the column material can be
considered by using a reduced improvement factor n1
which results from the formula developed for thebasic
improvement factor, no

Geotechnical Engineering 130

Design of stone columns – column
compressibility n1

Geotechnical Engineering 131

Design of stone columns – consideration of
overburden
⚫ The overburden pressure is accounted for by applying
the improvement factor with overburden constraint n2
n2 = fd x n1

y is obtained is the inf luence factorwhich is obtained

from charts

Geotechnical Engineering 132

Design of stone columns – consideration of
overburden influence factor y

Geotechnical Engineering 133

Design of stone columns – Shear value of
Improved soil
The shear resistance from friction of the composite
system can be determined by :

Geotechnical Engineering 134

Stone columns design example
6m deep stone columns with a diameter of 0.75m were
designed to support a building load of 120kPa. The
stones have an angle of internal friction of 40deg. Given that
the columns were constructed in soil with a friction angle of
0 deg, unit weight of 16kN/m3, cohesion of 20kPa and
for a 1.5m x 1.5m cell determine:
a) The basic improvement factor
b) The reduced improvement factor
c) The improvement factor with overburden constraint
d) The shear strength of the improved soil
e) The safety factor against bulging
Geotechnical Engineering 135
1.3 Dynamic compaction

Geotechnical Engineering 136

 Dynamic compaction
By definition dynamic compaction is a ground
improvement technique that reduces the volume of soil
by using a drop weight.

Geotechnical Engineering 137

Dynamic compaction

Geotechnical Engineering 138

Dynamic compaction

Geotechnical Engineering 139

Dynamic compaction
⚫ Dynamic compaction is a process which can be used to
compact loose granular soils, clayey sand as well as the
unsaturated clayey fill.

Geotechnical Engineering 140

Dynamic compaction process
⚫ A crane is used to lift the weight (which is typically
made of steel) and drop it onto the ground surface
several times
⚫ The weight is dropped in pre-determined locations
which follow a grid pattern.
⚫ The spacing between the drops depends on the sub-
surface conditions, foundation loading and geometry.

Geotechnical Engineering 141

Dynamic compaction components

Geotechnical Engineering 142

Dynamic compaction
⚫ Dynamic compaction (DC) strengthens weak soils by
controlled high energy tamping (dropping a static
weight from a defined height).
⚫ The reaction of the soil during the treatment varies
with soil type and energy input.
⚫ Typically drop weights range from 6-20 ton dropped
from heights up to 20m. Weights are typically
constructed using steel plates, box steel and concrete
(also suitably reinforced mass concrete).

Geotechnical Engineering 143

Dynamic compaction benefits
Benefits of using dynamic compaction include:
⚫ Increased bearing capacity
⚫ Decrease in settlement
⚫ Liquefaction mitigation
⚫ Reduced sinkhole potential

Geotechnical Engineering 144

Dynamic compaction design
Dynamic compaction design involves determining the
number of passes P.

Geotechnical Engineering 145

 Dynamic compaction – Number of passes
⚫ The number of passes P

P=

Where E – compactive energy = mgh

S – spacing of compaction point = 2d (2xdiameter)
N – number of drops
M – mass of compactor
H – height of fall

Geotechnical Engineering 146

Dynamic compaction design- Induced
settlement
⚫The induced settlement is a function of the treatment
depth and it depends on the soil type.
For cohesive soil, estimated depth of compaction,
D = 0.4(EdB/Acu)0.5
For granular soil
D = n√(mh)
n depends on the degree of saturation as shown in the
table below

Geotechnical Engineering 147

Dynamic compaction design- Induced
settlement
Range of n values for various soil types
Soil type Degree of Recommended
saturation n value
Pervious soil deposits - High 0.5
Granular soils low 0.5 - 0.6

Semipervious soil deposits - High 0.35 - 0.40

Primarily silts with plasticity low 0.4 - 0.5
index of < 8

Impervious deposits - Primarily High Not recommended

clayey soils with plasticity Low 0.35 - 0.40
index of > 8 Soils should be at water content
less than the plastic limit
Geotechnical Engineering 148
Dynamic compaction design- Induced
settlement
Approximate induced settlement as % of treatment
depth
Soil type % depth
Natural clays 1-3
Clay fills 3-5
Natural sands 3-10
Granular fills 5-15
Refuse and peat 7-20

Geotechnical Engineering 149

Dynamic compaction example
A site measuring 10km2 is to undergo dynamic
compaction. The geology consists of saturated loose
sand 6m deep. Given that the compactor weighs 32T,
1.5m in diameter, the height of fall is 15m and the
number of drops N is 18. Determine
a.
i. The number of passes required
ii. The induced settlement
b. What would be the induced settlement if the soil consists
of loose clay with Cu = 25kPa

Geotechnical Engineering 150

Dynamic compaction risks
⚫ Flying debris
⚫ Voids/ obstructions
⚫ Suitable infill
⚫ Final rolling essential
⚫ Issues of concern in public areas:
- Noise levels
- Vibrations

Geotechnical Engineering 151

Mechanical methods
⚫ Vibro compaction
⚫ Vibro replacement/ Stone columns
⚫ Dynamic compaction

Geotechnical Engineering 152

Hydraulic modification methods
Sumps
Well point system
Deep wells
Ejectors
Ground freezing
Electro-osmosis

Geotechnical Engineering 153

Hydraulic modification methods
⚫ WATER IN SOIL IS A PROBLEM
⚫ It gets in the way and it weakens the soil
⚫ If it flows, it weakens the soil according to a
distribution given by a f low net
⚫ In dry conditions:
⚫ When there is ground water :
⚫ Ground water reduces the shear strength of soil

Geotechnical Engineering 154

Hydraulic modification – ground water
control
Introduction
 Pumping water out of the ground will lower the
ground water level and reduce water pressure
 The rate of drawdown and the radius of influence will
depend on the permeability of the soil
 Low permeability implies slow drawdown
 Decreasing the water pressure increases the effective
stress which increases the shear strength of soil.

Geotechnical Engineering 155

Hydraulic modification – ground water
control
Definition
 Temporary lowering of ground water levels by
pumping from wells or sumps provides stable
conditions for excavations below the natural
groundwater level
 In order to carry out construction work excavation is
often necessary. In order for excavation to take place in
dry stable conditions temporary ground water
lowering is required

Geotechnical Engineering 156

Hydraulic modification – ground water
control
Principles of operation
 The objective of dewatering is to lower the water table
in the vicinity of an excavation to provide a relatively
dry and stable working area
 Pumping from wells positioned around the excavation
is usually the preferred method
 There are a variety of different methods available,
depending upon the dewatering requirements and the
type of soil requiring dewatering.

Geotechnical Engineering 157

 Hydraulic modification – Methods
available
⚫ Sumps – pumping water from an open excavation
⚫ Well-pointsystems – a number of small wells installed
at close centres around an excavation
⚫ Deepwells – contain a submersible pump
⚫ Ejectors – uses a water jet and venturi to generate a
high vacuum at the base of a well to supplement
gravity forces
⚫ Electro – osmosis – causes water to pass by passing an
electric current through the soil

Geotechnical Engineering 158

Hydraulic modification – Applicable soils
⚫ Majority of granular soils – pumping methods are
most appropriate.
⚫ Medium to coarse gravel – grouting may be necessary.
Permeability is too high for pumping.
⚫ Silty soils- silts and clays may be dealt with using
ejectors
⚫ Either electro – osmosis, ground freezing or grouting
may be considered for thicker depositsof fine grained
soils.

Geotechnical Engineering 159

Base heave of excavation

Geotechnical Engineering 160

Hydraulic modification – Mechanisms
of dewatering
Coarse soils (gravels, coarse and medium sands) may
be literally dewatered as water flows out of the pores
under gravity – drainage through pores
Fine soils (silts and clays) capillaryeffects will result in
water remaining within the pores at negative pore
water pressures – soil remains saturated and drainage
is by consolidation.

Geotechnical Engineering 161

1. Sumps
2. Wellpoint system
3. Deep wells
4. Ejector system

Geotechnical Engineering 162

1.4.1 Sumps

Geotechnical Engineering 163

1.4.1 Sumps
⚫ This is the simplest and most widely used method of
dewatering
⚫ However, because each well requires its own pump the
method becomes impractical when more than a few
sumps are required
⚫ Capable of lowering the water table by approximately
8m
⚫ Sumps must be positioned beneath the deepest part of
the excavation away from any works and surrounded
by a layer of filter material.
Geotechnical Engineering 164
 Sumps

Geotechnical Engineering 165

 Sumps

Geotechnical Engineering 166

Sump – basement construction

Geotechnical Engineering 167

Sump basement construction

Geotechnical Engineering 168

1.4.2 Wellpoint system

Geotechnical Engineering 169

1.4.2 Well point system
 Well point systems are used to lower ground water levels
to provide stable working conditions in excavations. Well
point systems are particularly suited to dewatering for
shallow foundations and trench works.
 A well point system consists of a closely spaced series of
small diameter shallow wells. The well points are
connected to a header-main and are pumped with a high
efficiency vacuum dewatering pump.
 Rapid and cost effective well point installation may be
achieved in sandy soils by jetting using high pressure
water; drilling installation may be necessary in coarse or
cohesive soils.

Geotechnical Engineering 170

1.4.2 Well point systems
⚫ Single-stage systems are used for excavations up to 6-7m,
with multi-stage systems used for deeper excavations.
⚫ Produces a cone of depression in the water table so that the
excavation can take place in dry conditions
⚫ The system consists of a number of individual well points
each consisting of a jetting/riser pipe 40-50mm diameter
drilled with a ring of inlet points at the bottom
⚫ A strainer about 1m long is placed over the tube to cover the
ports
⚫ The riser is connected at surface level to a header pipe
about 150mm diameter which in turn is connected to a
suction pipe.

Geotechnical Engineering 171

Well point system

Geotechnical Engineering 172

Well point system

Geotechnical Engineering 173

Well point system

Geotechnical Engineering 174

Well point system
⚫ The wellpoint is fitted with a rubber valve placed
inside the jetting shoe.
⚫ During installation the top end of the riser/jetting
pipe is connected to a jetting hose and water under
pressure is forced through the wellpoint
⚫ An operator places the wellpoint in the desired
position, the water pressure turned on and the
washing action causes the pipe to penetrate the soil

Geotechnical Engineering 175

Well point system

Geotechnical Engineering 176

Wellpoint accessories
⚫ The system consists of a series of shallow wells, called
Wellpoints , installed around the excavation.
⚫ The Wellpoints use a Riser Pipe to reach the desired
depth, and allow the Wellpoint to extract the ground
water.
⚫ The Riser Pipe is connected to a manifold, called Head
er Pipe , by a flexible hose, called a Swing Joint .
⚫ The Swing Joint is connected to an adjustable Header
Valve , and to the top of the Riser Pipe.
⚫ The adjustable Header Valve provides a method to
control the air and groundwater entering the Header
Pipe.
Geotechnical Engineering 177
 Wellpoint accessories

Geotechnical Engineering 178

Well point system
⚫ Spacing of well points depends on:
 Soil characteristics
 Head
 Excavation depths

Geotechnical Engineering 179

Multi-stage wellpoint system
⚫ For drawdowns in excess of 6m,further stages of wellpoints are
required, installed at successively lower levels as excavation proceeds.

Geotechnical Engineering 180

1.4.3 Deep wells

Geotechnical Engineering 181

1.4.3 Deep wells
⚫ Deep well systems consist of one or more individual wells,
each of which has its own submersible pump at the bottom
of the well (Boreholes).
⚫ Such systems are particularly suitable where large volumes
of water must be pumped in highly permeable sand and
gravel which permit a rapid recharging of ground water
from surrounding areas,
⚫ They are appropriate where the depth of excavation below
the water table exceeds the lift capabilities of other
dewatering techniques or where above ground apparatus
might interfere with construction operations.
⚫ Normally, individual wells are spaced at distances of as
much as 15 meters. But soil conditions and the dewatering
plan can cause spacing as close as just a few meters.
Geotechnical Engineering 182
Deep wells
⚫ Deep well pumps can lift water 30 meters or more in a
single stage. A variation of the typical deep well system
is a pressure within an aquifer.
⚫ Such wells require no pump, the water being forced to
the surface by its own pressure. However, a vacuum
pump is frequently used to boost f low.
⚫ Such wells are often sealed to prevent intake of air or
water from higher aquifers.
⚫ Deep wellsare very expensive to install and maintain,
but in many applications they can be the most
economical choice

Geotechnical Engineering 183

Deep wells
⚫ A typical deep well consists of a drilled hole within
which is a lower screened casing which admits water to
the pump; an upper casing which prevents soil from
reaching the pump and, within the casing, the pump
and its discharge pipe.
⚫ The discharge pipe supports the pump to which it is
attached. Electrical wiring for the pump motor runs
between the discharge pipe and the casing.
⚫ The space between the drilled hole and the casing is
normally packed with filter material (coarse sand
and/or gravel, for example) to minimize the pumping
of solid material from the soil surrounding the well.

Geotechnical Engineering 184

Deep wells
⚫A submersible pump is located at the bottom
of the well
⚫ The pump size is chosen to match the flow rate and the
well diameter.
⚫ Used for deep excavations.
⚫ The well is bored by rotary boring methods and a
temporary outer casing is driven to give stability.
⚫ A perforated well liner is placed into the well bottom and
plugged. Layers of filter material are placed around the
casing.
⚫ A pump is installed and the discharge pipe led to a nearby
stream.

Geotechnical Engineering 185

 Deep well

Geotechnical Engineering 186

 Deep wells – construction
consideration
⚫ The type of soil and the position of the impermeable
strata has a marked effect on the pumping which is
possible.
⚫ Theoretic models have been developed to estimate the
discharge from a well in different soil configurations.
⚫ To simplify the formulae for practical purposes the
flow into a well is usually considered to be either
confined or unconfined.

Geotechnical Engineering 187

Deep well - Advantages
⚫ High efficiency
⚫ Low operating costs compared to multi stage well
points
⚫ Lower water table by more than 30m
⚫ Do not obstruct construction as the pump is located at
the bottom of the well

Geotechnical Engineering 188

Typical wellpoint construction site (crammed!!)

Geotechnical Engineering 189

1.4.4 Ejector system

Geotechnical Engineering 190

1.4.4 Ejector system
 Ejector (or eductor) dewatering systems are used to
control pore pressures and to lower groundwater levels to
provide stable working conditions in excavations.
 Ejector systems are able to extract groundwater and
generate a high vacuum at the base of wells up to 50m deep
and as little as 50mm in diameter.
 Vacuum drainage can dramatically improve the stability of
silty fine sands and laminated silts and clays by controlling
excess pore pressures.
 Supply pumps at ground level feed high pressure water to
the ejector nozzle and venturi located at the base of the
wells. The flow of water through the nozzle generates a
vacuum in the well and draws in groundwater.

Geotechnical Engineering 191

Ejector system

Geotechnical Engineering 192

Dewatering mechanism – Pressure relief
well points for deep basements

Geotechnical Engineering 193

Pressure relief wells

Geotechnical Engineering 194

Pressure relief wells

Geotechnical Engineering 195

Summary of techniques
Well points Deep wells Ejectors

Depth (m) 6 Unlimited 50

Flow (l/s) 1 1 to 50 1

Spacing (m) 1 to 3 10 to 100 2 to 15

Efficiency Good Very good Poor

Geotechnical Engineering 196

Range of application dewatering
techniques

Geotechnical Engineering 197

1.5 Ground freezing

Geotechnical Engineering 198

Origin
⚫ The ground freezing method is – compared to other
heavy civil measures – an old technique.
⚫ It was developed in the 19th century by the German
engineer Friedrich Poetsch. His patent for ground
freezing was granted in 1883.
⚫ The method was developed for shaft sinking to get
through water bearing soils down to the hard rock and
coal seams. It was the only safe method to construct
shafts with depths of more than 50m in water
saturated soil.
⚫ The deepest freezing shaft in Germany was completed
in Rheinberg with a depth of more than 600m.
Geotechnical Engineering 199
 Background
⚫ The principle of ground freezing is to change the pore
water in the soil into a solid wall of ice.
⚫ The principles of ground freezing are analogous to
pumping ground water from wells.

Geotechnical Engineering 200

 Ground freezing

Geotechnical Engineering 201

 Ground freezing

Geotechnical Engineering 202

 Ground Freezing background
⚫ The freezing method is remarkablyversatile and with
ingenuity it can be adopted to a great many project
conditions
⚫ The penetration of a freeze does not vary greatly with
permeability, so it is much more effective as cutoff
than grout
⚫ In stratified soils, cut off by freezing encounters fewer
problems than drainage by dewatering.
⚫ Freezing can perform the dual function of water cutoff
and earth supporteliminating sheeting and bracing.

Geotechnical Engineering 203

 Ground freezing background
⚫ Ground freezing is mostly used for temporary ground
support or structural element respectively and as a
ground water control system.
⚫ The advantage of frozen ground is that frozen water is
100% impermeable.
⚫ Even obstacles like stones, concrete remnants or
similar materials, which usually cause problems as a
barrier when grouting techniques are used for sealing
tasks, will just be embedded in the frozen soil volume
as the frost grows through and around all obstacles

Geotechnical Engineering 204

Ground freezing

Geotechnical Engineering 205

Principle of ground freezing
⚫ Pore water is converted into ice. Like the cement in
concrete, the ice bonds the soil particles together,
imparting strength and impermeability to the frozen soil
mass.
⚫ Ground freezing is based on the withdrawal of heat from
the soil. Continuous energy is usually required to establish
and maintain a frozen soil body.
⚫ For the build-up of a frozen soil body either a row of
vertical, horizontal or inclined freeze pipes have to be
drilled into place.
⚫ An open-ended inner pipe, sometimes referred to as the
down-pipe is inserted into the centre of the closed-end
freeze pipe

Geotechnical Engineering 206

Principle of ground freezing
⚫ The down pipe is used for the supply of the freeze pipe with
a cooling medium, usually brine or liquid nitrogen.
⚫ The inner pipe is connected to the supply line and the outer
pipe to the return line (when brine is used) or the exhaust
line(when liquid nitrogen is used).
⚫ The coolant flows through the inner pipe to its deepest
point. On its way back through the annulus between inner
pipe and freeze pipe, the coolant picks up heat and is
warmed up.
⚫ Due to the flow of the coolant the frost penetrates the soil
and aring of frozen soil occurs around the freeze pipes.
⚫ Depending on the arrangement of the freeze pipes
location and directions one can achieve all shapes of frozen
soil walls (bodies) as required for the individual task.

Geotechnical Engineering 207

Ground freezing – General procedure
⚫ To freeze the ground a row of freeze pipes are placed
vertically in the soil and heat energy is removed
through these pipes.
⚫ Isotherms (an isotherm is a line connecting locations
with equal temperature) move out from the freeze
pipes with time similar to groundwater contours
around a well.
⚫ Once the earth pressure reaches 0deg. water in the soil
pores turns to ice
⚫ Further cooling proceeds. The groundwater in the
pores readily freezes in granular soils such as sand

Geotechnical Engineering 208

Ground freezing – general procedure
⚫ For instance, saturated sand achieves excellent
strength at only a few degrees below the freezing point
⚫ If the temperature is lowered further, the strength
increases marginally
⚫ In cohesive soils, such as clays the groundwater is
molecularly bonded in part to the soil particles
⚫ If soft clay is cooled down to the freezing temperature
some portions of its pore water begin to freeze and it
causes the soil to stiffen

Geotechnical Engineering 209

Ground freezing – general procedure
⚫ With further reduction in temperature, more pore
water freezes and consequently more strength gain is
achieved.
⚫ When designing for frozen earth structures in cohesive
soils, it may be necessary to specify substantially lower
temperatures to achieve the required strength than in
cohesionless soils.
⚫ A temperature of -6oC may be sufficient in sands
whereas temperatures as low as -28oC may be
required in soft clays.

Geotechnical Engineering 210

 Brine freezing

Geotechnical Engineering 211

Brine freezing
⚫ Brine freezing requires a closed circulation system and
the use of refrigeration plants.
⚫ The brine (usually calcium chloride CaCl2), which is
warmed up during circulation, f lows back through the
insulated surface manifold system before returning to
the freeze plant station for re-cooling.
⚫ The brine supply temperature T generally ranges from
T=−20◦C to−37◦C.

Geotechnical Engineering 212

 Brine freezing
⚫ The entire freezing plant consists of the required
number of freeze units, several additional components
like low voltage switch-gears, tank for the brine
backflowand the recooling machine.
⚫ Several freeze units can be combined in a more
powerful freeze plant. To minimize fresh water
consumption special recooling systems should be
connected for heat exchange with the air.
⚫ Currently, it is state of the art to use ammonia as
cooling agent within the freeze unit (not as coolant in
the freeze pipe system). Ammonia is much more
environmentally friendly than hydrocarbon fluoride
Geotechnical Engineering 213
Nitrogen freezing
⚫ Liquid nitrogen (LN2) freezing Liquid nitrogen freezing is
a process by which heat is extracted from the soil through
direct vaporization of LN2 in the freeze pipes.
⚫ From an on-site storage tank or directly from a tank truck,
the LN2 is fed through an insulated surface manifold
system, usually consisting of copper pipes and quick
connect, into the inner pipes.
⚫ The LN2 starts to vaporize at a temperature of T=−196◦C in
the annulus between freeze and inner pipe, picking up heat
on its way up. The cold nitrogen gas is directly vented into
the atmosphere; the gas exhaust temperature is measured
with temperature sensors.

Geotechnical Engineering 214

 Nitrogen freezing
⚫ Freezing with LN2 is fast. A frozen soil body can be
formed within a matter of a few days with LN2,
whereas it takes weeks for the brine freezing system.
⚫ However, due to its high costs, the use of LN2 for
ground freezing is usually limited to short term
applications or limited volume of frozen soil.

Geotechnical Engineering 215

Ground freezing operation

Geotechnical Engineering 216

 Application of ground freezing
⚫ For groundwater cut off
⚫ For earth support
⚫ For temporary underpinning
⚫ For stabilisation of earth
⚫ For tunnel excavation
⚫ To inhibit landslides and to stabilise abondoned mine
shafts

Geotechnical Engineering 217

Reinforced slope

Geotechnical Engineering 218

Slope reinforcement
⚫ There are Four main methods which are used to
reinforce slopes:
 Anchors
 Piles
 geosynthetics,
 Nails

Geotechnical Engineering 219

 Soil nails

Geotechnical Engineering 220

Origin of soil nails
⚫ The origins of soil nailing can be traced to a support system for
underground excavations in rock referred to as the New Austrian
Tunneling Method
⚫ This tunneling method consists of the installation of passive
(i.e., not prestressed as for ground anchors) steel reinforcement
in the rock (e.g., rockbolts) followed by the application of
reinforced shotcrete.
⚫ This concept of combining passive steel reinforcement and
shotcrete has also been applied to the stabilization of rock slopes
since the early 1960s
⚫ This ground-support technique relies on the mobilization of the
tensile strength of the steel reinforcement at relatively small
deformations in the surrounding ground.
⚫ This support is enhanced by the continuity of the shotcrete.
⚫ The combination of passive reinforcement and shotcrete when
applied to soil, in lieu of rock, is termed soil nailing.

Geotechnical Engineering 221

Basic elements of a soil nail

Geotechnical Engineering 222

Basic elements of a soil nail
1.Steel reinforcing bars – The solid steel reinforcing bars are
the main component of the soil nail wall system. These
elements are placed in pre-drilled drill holes and grouted in
place. Tensile stress is applied passively to the nails in
response to the deformation of the retained
materials during subsequent excavation activities.
2.Grout – Grout is placed in the pre-drilled borehole after the
nail is placed. The grout serves the primary function of
transferring stress from the ground to the nail. The grout also
provides a level of corrosion protection to the soil nail.
3.Nail head – The nail head is the threaded end of the soil
nail that protrudes from the wall facing.

Geotechnical Engineering 223

4.Hex nut, washer, and bearing plate – These
components attach to the nail head and are used to
connect the soil nail to the facing.
5.Temporary and permanent facing – The facing
provides structural connectivity. The temporary facing
serves as the bearing surface for the bearing plate and
support the exposed soil. This facing is placed on the
unsupported excavation prior to advancement of the
excavation grades. The permanent facing is placed over
the temporary facing after the soil nails are installed and
the hex nut has been tightened.

Geotechnical Engineering 224

6. Geocomposite strip drainage – The geocomposite strip
drainage systemmedia is placed prior to application of
the temporary facing to allow collection and
transmission of seepage water that may migrate to the
temporary facing.

7. Additional corrosion protection (not shown) in Figure

Geotechnical Engineering 225

Slope reinforcement
⚫ With the exception of piles, reinforcement requires an
estimation of the pullout resistance available to the
reinforcement.
⚫ This available pullout resistance depends on the
amount of bonded length behind the slip surface (in
the passive zone) or in front of the slip surface (in the
active zone).

Geotechnical Engineering 226

Soil nail construction sequence
Step 1: Excavation

 Initial excavation is carried out to a

depth for which the face of the
excavation has the ability to remain
unsupported for a short period of
time, typically on the order of 24 to
48 hours.
⚫ The depth of the excavation lift is
usually between 1 and 2m and
reaches slightly below the elevation
where nails will be installed.
⚫ The width of the excavated platform
or bench must be sufficient to
provide access tothe installation
equipment.

Geotechnical Engineering 227

 Step 2 Drilling Nail Holes

⚫ Drillholes are drilled to a

specified length, diameter,
inclination, and horizontal
spacing from this excavated
platform.

Geotechnical Engineering 228

 Step 3 Nail Installation and
Grouting.
⚫ Nail bars are placed in the pre-
drilled hole. The bars are most
commonly solid, although hollow
steel nails can be also used have
seen increased usage.
⚫ Centralizers are placed around
the nails prior to insertion to help
maintain alignment within the
hole and allow sufficient
protective grout coverage over
the nail bar.
⚫ A grout pipe (tremie) is also
inserted in the drillhole at this
time.

Geotechnical Engineering 229

⚫ When corrosion protection requirements are high,
corrugated plastic sheathing can also be used to
provide an additional level of corrosion protection.
⚫ The drillhole is then filled with cement grout through
the tremie pipe.
⚫ The grout is commonly placed undergravity or low
pressure.
⚫ If hollow self-drilling bars are used (only as temporary
structures), the drilling and grouting take place in one
operation.

Geotechnical Engineering 230

 ⚫ Prior to Step 4 (facing
placement), geocomposite
drainage strips are
installed on the excavation
face approximately midway
between each set of
adjacent nails.
⚫ The drainage strips are
then unrolled to the next
wall lift. The drainage
strips extend to the bottom
of the excavation where
collected water is conveyed
via a toe drain away from
the soil nail wall.

Geotechnical Engineering 231

 Step 4. Construction of Temporary
Shotcrete Facing.
⚫ A temporary facing system is
then constructed to support the
open-cut soil section before the
next lift of soil is excavated.
⚫ The most typical temporary
facing consists of a lightly
reinforced shotcrete layer
commonly 100 mm thick.
⚫ The reinforcement typically
consists of welded wire mesh
(WWM), which is placed at
approximately the middle of the
facing thickness
Geotechnical Engineering 232
 ⚫ The length of the Wire Mesh must be
such that it allows at least 1 full mesh
cell to overlap with subsequent WWM
panels.
⚫ Following appropriate curing time for
the temporary facing, a steel bearing
plate is placed over the nail head
protruding from the drillhole.
⚫ The bar is then lightly pressed into the
first layer of fresh shot crete.
⚫ A hex nut and washers are
subsequently installed to secure the
nail head against the bearing plate.
⚫ The hex nut is tightened to a required
minimum torque after the temporary
facing has sufficiently cured
⚫ This usually requires a minimum of 24
⚫ hours

Geotechnical Engineering 233

 ⚫ If required, testing of the
installed nails to measure
def lections (for comparison to a
pre-specified criterion) and
proof load capacities may be
performed prior to proceeding
with the next excavation lift.
⚫ Before proceeding with
subsequent excavation lifts, the
shotcrete must have cured for
at least 72 hours or have
attained at least the specified 3-
day compressive strength
typically 10.5 Mpa.

Geotechnical Engineering 234

 Step 5. Construction of
Subsequent Levels.
⚫ Steps 1 through 4 are repeated for
the remaining excavation lifts.
⚫ At each excavation lift, the vertical
drainage strip is unrolled downward
to the subsequent lift.
⚫ A new panel of WWM is then
placed overlapping at least one full
mesh cell.
⚫ The temporary shotcrete is
continued with a cold joint with the
previous shotcrete lift.
⚫ At the bottom of the excavation, the
drainage strip is tied to a
collecting toe drain.

Geotechnical Engineering 235

 Step 6. Construction of a Final,
Permanent Facing.
⚫ After the bottom of the
excavation is reached and nails
are installed and load tested, a
final facing may be constructed.
⚫ Final facing may consist of cast-
in-place (CIP) reinforced
concrete, reinforced shotcrete, or
prefabricated panels.
⚫ The reinforcement of permanent
facing is conventional concrete
bars or WWM.
⚫ When CIP concrete and
shotcrete are used for the
permanent facing, horizontal
joints between excavation lifts
are avoided to the maximum
extent possible.

Geotechnical Engineering 236

Drilling soil nails

Geotechnical Engineering 237

Geotechnical Engineering 238
Soil nail construction

Geotechnical Engineering 239

Soil nail- shotcrete

Geotechnical Engineering 240

Completed soil nail slope
Geotechnical Engineering 241
Soil nail capabilities
Advantages Disadvantages
Cost effective Lack of bending resistance
Quick construction Difficult to construct on slope with high
Wall flexibility groundwater
Reduction in cut excavation Utility conflicts
Can be used in areas of limited head
room ground displacements
Incoporation of temporay support in final durability of shotcrete with respect to
structure freeze thaw
soil face must exhibit sufficient stand up
time

Geotechnical Engineering 242

Geologic applicability
⚫ Stiff to hard fine grain with a P.I less than 15
⚫ Dense to very dense granular soils with some apparent
cohesion
⚫ Weathered rock with no weakness planes and well
graded glacial soils
⚫ Poorlygraded loose soils with cobble and boulders
⚫ Soils susceptible to liquefaction or collapseafter
introduction of water
⚫ Water table behind the wall increases the difficulty of
construction.

Geotechnical Engineering 243

Conditions not appropriate for soil nails
⚫ Organic soils
⚫ Rubble fills
⚫ Cohesive soils LL>50 , PI>20
⚫ Cohesionless soils of uniform size
⚫ Cohesionless soils of low strength
⚫ Below permanent groundwater table
⚫ Anywhere stand up time is not sufficient

Geotechnical Engineering 244

Geotechnical Engineering 245
Design of soil nails
⚫ Design considerations:
1) The spacing between the first row and the top of the
wall Sv <1.2m
o

2) The spacing between the deepest row and the

bottom of the wall Sv must be in the range 0.7m-
n

1.2m
2
3) Vertical and horizontal spacing of nails S xS < 4m v h

4) Soil nail length L ; between 0.6H and 1.2H

𝑞𝑞 𝑢𝑢 𝐷𝐷 𝑑𝑑 ℎ 𝐶𝐶
5) Pull out resistance µ = po , 𝑐𝑐∗ =
𝐹𝐹 𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜 𝛾𝛾𝑆𝑆 ℎ 𝑆𝑆 𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾

Geotechnical Engineering 246

6) Determine the corrected length
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑 = 𝐶𝐶1𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 𝐶𝐶2𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 𝐶𝐶3𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 (𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑡𝑡)
𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻
a. Length correction factor for drill hole diameter, C 1L
𝐶𝐶𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = 1.5 − 0.15𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐻𝐻 + 0.0065𝐷𝐷2𝐷𝐷𝐻𝐻
b) Length correction factor for cohesion, C 2L
𝐶𝐶2𝐿𝐿 = −4𝑥𝑥𝐶𝐶∗ + 1.09 > 0.85
c) Length correction factor for safety, C3L
𝐶𝐶3𝐿𝐿 = 0.52𝐹𝐹𝑂𝑂𝑆𝑆 + 0.3 > 1
7. Determine the size of soil nails
𝛾𝛾𝐻𝐻 𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝐻𝐻
𝑃𝑃 + 2 𝐻𝐻𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠𝐵𝐵 (𝐹𝐹 − cot 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑) − (𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝐵𝐵)
𝑇𝑇 =
sin 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑 + 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵)
Geotechnical Engineering 247
Soil nail – Soil/ rock bond strength

Geotechnical Engineering 248

Soil nail – Soil/ rock bond strength

Geotechnical Engineering 249

L/H vs 𝜇𝜇𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜Chart

Normalised bond strength 𝜇𝜇𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜

Geotechnical Engineering 250
Threaded soil nail bar properties Grade 525MPa

Bar diameter Cross sectional Maximum Axial

(mm) area (mm2) Load (KN)
19 284 147
22 387 206
25 510 264
29 645 334
32 819 424
36 1006 526
45 1452 751

Geotechnical Engineering 251

Example: Design a soil nail system for the configuration shown below given that the
nails are to be rotary drilled in silt soil.

50KPa

L =13.3m
C= 42Kpa
9m 𝜸𝜸=18.8KN/m3
𝝋𝝋= 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟓𝒐𝒐
Fs = 1.5

Geotechnical Engineering 252

1.8 Geosynthetics

Geotechnical Engineering 253

Geosynthetics
1. Types of geosynthetics
2. Functions of geosynthetics
3. Reinforcement
4. Separation
5. Erosion control
6. Drainage
7. Containment

Geotechnical Engineering 254

Geosynthetics
⚫ The term “geosynthetic” is made up of two words:
“geo” which means earth related and “synthetic” which
signifies man-made.
⚫ A geosynthetic is a polymeric product and is defined as
a “planar material which is used in contact with soil,
rock or other geotechnical material as an integral part
of a man made project, structure or system”

Geotechnical Engineering 255

Geosynthetics
⚫ Geosynthetics have a wide range of generic names
which are based on their structure, these include
geomembranes, geotextiles, geonets, geomats,geocells,
geogrids, geosynthetic clay liners, geocomposites,
geopipes.
⚫ Other geosynthetics cannot be assigned to any
category and these are called geo-others.

Geotechnical Engineering 256

1.8.1 Types of Geosynthetics

Geotechnical Engineering 257

 Geotextiles

Non- woven geotextile Woven geotextile

 As the name suggests geotextiles are manufactured from

textiles
They are predominantly products of polypropylene,
polyester and polyethylene.
Geotextiles are classified into three main categories
namely nonwoven, woven and knitted geotextiles
Geotechnical Engineering 258
 Geogrid

⚫ A geogrids is a “geosynthetic formed by a regular

network of integrally connected elements with
apertures greater than 6.35mm to allow interlocking
with surrounding soil, rock, earth and other
surrounding materials
⚫ Geogrids are used almost exclusivelyfor reinforcement

Geotechnical Engineering 259

Geogrid functions

Geotechnical Engineering 260

 Geomembrane

⚫ a membrane is a thin, pliable, waterproof material.

⚫ Geomembranes are partially impermeable because it is
not possible for a material to be absolutely impermeable.
⚫ Their primary function is containment as a liquid or
vapour barrier or both
Geotechnical Engineering 261
Geomembrane applications
⚫ Geomembranes are used as an impervious barrier in
the following applications:
i. Hazardous Solid Waste
ii. Land Fill
iii. Municipal Solid Waste
iv. Air Field
v. Road works
vi. Water Reservoir
vii. Land Fill Capping

Geotechnical Engineering 262

Geomembrane

Geotechnical Engineering 263

 Geosynthetic Clay Liner

⚫ Geosynthetics which comprise of clay bonded to a layer of

geosynthetic materials are known as geosynthetic clay liners
⚫ The clay type used in the manufacture of GCL is sodium
bentonite.
⚫ They are used as a composite component beneath a
geomembrane or by themselves in environmental or
containment applications
Geotechnical Engineering 264
Geosynthetic clay liner

Geotechnical Engineering 265

 Geocells

⚫ Geocells are also known as cellular holding systems.

⚫ They are filled with soil or concrete for erosion control,
soil stabilisation, channel protection and structural
reinforcement.
Geotechnical Engineering 266
Geocell

Geotechnical Engineering 267

 Geomat

⚫ A geomat is a three dimensional structure made from

polymeric monofilaments or other elements.
⚫ They are used to prevent erosion during revegetation.
Geotechnical Engineering 268
Geomat applications
⚫ Slope protection
⚫ Landfill cover
⚫ Canals
⚫ Irrigation channels
⚫ Ditches
⚫ Ponds

Geotechnical Engineering 269

 Geotubes

⚫ Geotubes are geotextile containers which are used for

erosion control in marine areas.
⚫ Mines use for storing, dewatering and consolidation of
tailings.
⚫ Mines also use geotubes for recovery of metals which will
still be in the tailings and for treatment of acid mine
drainage.
Geotechnical Engineering 270
Dewatering geotubes
⚫ Due to their high strength and large capacity,
dewatering tubes are used extensively in :
1. Wastewater Treatment Projects (WWTPs),
2. agricultural ponds
3. aquaculture facilities
4. pulp and paper mills,
5. industrial lagoons.
Geotube sizes can be custom made to your required
location and surface area.

Geotechnical Engineering 271

 Types of geosynthetics
⚫ Geotextile
⚫ Geogrid
⚫ Geonet
⚫ Geomembrane
⚫ Geosynthetic clay liner
⚫ Geocells
⚫ Geocomposites
⚫ Geomats
⚫ Geotubes
⚫ Geo-others

Geotechnical Engineering 272

Functions of geosynthetics

Geotechnical Engineering 273

Factors to consider when selecting a
geosynthetic
⚫ Function
⚫ Cost
⚫ Raw material
⚫ Manufacturing process
⚫ Experience
⚫ Type

Geotechnical Engineering 274

1.8.3 Reinforcement

Geotechnical Engineering 275

Reinforcement
⚫ Soil is strong in compression (when confined) but
weak in tension, the purposeof using geosynthetics for
reinforcement is to provide tensile resistance
⚫ The geosynthetic used to reinforce slopes should
satisfy both the strength and the soil interaction
requirements.
⚫ The strength requirement is governed by the Long
Term Design Strength (LTDS). The LTDS is
determined by applying partial factors of safety which
account for chemical and biological durability,
installation damage and creep to the ultimate
strength. The reduction factors decrease the ultimate
strength to a safe level.
Geotechnical Engineering 276
Reinforcement
⚫ The reduction factorsdecrease the ultimatestrength toa safe
level.
⚫ The factorsare conservativeand can result in a LTDS of up to
16 times less than the ultimate strength.

where TULT = ultimate tensilestrength of the geosynthetic

RFCR = reduction factor due to creep
RFID = reduction factordue to installationdamage
RFD = reduction factordue to durability
FS(OVERALL) = overall factor of safety

Geotechnical Engineering 277

Reduction factor values

Geotechnical Engineering 278

Reduction factor values of geogrids

Geotechnical Engineering 279

Example 1
a) What is the allowablegeogrid tensile strength to be
used in the construction of an unpaved road
separating stone base from sub-grade soil if the
ultimate strength of the geogrid is 80kN/m, FS = 1.2
b) What is the allowablegeogrid tensile strength to be
used in the construction of a permanent wall
adjacent to a major highway if the ultimate strength
of the geogrid is 70kN/m, FS = 1.5

Geotechnical Engineering 280

Coefficient of direct sliding Cds and the
pullout coefficient Ci
⚫ The soil-geosynthetic interaction properties are governed
by the coefficient of direct sliding Cds and the pullout
coefficient Ci. Cds is applied to the calculation of the safety
factor of a block of soil mass sliding over a geosynthetic
layer
⚫ Ci is used to determine the embedment length which is the
length of geosynthetic which must be extended beyond the
critical surface for full anchorage of the reinforcement
⚫ Geosynthetic manufacturers provide Cds and Ci values for
specific soils. These values should only be used for
preliminary design purposes, the actual values should be
determined from laboratory tests.
Geotechnical Engineering 281
Coefficient of direct sliding Cds and the
pullout coefficient Ci

Geotechnical Engineering 282

Geosynthetics reinforced slopes

Geotechnical Engineering 283

Geosynthetic reinforced slopes

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Design of geosynthetics reinforced
slopes : Procedure
1. Determine the factored friction angle
A factor-of-safetyFS should be applied to the soil peak friction angle to
account forvariabilityin soil propertiesand uncertainty in slope geometry
and loading. For routineslopesa value of FS = 1.5 is typical
The factored soil friction angle φf is

2. Calculate the equivalentslope height H’

Geotechnical Engineering 285

3. Determine the force coefficient k from Chart 1 using the
slope angle and the factored friction

Chart 1
Geotechnical Engineering 286
4. Determine the horizontal force P that must be resisted by the geosynthetic
layers:

5. Calculate the numberof geosynthetic layers thatare required to counter

force P:

6.Calculate the maximum allowablevertical spacing for the geosynthetic

using where z is the distance from the top

7. Determine the number of geosynthetic layers, n:

Geotechnical Engineering 287

8. Determine the length of the geosynthetic from the Chart :
i. If

ii. If

Or taper the length from at the base to at the crest

Geotechnical Engineering 288

Geotechnical Engineering 289
Geosynthetic reinforced slope example 1
i. For the configuration below determine a suitable
reinforcement for a geotextile whose ultimate tensile
strength is 180kN/m, RfID = 1.3, RFCR = 2.5, RFD = 1.2
There is no ground water (i.e ru = 0). The factor of
safety is 1.5
ii. How would your solution change if there was no
surcharge

Geotechnical Engineering 290

Geotechnical Engineering 291
2. Slope stability

Geotechnical Engineering 292

Slope stability
1. Introduction
2. Slope failure mechanisms
3. Stability analysis
4. Field investigations for data input
5. Slope monitoring techniques
6. Slope maintenance and restoration
7. Flexible Stabilisation
8. Slope reinforcement

Geotechnical Engineering 293

Introduction
⚫In all slopes there is an inherent tendency to
degrade to a flatter and more stable angle.
⚫Once mass movement occurs failure occurs
⚫The forces which cause instability are associated
with gravity and seepage.
⚫The stability of any slope made of soil material
depends on the shear strength of the soil.
⚫The shear strength is in turn a function of friction
and cohesion of the soil 𝑟𝑟 = 𝐶𝐶 + 𝜎𝜎 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑

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Geotechnical Engineering 295
Geotechnical Engineering 296
Geotechnical Engineering 297
Berlin (2009)

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Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (2012)

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California (2016)

Geotechnical Engineering 300

Geotechnical Engineering 301
Tailings dams

Geotechnical Engineering 302

Tailings also called mine dumps, slimes, refuse or leach
residue or slickens, are the materials left over after the
process of separating the valuable fraction from the
uneconomic fraction.

Tailings dams are A tailings dam is the physical

structure that holds in, or impounds, the tailings
pond, which serves the dual role of containing the
ground-rock tailings from the ore-milling and
separation process and recycling the water to be
reused in processing.

Geotechnical Engineering 303

Geotechnical Engineering 304
Geotechnical Engineering 305
Geotechnical Engineering 306
Causes of tailings dam failures
1. Overtopping
2. Subsidence
3. Erosion
4. Earth quake
5. Seepage
6. SLOPE STABILITY FAILURE

Geotechnical Engineering 307

Geotechnical Engineering 308
Merriespruit, South Africa Hungary, (2010)

Hungary (2010)
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Mariana tailings dam, Brazil 2015

⚫ Date: November 5, 2015

⚫ Propertydamage: two villages affected, around 200
homes destroyed
⚫ Total number of deaths: 19
⚫ Participant: Samarco (Vale, BHP Billiton)
⚫ Non-fatal injuries: 16+
Geotechnical Engineering 310
Mariana tailings dam, Brazil 2015
Excerpts from the guardian…….
⚫ When the tailings dam failed on 5 November 2015, it unleashed
about 40m litres of water and sediment from iron ore extraction
in a wave that polluted the water supply for hundreds of
thousands of people, decimated wildlife and spewed a rust-red
plume of mud down the Doce river.
⚫ 6 months before a dam containing millions of litres of mining
waste collapsed, killing 19 people in Brazil’s worst environmental
disaster, the company operating the mine accurately predicted
the potential impact of such a disaster in a worst-case risk
assessment.
⚫ But federal prosecutors claim the company – a joint venture
between the Brazilian mining giant Vale and the Anglo-
Australian multinational BHP Billiton – failed to take actions
that they say could have prevented the disaster. The prosecutors
instead claim the company focused on cutting costs and
increasing production.
Geotechnical Engineering 311
Brumadinho tailings dam, Brazil 2019

Brumadinho tailings swept overroads and destroyed buildings (BBC

News 2019)

Brumadinho tailings dam disaster

Date of collapse: 25/01/2019
Probable cause of failure: Liquefaction
To date
Number of people killed: 186
Number of people missing: 122
Geotechnical Engineering 312
Brumadinho tailings dam, Brazil 2019
⚫ Exerpts from the National Geographic
⚫ Built in 1976 by Ferteco Mineração, the dam used the
upstream method, which, although common, is the least
safe, according to experts. This method was the same in the
Fundão dam in Mariana. According to the G1 report, there
are another 130 dams of this type in the country. Upstream
upheaval is the process where the dam uses the tailings
itself to lift the mud up in steps.
⚫ Zhouri says upstream dams should be banned from mining
in Brazil. "This technique is outdated and obsolete, used
only in developing countries. It is not safe for the
population, but it is the cheapest," she says. "There are
alternatives, such as dry containment, and Vale has this
technology. The state must demand it."
Geotechnical Engineering 313
Key points:
•Overstressing of a slope or reduction in shear strength of
the soil may cause rapid or progressive displacements.
•The stability of slopes may be evaluated by comparison of
the forces resisting failure with those tending to cause
rapture along the assumed slip surface.
•The ratio of these forces is the factor of safety
Weight (W)

Normal force (N)

Fstabilising
𝑎𝑎

Geotechnical Engineering 314

Types of slopes
Slope

Natural Artificial

Worn or cut Built or deposited Built Cut

Hillside and Screens and Embankments Cuttings and

valley slopes pediment slopes and dams unsupported
excavations

Coastal and Slide and Tips and

river cliffs f low slopes soil heaps

Geotechnical Engineering 315

2.2 Slope failure
mechanisms

Geotechnical Engineering 316

2.2 Slope Failure mechanisms
Principal modes of failure in soil or rock are:
⚫Rotation on a curved slip surface approximated
by a circular arc
⚫Translation on a planar surface whose length is
large compared to depth below ground and
⚫Displacement of a wedge-shaped mass along
one or more planes of weakness
⚫Other modes of failure include toppling of rock
slopes, falls, block slides, lateral spreading,
earth and mud flow in clayey and silty soils and
debris flows in coarse-grained soils
Geotechnical Engineering 317
Modes of slope failure
Non-Circular slip
Circular slip

Compound slip

Translational slip

Geotechnical Engineering 318

 Factors to consider in instability

Reduced shear strength in slopes

Increases in shearstresses in slopes

Geotechnical Engineering 319

Factors that cause increases in
shear stresses in slopes
Removal of support
a. Erosion
⚫ By streams and rivers
⚫ By glaciers
⚫ By action of waves or marine currents
⚫ By successive wetting and drying (e.g winds, freezing)
b. Natural slope movements e.g falls, slides,
settlements)
c. Human activity
⚫ Cuts and excavation
Geotechnical Engineering 320
• Removal of retaining walls or sheet piles
•Drawdown of bodies of water (e.g lakes, lagoons)

d. Overloading
i) By natural causes
• Weightof precipitation (e.g rains, snow)
• Accumulationof materials because of past landslides
ii) By human activity
• Construction of fill
• Buildingsand other overloads at the crest
• Water leakage in culverts, water pipes and sewers

e. Transitory effects e.g earthquakes

Geotechnical Engineering 321

f. Removal of underlying materials that provided
support
• By rivers or seas
•By weathering
•By underground erosion due to seepage (piping), solvent
agents
•By human activity (excavation or mining)
•By loss of strength of the underlying material

g. Increase in lateral pressure

• By water in cracks and fissures
•By freezing of water in the cracks
•By expansion of clays
Geotechnical Engineering 322
Factors that cause reduced shear strength in slopes
a) Factors inherent in the nature of the materials
⚫ Composition
⚫ Structure
⚫ Secondary or inherited structures
⚫ Stratification
b) Changes caused by weathering and physiochemical activity
⚫ Wetting and drying process
⚫ Removal of cementing agents
c) Effect of pore pressure

d) Changes in structure
⚫ Stress release
⚫ Structural degradation
Geotechnical Engineering 323
Effect of water on soils
⚫ Dry sand grains form a pile
⚫ The slope angle is determined by the angle of repose
i.e the steepest angle at which a pile of unconsolidated
grains remains- controlled by the frictional contact
between the grains

Geotechnical Engineering 324

• Slightlywet soils exhibit a very high angle of repose
•Because surface tension between the waterand the grains
tends to hold the grains in place

Wet Sand

Angle of repose

Surface tension of thin film

of water holds grains
together, increasing angle of
repose

Geotechnical Engineering 325

•When the material becomes saturated with water, strength
reduces to very small values.
•Material tends to f low like a f luid.
•Water gets between the grains and eliminates grain to grain
frictional contact.

Geotechnical Engineering 326

Typical features of unstable slopes
⚫ The presence of linear cracks, depressions and bulges
on natural slopes
⚫ The presence of deformed trees and utility poles with
trunks bent in random directions
⚫ The existence of springs on slopes and outcrop of
water bearing strata
⚫ The existence of slicken sides and deformed layers of
clays (these can be best observed in trial pits or by
breaking down undisturbed tube samples)

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Geotechnical Engineering 328
Geotechnical Engineering 329
California
Geotechnical Engineering 330
2.3 Slope stability analysis

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2.3 Slope stability Analysis
Stability analysis requirements
⚫ All phases of construction
⚫ The end of construction
⚫ The long term condition
⚫ Natural disturbances such as f looding and
earthquakes
⚫ Rapid drawdown (for water- retaining structures like
earth dams)

Geotechnical Engineering 332

Analysis Overview
⚫ Slope stability analyses involves a comparison of the
gravity induced stresses in a slope to the availablesoil
strength and any externally provided resistance (e.g
retaining walls).
⚫ Available static equilibrium methods solve for oe or
more of the three equations of equilibrium: horizontal
force, vertical force and moment.
⚫ Availability and speed of personal computers has
made the use of methods of analysis that satisfy all
equations of equilibrium feasible for practicing
engineers.

Geotechnical Engineering 333

Proper analysis of the static stability of a slope
requires:
 representation of the slope configuration

External loading conditions

Distribution of earth materials

Subsurface water conditions

Material densities

Material strengths
Geotechnical Engineering 334
Procedure for estimating stability
There are 3 steps in estimating stability:
1. Estimate disturbing forces
The components are:
⚫ Gravity acting on body of soil
⚫ Super imposed loads if any
⚫ Seepage force due to water f low if any
⚫ Earthquake forces ( not dealt with in this course)

2. Shear strength of soil

Determine the number, thickness and average strength
Parameters of each soil layer
Geotechnical Engineering 335
Soil strength equation
Total strength 𝑟𝑟𝑓𝑓 = 𝐶𝐶 + 𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑

Effective strength 𝑟𝑟𝑓𝑓 ′ = 𝑓𝑓𝐶𝐶 + (𝜎𝜎 − 𝑈𝑈)𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑

Tf is the shearing resistance of the soil

Include a factor of safety F to limit the maximum mobilised

shearing resistance on a failure plane

T = Tf
F
Geotechnical Engineering 336
3. Select the appropriate analysis – Limit state
equilibrium
• Determines the overall stabilityof the sliding mass
•Method is used to analyse various potential failure
surfaces to determine which has the lowest F
This method of analysis is generally not sensitive to the
chosen shape of failure surface
•A circular arc is chosen because it is the simplest to
analyse and is sufficiently accurate

NB: The computed critical failure arc may not coincide

with the actual failure surface , however their factor of
safety (F) values will be similar.

Geotechnical Engineering 337

Limit equilibrium method
⚫ A common mode of slope failure is a rotational slip
along an approximately circular failure surface.

At failure: T = Cu+𝝈𝝈tan𝝋𝝋= Cu….........(1)

T = Cu …………….(2)
F 𝜽𝜽
x
R

T = Cu/F
L

Geotechnical Engineering 338

Equating moments about O:
Wx = CuLR …….(3)
F
F = CuLR
Wx
Where L is the length of slip surface = R𝜃𝜃

F = R 2 Cu𝜃𝜃……..(4)
Wx
= Resisting Moment
Disturbing Moment

Geotechnical Engineering 339

Tension cracks
⚫ Tension cracks must be considered, and the possibility
that these cracks may fill with water.
⚫ Water in a tension crack will significantly reduce F.

𝜃𝜃𝑐𝑐
R yc
dt

Pw Zc
Wt

Geotechnical Engineering 340

 2𝐶𝐶𝑢𝑢
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 =
𝛾𝛾
•It is likely that the tension crack will fill with water – this
creates an extra thrust adding to the disturbing moment
𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤 = 0.5𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 𝑧𝑧𝑐𝑐2 𝑦𝑦 ……..(5)
•The tension𝑐𝑐crack reduces the weight of the arc to Wt and
its lever arm to dt and the sector angle to 𝜃𝜃𝑐𝑐 radians

F = Cu R 2𝜃𝜃𝑐𝑐 (π /180)
Wtdt + 0.5𝜸𝜸𝒘𝒘 zc 2yc

Geotechnical Engineering 341

Example 1
A cutting with side slopes 1 .0 vertical: 1.5 Horizontal is excavated in saturated clay to a
vertical height of 10m as shown below. Determine the factor of safety of slip AB :
a) Assuming no developmentof tension crack
b) Allow for tension crack but with no water
c) Tension crack filled with water

Cu = 40KN/m2
𝜸𝜸=18.5KN/m3
5m x1 = 6.54m
R X2 =5.86m
6.7m Q yc
R B
w pw
x zc
10m
10m C
10m
10m A
10m
Qc R

Geotechnical Engineering 342

Example 2
A slope has a heightof 9.1m and the slope face is inclined at 2:1 (H:V) ratio. Assumea
wedge type analysiswhere the slip surface is planar through the toe of the slope and is
inclined at 3;1 (H:V) ratio. The total unit weightof the slope material g = 19.8KN/m3.
using the undrained shearstrength parametersof C = 3.4KPa and 𝝋𝝋 = 29deg.
Calculate the factor of safety

Geotechnical Engineering 343

Example 3:
A 45deg. Slope is excavated to a depth of 8m in a deep layer of saturated clay of unit
weight 19KN/m3, the relevant shear strength parameters are C= 65KN/m2 and 𝝋𝝋= 0
Determine the:
a) Factorof safety for the trial surfacespecified in the figure below
b) Minimum factor of safety of this slope

O
12.1m
3.5m 89.5

8m
4.5mW

Geotechnical Engineering 344

METHOD OF SLICES
⚫ The slip surface is assumed to be the arc of a circle.
⚫This method divides the slope into vertical slice and
analyses each one seperately.
⚫ The base of each slice is assumed to be a straight line
⚫ The phreatic surface and the resulting pore water
pressure is accounted for. This technique is known as
the method of slices
⚫ The factorof safety must be calculated for several trial
circles and the minimum value taken.
⚫ It is the basis of all numerical analysis program

Geotechnical Engineering 345

METHOD OF SLICES

Geotechnical Engineering 346

Development of Limit Equilibrium
Methods
Year Achievement
Petersen (1955) presented the stability analysis of the Stigberg Quay in Gothenberg
Swedenwhere the slip surface was taken to be circular and the sliding mass was
1916 divided into slices

1936 Fellenius introduced the Ordinary or Swedish method of slices

1954 Janbu method of slices was introduced
1955 Bishop method of slices was introduced
Morgenstern and Price method was developed taking advantage of computers
1965 which had
advanced in the 1960s making it possible to handle more rigorous mathematical
procedures
1967 Spencer method of slices was introduced
Introduction of powerful desktop personal computers made it economically viable
1980s to develop commercial software products
Geotechnical Engineering 1 418
METHOD OF SLICES
The main difference between these techniques lies in the
assumptions made with regards the normal and interslice shear
forces acting on the sides of the slice

Geotechnical Engineering 1 419

METHOD OF SLICES
Interslice force
Method Equations of statics satisfied characteristics
Moment Force Interslice Interslice
equilibrium equilibrium normal (IN) shear (IS)
Ordinary or Fellenius Yes No No No
Bishop's simplified Yes No Yes No
Janbu's simplified No Yes Yes No
Spencer Yes Yes Yes Yes
Morgenstern- Price Yes Yes Yes Yes
Corps of Engineers - 1 No Yes Yes Yes
Corps of Engineers - 2 No Yes Yes Yes
Lowe- Karafiath No Yes Yes Yes
Janbu generalized Yes Yes Yes Yes
Sarma- vertical slices Yes Yes Yes Yes
Geotechnical Engineering 1 420
Bishop’s simplified method
⚫ The soil mass above a trial failure surface is divided
into slices by vertical planes. Each slice is taken as
having a straight line base.
⚫ Iterative methods have to be used to solve for the
factor of safety. The method has been shown to
produce factorof safetyvalueswithin a few percent of
the "correct" values.
⚫ The factor of safety is given by
⚫ F = Resisting Moment
⚫ Disturbing Moment
Geotechnical Engineering 1 350
Geotechnical Engineering 1 351
 1 ′
𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼
𝐹𝐹 = ∑ ( 𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑊𝑊 − 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 𝑧𝑧𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑 )
∑ 𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼 1+ 𝐹𝐹 ′
Where:

F– factor of safety
W– Weight of soil mass( densitysoil x area of slice(Lxb)
𝑎𝑎 Angle at slice base
– soil cohesion
c’ – width of slice
b- Height of slice
H- height of water level
z- density of water
g- Angle of internal friction of soil
𝝋𝝋 – assumed safety factor
F’-

Geotechnical Engineering 1 352

Bishop simplified method: Procedure
1. Measure the horizontal
O distance of the slip surface
2. Determine a suitable number
of slices
3. Create the slices and number
them
4. Mark the center line of each
slice
5. Drop a vertical line from the
center of the slip surface O
6. Drop a line from the center O
to the bottom of the center
line of each slice
7. For each slice measure the
parameters: b- width, z-
W.T.L, L-length of bottom, H-
height of center line, 𝛼𝛼 −
angle between center of slope
and center of slice
Geotechnical Engineering 1 353
Example A: Use the Bishop’s simplified method of slices to determine the factor of
safety for the slope detailed in the figure below. The unit weight of the soil is
20KN/m3. The characteristicvalues of shear strength parameters are c=0, 𝝋𝝋= 33deg.

52o

48m

2
17.5m 1

Geotechnical Engineering 1 354

 1 ′
𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼
𝐹𝐹 = ∑ ( 𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑊𝑊 − 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 𝑧𝑧𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑 )
∑ 𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼 1+ 𝐹𝐹 ′

Slice b L z A ao W Wsina cb gw zb (W- gw zb)tan Φ sec a 1+ tanatan Φ/ F sec a (2+ 3) x 4

No. (m) (m) (m) m2 (KN) (KN) (Try F= 1,1) 1+tanatan Φ/ F
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

F = ∑(5)
∑(1)

Geotechnical Engineering 1 355

Swedish method of slices
⚫ For effective stress analysis
∑(𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 + 𝑊𝑊𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠𝛼𝛼 − 𝑈𝑈 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑)
𝐹𝐹 =
∑ 𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼
Where;
C = Cohesion
L = length of slice bottom
U = Pore water pressure
W = weight of soil mass
𝝋𝝋 = angle of internal friction

Geotechnical Engineering 1 356

For the slope profile shown below, the ground water regime is
represented by steady seepage with pore pressures given by the
water table level shown. Determine the factor of safety on the
slip surface shown using
(a) the Swedish method of slices
(b) Bishop’s simplified method. The unit weight of the soil
material is 22kN/m3, c = 3 KPa and 𝝋𝝋 = 26°
(c) What safety factor will you adopt, explain

Geotechnical Engineering 1 357

 ∑(𝐶𝐶′ + 𝑊𝑊𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠𝛼𝛼 − 𝑈𝑈 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑)
𝐹𝐹 =
∑ 𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝛼𝛼

Slice b L h z 𝑎𝑎 o A W Wcos𝑎𝑎 U CL Wsin𝑎𝑎 (Wcos𝑎𝑎 – U) (1)+(2)

No. (m) (m) (m) (m) (m2 (KN/m) (KN/m) (KN/m) (KN/m) (KN/m) tan𝝋𝝋 (KN/m)
(KN)/m
(1) (2)

Geotechnical Engineering 1 358

2.4 Field investigations to obtain
input for Slope stability Analysis

Geotechnical Engineering 1 359

In-situ testing
⚫ There is a wide variety of different tests that can be
used for evaluating the properties of the soil in the
slope.
⚫ It is often preferable to do an in situ test in an attempt
to measure a particularparameter, rather than obtain a
sample and do a laboratory test
 Sampling results in disturbances (reduces strength
and stiffness)
 Sometimes only best (strongest) material is recovered-
not representative of overall insitu material.
Geotechnical Engineering 1 360
Insitu testing
⚫ Typical parameters that may be obtained either
directly or indirectly from in-situ tests
 Strength
 Stiffness
 Permeability
 Relative density
 Pore pressure

Geotechnical Engineering 1 361

Types of in-situ tests
⚫ Some of the most common types:
 Penetration tests
a) Dynamic (hammered in using drop weight) –e.g
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
b) Static (pushed in smoothly using hydraulics)- e.g Cone
Penetration Test (CPT)
 Vane shear test (for strength of soft clays)
 Dilatometer test (DMT)
 Pressuremeter test (PMT) or self-boring test SBP)
 Plate bearing test
 Screw plate test
Geotechnical Engineering 1 362
Types of insitu tests
⚫ Types used depend on geographical location (and on
predominant soil types)
 In Zimbabwe mainly Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
 In S.A and U.S.A mainly SPT
 In Australia mainly Cone Penetration Test (CPT) and
sampling
 In S.E Asia and Japan mainly SPT
 Offshore engineering mainly CPT with some sampling
 Europe – CPT (Except France- Menard pressuremeter
test

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Assessment of In Situ Testing
Advantages Disadvantages
Rapid No sample recovered (except SPT)
Indirect measurement related through
Inexpensive calibration
Difficult desposits can be tested Complex data reduction
Insitu stress, pore fluid, temperature Relies heavilyon empirical correlations
conditions
Real-time measurements Unknown boundary conditions
Reproducible results Unknown drainage conditions
Large volume of soil tested Strain- rate effects
Continous or semi- continous
profiling Non-uniform strains applied
Specialised equipment and skilled
operators often required

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Standard penetration test

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Geotechnical Engineering 1 366
Cone penetration test

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Pressure meter test

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Dilatometer test

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Vane shear

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In-situ tests

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Capabilities of the Most Common In Situ Tests
Parameter SPT CPT PMT DMT FV
Soil profiling . … - . -
Soil identification … .. - - -
Relative density .. … - . -
Horizontal stress dh - .. (sands) .. . -
Friction angle Fsands .. … .. . -
Undrained strengthclays . … . . ..
Coefficient of consolidation, Ch - .. - - -
Liquefaction resistance .. … - - -
. Provides crude estimate of p roperty
. .Provides acceptableestimate of property
. . . Provides reliable means of estimating property

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2.5 Slope monitoring techniques

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Instrumentation
⚫ Geotechnical engineering involves lots of uncertainty
in the soil properties used in the designs and theories
⚫ Instrumentation is a popular method used to verify the
theories , assumptions, construction methods as well
as slope monitoring
⚫ In general three primary quantities are measured in
monitoring programs for traditional geotechnical
projects: loads and stresses, deformations and pore
pressures

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Instrumentation
⚫ Various instruments and methods may be used to
determine
 The size of a slope instability
 How rapid it is moving
 The depth of failure plane
 The direction of movement
 The location of ground water in the slope
 The water pressure in the unstable slope material.

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Why instrument civil works structures
⚫ Ensure life-cycle performance of critical structures.
⚫ Supportpreventive and predictive maintenance
programs for key components.
⚫ Establish nominal conditions and loads.
⚫ Provide real-time information or alerts in extreme
events or conditions.
⚫ To monitor the performancesof earth and earth
supported structures

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Basic definitions
⚫ Instrument: An instrument is a sensor plus other
transducers as required and a data displayelement
⚫ Sensor: is a technological device that detects/senses a
signal, physical conditions and chemical compounds.
It is also defined as any device that converts a signal
from one form to another. Sensors are mostly electrical
or electronic.
⚫ Transducer: A device that converts energy from one
form to another.

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What kind of sensors can be used?
⚫ Pore pressure sensors
⚫ Accelerometers
⚫Earth pressure sensors
Load cells
⚫ Strain gauge bridges- axial, shear, moment, torque
⚫ Cameras

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Sensors to measure displacement
⚫ LVDT – Linear variable differential transformer
⚫ LPT- Linear potentiometer
⚫ Integration of accelerometer data
⚫ Video camera
⚫ Laser sensor
⚫ Digital encoder

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Slope instability Measurement
Options available
⚫ Pore pressures (Piezometers, pressure cells)
⚫ Displacements ( Extensometers, LVDTs, strain and
crack gauges)
⚫ Movement ( GPS systems and laser sensors)
⚫ Orientation Angle and Tilt ( Inclinometers , tilt
meters)
⚫ Dynamic motions (Accelerometers, Geophones ,
Seismographs)

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Inclinometers
⚫ First, a well in installed. The well is constructed
vertically
⚫ Next, the inclinometer is lowered
⚫ If the well is properly installed, then the inclinometer
readings would show that the well is vertical.

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Standpipe Piezometers
⚫ Piezoimeters are used to monitor piezometric water
levels.
Typical applications include:
 Monitoring pore water pressure to determine the
stabilityof slopes, embankments and landfill dykes.
 Monitoring ground improvement techniques such as
vertical drains, sand drains and dynamic compaction.
 Monitoring dewatering schemes for excavationsand
underground openings.
 Monitoring seepage and ground water movement in
embankments, landfill dikes, and dams
 Monitoring water drawdown during pumping tests.

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Stand pipe piezometers
⚫ The standpipe piezometershown below is for
monitoring static water levels
⚫ The borehole is sealed to prevent passage of water
from the top sand layer to the bottom sand layer

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Standpipe piezometer

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Geotechnical Engineering 1 385
Instrumentation of excavated and
natural slopes
Parameter to be measured Instruments
Surface deformation • Crackmeters
•Tiltmeters
Subsurface deformation • Inclinometers
• Extensometers
•Piezometers
Groundwater pressure • Piezometers
Ground heaving at toe • Horizontal/ inclined extensometers

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Slope survey

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 Ground penetration radar

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Advanced systems
Slope Stability Radar (SSR)
⚫ Used to assess overall slope stability over an extended
period and to critically monitor slopes that may
become unsafe
⚫ Allows assessment of movement rates across multiple
slope areas from long ranges, with alarm capability to a
central location
⚫ Used mainly in mines to improve safety and
production through precise and continuous slope
monitoring

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 Slope stability
radar(SSR)

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Advanced capabilities of SSR
⚫ Advanced analysis tools allow for long term trending
and hazard identification
⚫ Reporting tools allow easy data collection,
presentation and export for further analysis and
reporting
⚫ Photographs of the scan area allow user-friendly
identification and interpretation of slope movements

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2.6 Slope Maintenance and
Restoration

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Slope maintenance
⚫ Many slope failures can be prevented or minimised by
careful and knowledgeablemaintenance practices
⚫ The most common practices are:
1. Hazard avoidance
2. Grading to improve slope stability
3. Reinforcement of the slope or improvement of the
soil within the slope
4. Reinforcement of the structure builton the slope to
tolerate the anticipated displacement- retaining
structure

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Hazard avoidance- What not to do
⚫ Not excavate the toe of a slope
⚫ Not remove any lateral support for a slope or
embankment
⚫ Not perform any type of excavationor earth work that
would permit water to pond in the slope area
⚫ Not load the top of fill- as this ass driving force to the
slope
⚫ Not block any drainage structure, including ditches,
pipes or culverts
⚫ Not divert water towards the slide or slope – Water is
the primary cause of most slope failures
Geotechnical Engineering 1 394
Surface maintenance
a) Erosion
 Regularly inspect erosion control elements such as
all ditches, slope paving, rip-rap, vegetation
 Maintain interception ditches
 Slopes should be reseeded immediatelyafter repairs
 Curbs, dikes or berms that are not properly
maintained may permit surface water to erode soil
slopes. These should be repaired and maintained in
proper working order.

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b) Vegetation
⚫ Vegetation should be used to control erosion
⚫ Trees and shrubs help to beautify the slope by
providing a green belt
⚫ Grass roots hold the soil in place, preventing it from
being transported by moving water
⚫ Water loving plants may be planted in wet areas to
absorb the excess moisture in plant growth , thereby
reducing the likelihood of a landslide
⚫ Root systems of trees and shrubs not only hold the soil
in place but also help to reinforce the slope.

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Vegetated slope

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Small slide maintenance
When a small slide has occurred a number of things
can be done to prevent the slide from becoming worse
or slow or stop slide movement. These include:
 Directing surface waters away from the slide area-
using pipes or paved ditches
 If there is excess water in the slide area, provide some
form of drainage
 Ditches and pipes are best for draining ponded surface
water

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Establish vegetation to absorb some excess water and
prevent erosion
Sealing surface cracks to prevent water from saturating the
slopes
 Flattening side slope
Removing materials that are very weak or a re susceptible
to water (hard to dry) should be removed if possible and
replaced with material having a higher shear strength
 Movement of all known slides or unstable areas should be
regularly monitored- helps to determine if maintenance
efforts are working.

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Methods used to modify slope
profile
1. Slope f lattening
 Regrading and f lattening the slope of a highway fill
or cut slope is a primary and economical method
used to repair small failures
 Typically the failed slope is regraded so the new slope
is 3H:1V or 4H:1V
 The procudure entails the removal of failed material
partially or completely (cut slightly below the failure
plane to remove as much soil as possible

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2. Earth and Rock Berms
Earth and rock berms are used to provide a
counterweight in the toe area of a slope.

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3. Benching
⚫ Applied where slope flattening is difficult.
⚫ It helps to control erosion and catch debris of small
slides

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4. Retaining structures
⚫ Retaining structures offer lateral support
⚫ They are generally placed at the toe of the distressed
area or slope.
⚫ Typical structures used in slide correction include:
1. Concrete walls: Gravity, semi-gravity, cantilever,
counterfort
2. Eath and rock buttress
3. Crib walls
4. Piles
5. Reinforced slopes: soil nails or geogrids

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 Retaining structures

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Geosynthetics

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Stabilisation Methods
⚫ A grading solution is not always feasible due to
physical constraints such as property-line location,
location of existing structures, the presence of steep
slopes and/or the presence of very low strength soil
⚫ In such cases, stabilisation methods may be used to
increase the shear strength of soils in the slope
⚫ Methods may be broadly divided into groups as
follows:
 Mechanical stabilisation
 Chemical stabilisation

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Stabilisation methods
1. Mechanical stabilisation
 Compaction
 Densification and drainage

2. Chemical stabilisation
 Lime stabilisation
 Lime-f ly ash stabilisation
 Cement stabilisation
 Asphalt stabilisation
 Waste by-products (kiln,dust e.tc)

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3.0 Lateral earth pressures

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3.1 Lateral Earth Pressure
1. Soil mechanics review
2. Earth Pressure
3. Gravity retaining walls
4. Sheet retaining walls
5. Braced excavations
6.Structural design of reinforced concrete
retaining walls

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Lateral Earth pressure
⚫ Earth retaining structures are an essential part of civil
engineering. They are designed to prevent lateral soil
movements which are caused by lateral earth pressure.
⚫These include:
Basements
Soldier piles
Cantilever walls
Gravity walls
Soil nails
Sheet pile walls

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 Basements

5 Storey Basement with a 6 storey hospital on top, London (2015)

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 Basements

Soldier piles

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Retaining walls

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Sheet pile walls

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Course objectives
⚫ The objective of this course is to introduce participants
to:
 Advanced analysis of lateral earth pressures
 The various earth retention systems, their
applicability, limitations and design

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Course outcomes
⚫ On completing this course participants should be able
to:
 Identify the types, advantages and disadvantages of
the different earth retaining systems (e.g gravity
structures, piles e.t.c)
 Quantify the lateral earth pressures associated with
different earth retaining systems
 Select the most technically appropriate type of
retaining wall for a given project based on a clear
understanding of the different availablesystems.
Geotechnical Engineering 1 416
Soil mechanics review

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Soil mechanics review
⚫ Soils are aggregates of mineral particles, and together
with air and/or water in the void spaces, they form
three-phase systems.
⚫ A large portion of the earth’s surface is covered by
soils, and they are widely used as construction
⚫ and foundation materials.
⚫Soil mechanics is the branch of engineering that
deals with the engineering properties of soils and their
behavior under stress.

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Soil mechanics review
⚫ For engineering purposes, soil is defined as the
uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed
organic matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the
empty spaces between the solid particles
⚫ Civil engineers must study the properties of soil, such as its
origin, grain-size distribution, ability to drain water,
compressibility, shear strength, and load-bearing capacity.
⚫ It includes the application of the principles of soil
mechanics and rock mechanics to the design of
foundations, retaining structures, and earth structures.

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1.1 Soil mechanics review
1.1.1 Soil behaviour is complex:
1. Soil behaviour is anisotropic
2. Multi phase system
3. Non- homogenous
4. Non linear stress/strain response
5. Stress is history dependant

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1.1.2 Complexity gives rise to the importance of:
1. Lab tests
2. Field tests
3. Factor of safety

1.1.3 Soil texture

a) Particle size, shape and distribution
⚫ Coarse textured –gravel(>2mm), sand (0.06-2mm)
⚫ Fine textured – silt(0.06-0.002mm) , clay (<0.002mm)

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b) Particle size distribution
⚫ Sieve/Mechanical analysis or Gradation test
⚫ Hydrometer analysis for smaller than 0.075mm

c) Particle size distribution curves

⚫ Well graded
⚫ Poorly graded

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Effect of particle size
Gravels, Sands Silt Clay
1. High strength 1. Lower strength 1. Lowest strength
2. High modulus 2. Lower modulus 2. Lowest modulus
3. High permeability 3. Lower permeability 3. Lowest permeability
4. Granular 4. Granular 4. Non granular
5. Cohesionless 5. Cohesionless 5. Cohesive
6. Effect of water 6. Effect of water 6. Effect of water very
unimportant important important

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Typical bulk densities for soils

Soil Type Bulk density kg/m3

Sand and gravel 16 – 22
Silt 16 - 20
Soft Clay 17 - 20
Stiff Clay 19 - 23
Peat 10 – 14
Weak Rock 20 – 23
Hard Rock 24 - 27
Concrete 24

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Soil strength
⚫ Soil strength is measured in terms of shear resistance –
shear strength
⚫ Shear resistance is developedon the soil particle
contacts
⚫ Failure occurs when the normal stress and the shear
stress reach some limiting combination
⚫ The limiting shear stress (soil strength) is given by:
Ʈ = C + σn tanΦ

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Where:
C – Cohesion
A property exhibited in fine grained soils (clays and
silts), which is the result of atomic attractive forces
between soil particles

These forces allow the material to exhibit shear strength

even when no confining pressure is available

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𝜎𝜎𝑛𝑛 = Normal stress on the failure plane at failure
𝜑𝜑 = Angle of internal friction; It is most pronounced in
cohesionless soils (sands and gravels) and approaches
zero in soft cohesive soils such as soft clay
The strength of soil sheared under drained conditions CD
is described with the effective stress strength
parameters:
𝑟𝑟 = 𝒄𝒄 + 𝝈𝝈′𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒕𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏𝝋𝝋

Where: c– effective cohesion

𝜎𝜎𝑛𝑛′ - effective stress at failure
𝜑𝜑 – effective friction angle
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3.2 Earth pressure

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Earth Pressure
The two pressure systems in the earth’s surface are the
earth pressure and the water pressure.
Water pressure distribution:
Water pressure is the same in all directions since it is a
liquid. The vertical stress at a point inside water is the
same as the horizontal stress at that location.
𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤𝑧𝑧
𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗

𝝈𝝈𝒉𝒉

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Lateral pressure
a)The pressure exerted by the soil against an engineering
structure or acting on a surface of surrounding soil mass
is called earth pressure.
b) Lateral pressure is caused by lateral stresses in soil.
The ratio between the lateral and vertical effective
stress is defined as coefficient of earth pressure,k
c)Magnitude and distribution of lateral pressure is
Important in designing structures below ground level.

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Geotechnical Engineering 1 431
Geotechnical Engineering 1 432
Geotechnical Engineering 1 433
 Earth pressure at rest
𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗
z
𝝈𝝈𝒉𝒉

In a homogenous natural soil deposit, the ratio 𝜎𝜎ℎ/𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 is

a constant known as coefficient of earth pressure at rest
Ko
At Ko there are no lateral strains

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Lateral earth pressure at Rest
The vertical stress at any depth z is 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 𝑞𝑞 + 𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧
The corresponding horizontal stress 𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑘𝑜𝑜𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 + 𝑢𝑢
Where u = water pressure
q
𝑘𝑘𝑜𝑜𝑞𝑞

𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗
1
z
2
H 𝝈𝝈𝒉𝒉 P1
H/2 P2
H/3

𝑘𝑘𝑜𝑜(𝑞𝑞 + 𝛾𝛾𝐻𝐻)
Geotechnical Engineering 1 435
Estimating Ko
For:
1. normally consolidated clays and granular soils;
2. Coarse grained soils
𝑘𝑘𝑜𝑜 = 1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑
For fine grained normally consolidated soils
𝑘𝑘𝑜𝑜 = 0.44+0.42( PI% / 100)

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Typical values of K o

Soil 𝒌𝒌𝒐𝒐
Dense sand 0.35
Loose sand 0.6
Normally consolidated clays 0.5 – 0.6
Clay, OCR = 3.5 1.0
Clay, OCR = 20 2.8

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Active/ Passive Earth Pressure
By definition active or passive earth pressure

Wall moves
Wall moves away
towards soil
from soil

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Active Earth Pressure in granular soils
⚫ 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧
⚫ Initially there is no lateral movement;
⚫ 𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑘𝑜𝑜𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 𝑘𝑘𝑜𝑜𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧
⚫ As the wall moves away from the soil:
𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 remains the same
𝜎𝜎ℎ decreases till failure occurs (active state)

n.g.l
𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗
Z
𝝈𝝈𝒉𝒉

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Rankine analysis
⚫ Rankine derived the lateral pressures in a soil deposit
assuming it to be in a state of plasticequilibrium
⚫ The state of stress along the interface between the soil
(i.e backfill) and the retaining structure (wall) is
assumed identical with the stress state within the soil
mass away from the wall
⚫ In other words the presence of the wall does not
modify the state of stress in its vicinity and the state
remains as if the soil mass were semi-infinite,
homogenous and isotropic

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Rankine analysis
⚫ For this condition to be satisfied only a vertical wall
with a smooth back with no friction or adhesion on the
soil wall interface supporting a cohesion-less soil with
a horizontal backfill surface is considered

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Rankine’s theory: Active Earth Pressure
(in granular soils)
⚫ Consider a soil mass at a depth z behind a smooth
vertical wall supporting a cohesionless backfill with a
horizontal surface in level with the top of wall, the
vertical pressure on the element is 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧
⚫ Let the wall move away from the wall so that a state of
plastic equilibrium is reached in the soil mass. The
horizontal pressure reaches a minimum value called
the active pressure Pa which relates to 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 as follows
𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎 = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧

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Rankine’s theory: Active Earth Pressure
(in granular soils)
⚫ Where 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎 is the coefficient of active pressure
⚫ As the backfill surcharge is horizontal there can be no
lateral transfer of weight and no shear stresses exist on
horizontal and vertical planes
⚫ The vertical and horizontal stresses 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 and 𝜎𝜎ℎ are
therefore principal stresses, the former 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 being the
major principal stress 𝜎𝜎1 and the later being the
minor 𝜎𝜎3

Geotechnical Engineering 1 443

Rankine’s theory: Active Earth
Pressure (in granular soils)
𝝈𝝈𝒉𝒉,𝒂𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒊𝒗𝒗𝒆𝒆 = 𝒌𝒌𝒂𝒂𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗
1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑 𝜑𝜑
𝑘𝑘 = = 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛2 (45 − )
1 + 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑 2

Ka = Rankine’s coefficient of active pressure

𝑟𝑟
Failure envelope

𝝋𝝋
𝝈𝝈𝒉𝒉 𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗 𝝈𝝈
Geotechnical Engineering 1 444
Active earth pressure in cohesive soils
⚫ Follow the same steps as for granular soils
⚫ The main difference is that c is not equal to 0
𝜎𝜎ℎ,𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 − 2𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎
If there is a tension crack, the depth of tension crack
2𝑐𝑐
𝑧𝑧𝑐𝑐 =
𝛾𝛾 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎

Geotechnical Engineering 1 445

a) Effect of uniform surcharge
⚫ If a uniformly distributed surcharge pressure of
intensity q per unit area acts over the entire surface of
the soil mass, the vertical pressure 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 is increased to
𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧 + 𝑞𝑞 which causes an additional lateral pressure of a
uniform intensity kaq behind the wall
⚫ The total additional pressure due to the surcharge is
thus kaqH acting at mid height H/2

Geotechnical Engineering 1 446

b) Effect of stratum change
⚫ If the backfill is stratified such that ka and 𝛾𝛾 are not
constant with depth, the pressure will not increase
linearly but will change abruptly at the strata
interfaces
⚫ The pressure distribution is obtained by using
appropriatevalues of ka for each strata
⚫ Fora particular layer the weightof the overlying layers
is considered as a surcharge

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c) Effect of submergence
⚫ Fora submerged backfill ka is applied to the effective
vertical pressure only
⚫ The effective active pressure distribution is computed
on the basis of bulk unit weight 𝛾𝛾 above the water
table and 𝛾𝛾 ′ below the water table
⚫ The net water pressure below the water table must be
added to the active pressure to obtain the total
horizontal pressure

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Passive earth pressure in granular
soils
Initially soil in in Ko state
As the wall moves towards the soil
𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗 remains the same
𝝈𝝈𝒉𝒉 increases till failure occurs
n.g.l
𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗
z
𝝈𝝈𝒉𝒉

Geotechnical Engineering 1 449

Rankine’s theory: Passive Earth
Pressure (in granular soils)
𝝈𝝈𝒉𝒉,𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒊𝒗𝒗𝒆𝒆 = 𝒌𝒌𝒑𝒑𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗
1 + 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑 𝜑𝜑
𝑘𝑘 = = 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛2 (45 + )
1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑 2

Kp = Rankine’s coefficient of passivepressure

𝑟𝑟
Failure envelope

𝝋𝝋
𝝈𝝈𝒉𝒉 𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗 𝝈𝝈
Geotechnical Engineering 1 450
Passive earth pressure in cohesive
soils
⚫ Follow the same steps for granular soils
The only difference is that c is not equal to zero.
⚫ Everything else is the same as for granular soils

𝜎𝜎ℎ,𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 + 2𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝

Geotechnical Engineering 1 451

Summary of computation of lateral
pressure in soil
⚫ In the case where there is no groundwater:
𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = density of soil x depth = 𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧
𝜎𝜎ℎ = lateral earth press. Coeff x density of soil x depth
= 𝑘𝑘𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧There are three lateral earth pressure
coefficients, K:
 Active earth pressure coefficient, 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎
 Passive earth pressure coefficient, 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝
 Lateral earth pressure coefficient at rest, 𝑘𝑘𝑜𝑜

Geotechnical Engineering 1 452

Earth Pressure distribution
Pa and Pp are the resultant activeand passive thrusts on
n.g.l
the wall

n.g.l
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = 0.5𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎𝛾𝛾𝐻𝐻2 H

D
𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 = 0.5𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝𝛾𝛾𝐷𝐷2

𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝𝛾𝛾𝐷𝐷 𝑘𝑘 𝑎𝑎𝛾𝛾𝐻𝐻

Geotechnical Engineering 1 453

Summary of Rankine’s earth
pressure theory
𝝈𝝈𝒉𝒉,𝒂𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒊𝒗𝒗𝒆𝒆 = 𝒌𝒌𝒂𝒂𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗 − 𝟐𝟐𝑪𝑪 𝒌𝒌𝒂𝒂
𝝈𝝈𝒉𝒉,𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒊𝒗𝒗𝒆𝒆 = 𝒌𝒌𝒑𝒑𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗 − 𝟐𝟐𝑪𝑪 𝒌𝒌𝒑𝒑

Assumes smooth wall

Applicable only on vertical walls
The normal stress acting on the wall is a principal stress

Geotechnical Engineering 1 454

Example:
1. An 8m high retaining wall retains a soil comprised of
two 4m thick layers with the following properties:
Upper layer- c= 10 kPa, 𝜑𝜑=18o, 𝛾𝛾= 18kN/m3
Lower layer- c = 0KPa, 𝜑𝜑=35o, 𝛾𝛾= 18kN/m3
a) For a surface load of 50 Kpa, determine the active
force and its distance from the base of the wall
50kPa

C=10, 𝝋𝝋= 18, 𝜸𝜸 = 18 4m

C=0, 𝝋𝝋=35, 𝜸𝜸=18

4m

Geotechnical Engineering 1 455

b) Assume that the water table is located 2m below the
ground surface. The saturated unit weight of both layers
is 19.5 KN/m3
50 KPa

C=10, 𝝋𝝋 = 18, 𝜸𝜸 = 18
4m
𝜸𝜸 = 19.5 KN/m3 2m

C = 0, 𝝋𝝋 = 35, 𝜸𝜸 =19.5
4m

Geotechnical Engineering 1 456

Rankine’s theory: Special cases
Sloping ground surface
Where the ground surface is sloping, the vertical stress
at a given depth will have a value of:
𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗 = 𝜸𝜸𝒛𝒛 − 𝒖𝒖 𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒐𝒔𝒔𝖰𝖰
The lateral earth pressure against a smooth vertical wall
is assumed to act parallel to the ground surface
Active Pressure 𝜎𝜎ℎ𝑎𝑎 = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠𝛽𝛽
Passive Pressure 𝜎𝜎ℎ𝑝𝑝 = 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠𝛽𝛽
𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠𝛽𝛽− 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠 2 𝛽𝛽−𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠 2 𝜑𝜑
Where 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠𝛽𝛽+ 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠 2 𝛽𝛽−𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠 2 𝜑𝜑

Geotechnical Engineering 1 457

 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠𝛽𝛽 + 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠 2 𝛽𝛽 − 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠 2 𝜑𝜑
𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎 =
𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠𝛽𝛽 − 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠 2 𝛽𝛽 − 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠 2 𝜑𝜑

𝖰𝖰

Geotechnical Engineering 1 458

Example A retaining wall of 5m height retains a sloping
backfill with 𝛽𝛽 (the angle of the sloping ground with
horizontal ) = 20 deg. The properties of the backfill are:
C = OKPa, 𝝋𝝋=35deg. 𝜸𝜸=17KN/m3

Geotechnical Engineering 1 459

3.3 Sheet Pile retaining
walls

Geotechnical Engineering 1 460

Definition of sheet pile walls
Sheet pile walls are walls constructed to retain earth,
water or any other fill material. They are generally used
for the following:
1. Water front structures
2. Building diversion dams such as coffer dams
3. River bank protection
4. Retaining sides of cuts made in earth

Geotechnical Engineering 1 461

Sheet pile wall materials
⚫ Sheet pile walls may be constructed using
1) Timber
2) Reinforced concrete
3) Steel

Geotechnical Engineering 1 462

Geotechnical Engineering 1 463
Geotechnical Engineering 1 464
Geotechnical Engineering 1 465
Types of Sheet retaining walls
Sheet walls may be split into 3 groups each with its
separate method of analysis. The groups are:
a) Cantilevered walls
b) Walls with single strut or anchor
c) Walls with multiple struts

Geotechnical Engineering 1 466

Failure of sheet retaining walls
⚫ Collapse of side walls
⚫ Foundation failure
⚫ Heave due to water pressure
⚫ Settlement due to ground water lowering
⚫ Seepagecarrying fine into base of excavation

Geotechnical Engineering 1 467

Cantilever sheet pile walls
⚫ A cantilever sheet pile wall is only used when the
retained height of soil is relatively small (up to 5m).
⚫ The wall is generally considered to be a rigid structure
and it fails by rotation about some point above the
base and some

Geotechnical Engineering 1 468

 i. Cantilever walls
1.

Direction o f
wall moven en
t

Excavation
Active pre ssure

Passive pressure

Geotechnical Engineering 1 469

Rankine active and passive
pressures
Direction of wall 𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗
movement Active

𝝈𝝈𝒉𝒉

𝝈𝝈𝒗𝒗 Wall frictionless-

𝝈𝝈𝒉𝒉 principal stresses are
vertical and horizontal

Geotechnical Engineering 1 470

Rankine Active and passive
pressure
For most walls the long term, fully drained condition
governs stability
Use effective stress strength criterion with c=0
The effective lateral stresses on the wall are then
1−𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑
ACTIVE 𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝜎𝜎
1+𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑 𝑣𝑣
= 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣
1+𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑
PASSIVE 𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝜎𝜎 = 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣
1−𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜑𝜑 𝑣𝑣

Geotechnical Engineering 1 471

Cantilever wall stability
Geometry

x
d
Point of rotation

Geotechnical Engineering 1 472

Cantilever wall stability
Pressure Diagram

Active
Passive

Active Passive

Geotechnical Engineering 1 473

Cantilever wall stability
⚫ Design calculationsare required to determine the
depth of penetration d of the wall.
⚫Because the depth of the point of rotation is also
unknown 2 equations are required to obtain a solution.
These are moment and force equilibrium
∑ 𝐹𝐹= 0
∑ 𝑀𝑀=0
To simplify this the depth of penetration is taken as the
depth of penetration d of the wall.

Geotechnical Engineering 1 474

 Cantilever wall stability

𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎𝛾𝛾(𝑋𝑋 + 𝐻𝐻)

PA1
𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝𝛾𝛾𝑋𝑋 𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝𝛾𝛾(𝑋𝑋 + 𝐻𝐻)
PP1

PP2
PA2

𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝𝛾𝛾(𝐷𝐷 + 𝐻𝐻)

𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑘 𝑎𝑎𝛾𝛾𝐷𝐷

Geotechnical Engineering 1 475

Equilibrium of cantilever sheet
piles
⚫ Forequilibrium the moments of the active and passive
pressures on or about the point of Reaction R must
balance ∑ 𝑀𝑀= 0
⚫ The depth calculated should be increased by at least
20 to 30% to allow for uncertainties in the analysis.

Pa
H+D D
Pp1 3
D/3
Pp2
𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝 𝛾𝛾𝐷𝐷
Geotechnical Engineering 1 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎 𝛾𝛾(𝐻𝐻 + 𝐷𝐷) 547
Analysis of cantilever sheet piles-
procedure
⚫ Select a point O arbitrary
⚫ Calculate the active and passive earth pressures
⚫ Calculate the pore water pressure
⚫ Determine the depth by summing points about O
⚫ Determine d=1.2 to 1.3 do
⚫ Calculate R by summing forces horizontally over the
depth (H+do)
⚫ Determine net passive resistance between d and do
⚫ Check that R is greater than the net passive resistance

Geotechnical Engineering 1 477

If not extend the depth of embankment and determine
the new R

Penetration depth, d
Approximate penetration depth of sheet piling
RELATIVE DENSITY DEPTH, D
Very loose 2.0 H
Loose 1.5 H
Firm 1.0 H
Dense 0.75 H

Geotechnical Engineering 1 478

 Cantilever wall serviceability
⚫ Considerable movement of the wall is required to
mobilise the limiting passive stresses
⚫ The movements required to reach the active and
passive conditions depend on the soil type
⚫ For example for retaining walls of height H, the
movements required are
SAND CLAY: CLAY:
normaly over
consolidated consolidated
Active Passive Active Passive Active Passive
Movement 0.001H 0.05H- 0.004H Large 0.025H 0.025H
0.1H
Geotechnical Engineering 1 479
Cantilever wall –effects of
surchage
⚫) 𝝈𝝈𝒔𝒔

𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 + 𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧

𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎(𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 + 𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧)

Geotechnical Engineering 1 480

ii. Anchored sheet pile walls
⚫ Anchored sheet pile wallsare supported near their top
ends by rods or cables anchored in the soil some
distance behind the wall
⚫ Their stability is due to the passive resistance
developed in front of the wall together with the
support of the anchor system
⚫ The anchor system reduces the depth of penetration
required and the thickness of the section.

Geotechnical Engineering 1 481

Anchored sheet pile walls
⚫ Such walls are extensively
used in waterfront
constructions.
⚫ They are generally suitable
for heights up to 10-12m
depending on soil conditions
⚫ The behavior of an anchored
sheet pile wall is very
complex due to the wall
flexibility and the
interactions between the
wall, anchors and soil

Geotechnical Engineering 1 482

Design of Anchored Sheet Pile Walls
(ASPW)
⚫ A number of design methods are available which can be grouped
under “free earth support” and “fixed earth support”
⚫ The active pressure is calculated on the following basis:
i. Using coefficient of active earth pressure ka where moderate
movement is possible
ii. Using a coefficient K = 0.5( ka +ko) where foundations of
buildings or services exist at shallow depth at a distance 0.5 H
to H behind the top of the wall
iii. Using ko where where foundations of buildings or services
exist at a distance less than 0.5H behind the top of the wall
iv. Water pressures and surcharge effects should be considered
where present

Geotechnical Engineering 1 483

 Design of ASPW- Free earth support
method
⚫ It is assumed that the
depth of penetration below
the dredge line (ground
level in front of the wall) is
insufficient to produce
fixity at the bottom of the
wall; the wall free to rotate
about its base
⚫ It is also assumed that the
wall rotates about the
anchor point

Geotechnical Engineering 1 484

 Design of ASPW- Free earth support
method
⚫ The required penetration
depth d for stability is
obtained by taking moments
about the anchor point B
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧1
⚫ d can be solved by giving trial
values
⚫ Once d has been determined
the force RT on the rods is
obtained by equating the
horizontal forces
𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 −
𝐹𝐹. 𝑆𝑆

Geotechnical Engineering 1 485

 Design of ASPW- Free earth support
method
⚫ RT calculated is the force
RT/ unit length of the wall
⚫ The actual force RT
depends on the rod
spacing
⚫ The bending moment
diagram can be drawn, the
maximum bending
moment occurs at the
point of zero shear and
governs the pile section

Geotechnical Engineering 1 486

 Design of ASPW- Free earth support
method
⚫ For a wall of known
penetration depth the
safety factor with respect
to Pp is obtained by taking
moments about the ancho r
and point which will give
the value of the mobilized
passive resistance Ppm for
equilibrium.
⚫ The safety factor is the
ratio of the ultimate
available Pp to Ppm
⚫ The force in the anchor
RT/m of the wall is Pa- Ppm
Geotechnical Engineering 1 487
 Tie rod anchor
⚫ Tie rods are normally anchored in plates, beams or concrete blocks
some distance behind the wall as shown in the figure
⚫ The anchor must be located beyond the plane FG to ensure that the
passive wedge of the anchor does not encroach on the active wedge
of the bulkhead
⚫ The lower end E of the active wedge is taken at the bottom of the
wall for the free earth support method

𝜑𝜑
45+
2
Geotechnical Engineering 1 559
 Tie rod anchor
⚫ If an anchorof height B is buried toa depth da where B is greaterthan
0.5da the anchor is assumed to develop passive resistance over the
depth da
B>0.5da
1
𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 = 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎2
2
1
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎 𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎2
2
1 2
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 = 𝑃𝑃𝑝𝑝 − 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = 𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 (𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 − 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎 )
2
RT = tie rod force per unit length of wall
𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎2 𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 2𝐹𝐹 (𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 − 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎)
Where s= spacing of tie rods, L= length of anchor/tierod, F=safetyfactor.
If the anchor is a continuous plate s = L

Geotechnical Engineering 1 489

Example: An excavation 5.5m deep in cohesionless soil is
supported by a vertical cantilever sheet pile wall. The piling
extends to a depth 3.6m below the bottom of the
excavation. The density of the soil is 19.2KN/m3 and 𝜑𝜑=
33deg. The water table may be assumed to be below the
bottom of the piles.
a)Find the thrust on the wall per horizontal metre,
neglecting wall friction.
b) Find also what proportion of the maximum passive
resistance is being mobilised on the embedded portion of
the piles, stating clearlyany simplifying assumptions made

Geotechnical Engineering 1 490

Example:
A sheet pile wall anchored at a point 1m below the top is
to support the sides of an excavation 6m deep in dry
sandy soil having 𝜑𝜑 = 35𝑜𝑜 and 𝛾𝛾 = 19𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚3. Using F =
2 on the passive resistance and assuming free earth
supportcalculate
i.the depth of embedment and force in tie rods spaced
at 2m
ii. Design a continuous anchor to support the tie rods

Geotechnical Engineering 1 491

Example:
A sheet pile wall anchored at 1m below top supports the
sides of an excavation 6m deep in sandy soil having
𝜑𝜑 = 30𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑑𝑑 𝛾𝛾 = 18.62𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚3, Find the factor of safety
with respect to passive resistance given that the sheet is
embedded 4.2m below the dredge line . Find tension in
the tie rods spaced at 2m c/c.

Geotechnical Engineering 1 492

3.3 Braced excavations

Geotechnical Engineering 1 493

Braced excavations
⚫ The sides of deep narrow excavations are normally
supported by “bracing” which generally consists of
vertical sheet piling or timbering supported by a series
of struts and wailings.
⚫ A “strut” is a horizontal member in compression across
the trench supporting the wailing
⚫ A “wailing” is a horizontal memberalong the trench
supporting “piling boards or sheet piles”.
⚫ Hence braced excavations consist of 3 elements :
Struts, Walers, piling boards or sheet piles
Geotechnical Engineering 1 494
Struts are compression members used to provide
temporary support to in-situ retaining walls in deep
excavations.
`Wale

`Sheet wall

Strut

Geotechnical Engineering 1 495

⚫ Two types of braced cuts commonly used in
construction work
⚫ One type uses the soldier beam which is a vertical steel
or timber beam driven into the ground before
excavation
⚫ Laggings, which are horizontal timber planks, are
placed between soldier beams as the excavation
proceeds.
⚫ When the excavation reaches the desired depth, wales
and struts (horizontal steel beams)are installed.
⚫ The struts are horizontal compression members.

Geotechnical Engineering 1 496

⚫ Another type of braced excavation involves
interlocking sheet piles driven into the soil before
excavation.
⚫ Wales and struts are inserted immediately after
excavation reaches the appropriate depth. A majority
of braced cuts use sheet piles.

Geotechnical Engineering 1 497

Geotechnical Engineering 1 498
Geotechnical Engineering 1 499
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Geotechnical Engineering 1 501
Traditional braced excavation
pressure diagrams
Stiff-hard Soft to
Sands fissured clays Medium clays
A
0.25Z 0.25Z

B
Z
0.50Z
0.75Z
C

D
0.25Z

0.65kagZ 0.2gZ to 1.0kagZ

Ka=tan2(45-F/2) 04 gZ ka = 1 –m4Cu/gZ
Geotechnical Engineering 1 502
Example 1: A trench in sand of depth 6.5m is to be supported by timbering with
horizontal struts at 1m, 3m and 5m below ground level, with the bottom strut at
1.5m above bottom of excavation and spaced at 2m intervals. Determine the
estimated strut forces induced. Soil properties 𝜸𝜸= 20KN/m3, 𝜑𝜑= 35deg.

Example2: A braced excavation is required in a soft clay, as shown in Figure below. A

stiff clay layer is located 5.9 m from the surface. Determine the load on the struts
per meter length and the factor of safety against bottom heave. The length of the
excavation is 12 m.

0.3m
𝛾𝛾=19KN/m3
1.8m 𝜑𝜑=25deg.
Cu/𝜎𝜎=0.24
1.8m

1.8m

0.4m
6m
Geotechnical Engineering 1 503
 Figure: Base
heave Stability

Geotechnical Engineering 1 504

The END!!!

Geotechnical Engineering 1 505