Forces, acceleration

5 and energy

OUTCOMES
Students:
INQUIRY QUESTION •• apply Newton’s first two laws of motion to a variety of everyday situations,
 including both static and
dynamic examples, and include the role played by friction (friction = µFN ) (ACSPH063) CCT
How can the motion of
objects be explained and •• investigate, describe and analyse the acceleration of a single object subjected to a constant net force
and relate the motion of the object to Newton’s second law of motion through the use of: (ACSPH062,
analysed?
ACSPH063)
– qualitative descriptions CCT
– graphs and vectors ICT N  
– deriving relationships from graphical representations including Fnet = ma and relationships of uniformly
accelerated motion ICT N
•• apply the special case of conservation of mechanical energy to the quantitative analysis of motion
involving: ICT N
– work done and change in kinetic energy of an object undergoing accelerated rectilinear motion in one
dimension (W = F||s = Fscos θ )
– changes in gravitational potential energy of an object in a uniform field ( ∆U = mg∆h )
•• conduct investigations over a range of mechanical processes to analyse qualitatively and quantitatively the
 ∆E 
concept of average power  P = , P = F||v = Fvcos θ  , including but not limited to: ICT N
 ∆t 
– uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion
– objects raised against the force of gravity
– work done against air resistance, rolling resistance and friction
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017
iStock.com/DaveAlan

116 9780170409063
 In the previous chapter, we began our

iStock.com/MarioGuti
investigation of forces. Newton’s laws
were described, and we applied Newton’s
second and third laws to objects in
equilibrium. In this chapter, we will apply
our understanding of forces to objects that
are not in equilibrium. We will see how
the movement of cars, trains, aeroplanes
and any other accelerating object can be
explained and analysed using Newton’s laws.
This chapter also introduces another
of the central concepts in physics: FIGURE 5.1  A train accelerates away from the platform. It is the
energy. Energy can change forms, and be friction force between the train,s wheels and the rails that causes
the acceleration.
transferred from one object to another, but
the total energy of the universe is constant.
Energy is what allows us to apply forces and do work. Fuels such as petrol provide energy to power our
cars, and most of our electrical energy in Australia comes from coal. Energy security is an important
issue in the modern world. Here we shall see how the law of conservation of energy may be applied to
analyse motion, and how force is related to energy.

5.1 Newton’s laws and friction

Newton’s first and second laws revisited
Recall that Newton’s first law says that in the absence of external forces, an object at rest remains at rest and
an object in motion continues in motion with a constant velocity. This second part of the statement, that
an object in motion continues in motion with a constant velocity seems to contradict our everyday experience.
If you slide a book along the table (Figure 5.2), it will not continue with constant velocity – instead
it will slow down and stop. To apply Newton’s first law to this situation, we first need to recognise that
there is an acceleration. The book is moving forwards, but it is slowing down, therefore the book has
an acceleration backwards. This acceleration, from Newton’s first law, means that there must be a
force acting on the book.

FIGURE 5.2  A book

slides across the table,
slowing down as it
moves

Remember that forces are interactions. To identify the force causing the acceleration, we look to
see what other objects the book is interacting with. The book is in the gravitational field of Earth, so it
is subject to the gravitational force. The gravitational field of Earth exerts a force directly downwards,
but this is not the direction of acceleration of the book, so it is not the gravitational force that is causing

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 117

 the acceleration of the book. The only object the book is in contact with is the table. The contact force
of the table on the book has components parallel and perpendicular to the surface. The perpendicular
component (normal force) is vertical, so it cannot be causing the acceleration. The parallel component
of the contact force acts horizontally, so we conclude that it is this force that is acting to slow down the
book. Recall that the parallel component of the contact force is called friction.
Note that we have ignored any force due to the air that the book moves in. The air will also be exerting
WS
forces both horizontally and vertically on the book – the horizontal force is drag or air resistance, and the
vertical force is the buoyant force that acts upwards. Both forces are very small compared with the force
ForceHomework
and friction exerted by the table, so we choose to ignore them.
Whenever we want to analyse the motion of an accelerating object, we use this process to identify
the forces acting:
◗◗ First, consider any fields that may be exerting a force on the object. If the object has mass and is in a
gravitational field, it will experience a gravitational force. If the object has charge and is in an electric
field, it will experience an electrostatic force (see chapter 12). If the object has charge and is moving,
or is magnetic, it will experience a force in a magnetic field (see chapter 14). Ask yourself which fields
need to be included in the analysis and which can be ignored.
◗◗ Second, consider everything that the object is in contact with. All surfaces exert a contact force, as do
air, water and other fluids. Ask yourself which contact forces need to be included. Sometimes friction
or air resistance is very small and can be ignored, but often it is significant and should be included in
your analysis.
◗◗ Once you have identified all the forces that are acting, draw a force diagram for the object showing
all the forces acting on it. The object’s acceleration will tell you the direction of the net force. This will
help you determine the direction of the forces acting on the object and their relative sizes.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.1

Identify the forces acting, and draw a force diagram, for a book sliding across a table, slowing down as it
moves to the right.

ANSWER LOGIC

The book is subject to the gravitational force of Earth •• Identify all the forces acting and their directions.
downwards, the normal force of the table upwards and the
friction force of the table horizontally.
Assume the forces due to the air are negligible, so can be •• State any assumptions or approximations.
ignored.
The net force is horizontal and to the left. •• Identify the direction of the net force.

The net force is due to the friction force. The friction force •• Relate the net force to the acting forces.
is to the left.

Ftable on book, normal •• Draw the diagram.

•• Remember that the force arrows on a force diagram should
have lengths that indicate their relative sizes. As there is no
vertical acceleration, we know that there is no net force in the
vertical direction. Hence, the normal force must be equal to
Ftable on book, friction the gravitational force, so their arrows are the same length.
FEarth on book, gravitational

FIGURE 5.3

118 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 TRY THESE YOURSELF
Identify the forces acting on, and draw a force diagram for:
1 a book being pushed across a table at constant velocity.
2 a book being pushed across a table at increasing velocity.

Once we have identified all the forces acting, we can use Newton’s second law to relate the acceleration
to the net force. Recall that Newton’s second law tells us that the acceleration is proportional to the net
force, and is in the same direction as the net force:

 Fnet
a=
m

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.2

Ranji asks Phil if she can borrow his maths textbook. Phil slides the textbook along the table towards
−1
Ranji with an initial speed of 1.0 m s . The book, with a mass of 1.5 kg, slides along and comes to rest in
2.0 s. Calculate the frictional force acting on the book.

ANSWER LOGIC
−1
m = 1.5 kg; u = 1.0 m s ; v = 0; t = 2.0 s •• Identify the relevant data.

Fnet = Ffriction = ma •• Write Newton’s second law.

v = u + at •• Relate acceleration to given data.

(v − u ) •• Rearrange the equation for acceleration.
a=
t
m(v − u ) •• Substitute the expression for a into Newton’s second law.
F=
t
1.5 kg (0 − 1.0 m s −1 ) •• Substitute known values with correct units.
=
2.0 s
−2 •• Calculate the final value.
= −0.75 kg m s
Ffriction = −0.75 N •• State the final answer with correct units, sign and significant figures.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 If the friction force acting on the book was only 0.25 N, calculate how long it would take the book
to stop.
−1
2 Calculate the friction force acting on the sliding textbook if it has an initial speed of 1.0 m s and
slides a distance of 1.5 m.

Static and kinetic friction

Friction is a significant force in almost all everyday situations. When you slide a book along a table to
a friend, it slows and stops because of friction. When you ride a bicycle or drive a car, the wheels rotate
and grip the road, accelerating you forwards because of friction. Every step you take, the friction force is
what enables you to walk.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 119

 The friction force is the component of the contact force that prevents one surface from sliding over
another surface. It always acts parallel to a surface. The friction force acting on an object may be in the
direction of motion of the object, or it may be in the opposite direction. Friction, acting in the direction
of motion, allows you to walk. Friction, acting in the direction opposite to motion, causes sliding to be
reduced; for example, slowing down the sliding book. The important thing to remember is that friction
always opposes the relative motion of one surface against
Book another.
Recall that friction is one component of the contact force
that one surface exerts on another. The contact force is due to
Table
interactions of atoms at the surfaces of the two materials as
FIGURE 5.4  A very close-up view of the their electrons get closer, and is electrostatic in nature. If you
surfaces of a book and a table
could look very, very closely at any surface, you would see that
it is bumpy, as shown in Figure 5.4.
Where there are bumps on the two surfaces, they can catch as one surface tries to slide along the
other. They can also bond at those points. The more one surface pushes into another, so that more atoms
are interacting, the greater the friction force is.
Imagine you are going to slide a book along a table. You must apply a force to get the book
moving. Try pushing very, very gently on a book. If you start by applying a very small force, the
book does not move. It does not move because the static friction force is acting. If the book is not
moving, then the friction force must be equal to the applied force to give a zero net force, as shown in
Figure 5.5a. If you slowly increase the applied force (Figure 5.5b), the friction force will also increase,
always remaining equal to the applied force, up to some maximum value. This maximum value
is called the maximum static friction force.
It is the maximum friction force that the a Ftable on book, normal
two surfaces can exert on each other – an
Fhand on book
applied force greater than this breaks the
bonds between the surfaces and pushes
Ftable on book, static friction
the bumps past each other. If you do the FEarth on book, gravitational
experiment very carefully, you will feel
when this happens and you will notice that
suddenly the force that the book exerts b Ftable on book, normal
back on you decreases a little bit. This is
Fhand on book
because, once the book starts to slide, the
force of friction acting on it decreases, as
shown in Figure 5.5c. When surfaces are Ftable on book, static friction
FEarth on book, gravitational
sliding, we call the friction force acting the
kinetic friction force. It is the same sort of
force as the static friction force.
c Ftable on book, normal
The kinetic friction force is independent
of other forces applied parallel to the Fhand on book
surfaces. Figure 5.6 shows a graph of friction
force as a function of applied force. You can Direction of motion
Ftable on book, static friction
see that the two are equal for small values F Earth on book, gravitational

of applied force, where the object is not yet

sliding. This is the static friction region. In FIGURE 5.5  a When a small force, Fhand on book, is applied to the
the kinetic friction region, the surfaces are book, the static friction force is equal to the applied force and
prevents the book from sliding. b As the applied force increases,
sliding against each other, and the friction so does the static friction force. c When the applied force
force is constant and less than the maximum exceeds the maximum static friction force, the book begins to
slide. It is now the kinetic friction force that acts on the book.

120 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 FIGURE 5.6 Static
friction increases
up to a maximum,
staying equal to the
applied force, until

Friction force
Kinetic friction

um ses
sliding begins. The

im ri
kinetic friction is less

a x ti o n
than the maximum

a m fric
static friction and is

to ti c
a
constant.
St
No sliding Sliding

Applied force

static friction.
The more that surface A pushes into surface B, the greater the kinetic friction FB on A, friction. To a good WS

approximation, kinetic friction is proportional to the normal force, since the normal force is a measure of Rollercoaster
Homework
how hard A is pushing into B. Remember that from Newton’s third law, whatever force surface A exerts on design
surface B, surface B will exert an equal and opposite force on surface A. Hence, applying a perpendicular
force (such as pushing down on a sliding book) changes the friction force.
We can model the kinetic friction force mathematically as:
FA on B, kinetic friction = μk FN, A on B
where N is the normal force exerted by surface A on surface B, and μk is a constant called the coefficient
of kinetic friction. Note that as both FA on B, kinetic friction and FN, A on B have units of N, the coefficient μk must
be dimensionless and have no units. The value of μk is usually between 0 and 1, but can be greater than 1.
Remember that the static friction force varies, and can take any value up to some maximum. This
maximum also depends on the normal force and is given by:
FA on B, maximum static friction = μs FN, A on B
where μs is the coefficient of static friction, and, like μk, typically varies between 0 and 1, but can be greater
than 1.
More generally, the magnitude of the static friction force is:
FA on B, static friction ≤ μs FN, A on B
and will take whatever value is necessary to prevent the surfaces sliding against each other, up to the
maximum possible. The values of μk and μs depend on the details of the surfaces. Smoother surfaces
have lower coefficients of friction, and rougher surfaces have higher coefficients of friction.

TABLE 5.1  Some examples of coefficients of friction. Note that these values are approximate, and will vary
depending on the details of the surfaces.

SURFACES μS μK
knilbeW

Rubber on concrete 1.0 0.8

Car tyres and
Glass on glass 0.94 0.4 friction
Wood on wood 0.25–0.5 0.2 Explore this
presentation on car
Steel on steel, unlubricated 0.74 0.57 tyres and friction.
What sort of tyres
are best for the
Steel on steel, lubricated 0.15 0.06
road conditions
where you live?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 121

 WORKED EXAMPLE 5.3

Ice on ice 0.1 0.03

A 1.5 kg textbook sits on a table. The coefficient of static friction for the book and table is 0.50 and the
coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.45. Calculate the friction force acting on the book when Ranji pushes it
with a horizontal force of:
1 2.5 N
2 5.0 N
3 7.5 N

ANSWER LOGIC

1 m = 1.5 kg; μs = 0.50, μk = 0.45 •• Identify the relevant data.

Ftable on book, maximum static friction = μs FN table on book •• Write the expression for maximum static friction force.
Check whether the applied force exceeds the
maximum friction force, and then write an expression
for the maximum friction force.
FN, table on book = mbook g •• Recognise that as no other vertical forces are acting, the normal
force is equal to the gravitational force on the book (Newton’s
second law).

F table on book, maximum static friction = μs mbook g •• Write an expression for the maximum friction force in terms of
−1 known quantities.
= 0.5 (1.5 kg) (9.8 N kg )
•• Substitute known values with correct units.
= 7.35 N
•• Calculate the final value.

This maximum static friction force is greater than the •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
applied force of 2.5 N, so the static friction force will
take the value required to prevent the book sliding.
This is the magnitude of the applied force.
Ftable on book, static friction = 2.5 N
2 Ftable on book, static friction = 5.0 N •• The maximum static friction force is the same as calculated in
part 1. The applied force of 5.0 N is less than this, so the static
friction force again takes the value of the applied force.
•• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

3 Ftable on book, kinetic friction = μk FN, table on book •• The applied force is now greater than the maximum static
friction force, so the book will slide. The book is now subject to
the kinetic friction force rather than the static friction force.
•• Write an expression for the kinetic friction force

FN, table on book = mbook g •• Recognise that as no other vertical forces are acting, the normal
force is equal to the gravitational force on the book (Newton’s
second law).

Ftable on book, kinetic friction = μk mbook g •• Write an expression for the kinetic friction force in terms of
−1 known quantities.
= 0.45 (1.5 kg) (9.8 N kg )
•• Substitute known values with correct units.
= 6.615 N
•• Calculate the final value.
Ftable on book, kinetic friction = 6.6 N
•• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Repeat Worked example 5.3, but with a second book of mass 1.0 kg sitting on top of the textbook.
Assume that the books do not slide relative to each other.

122 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 When we need to slide one surface against another, we need to overcome the friction force. For most
movement, such as any motion involving rolling, we rely on the static friction force. In a car race, it is the
engine power that determines how fast the wheels can spin, but it is the friction force between the tyres
and road that determines the maximum possible acceleration. When the engine revs and the wheels
start to turn, the tyres push backwards against the road. By Newton’s third law, the road pushes forwards
against the tyres. It is this force that accelerates the car – the static friction force that the road exerts on
the tyres. If this force is not great enough, the wheels will spin and the car goes nowhere.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.4

The coefficient of static friction of a racing car’s tyres against a road surface is 1.1. The car has a mass of
750 kg. Calculate the maximum acceleration possible for this car on a flat road.

ANSWER LOGIC

m = 750 kg; μs = 1.1 •• Identify the relevant data.

Fnet, max •• Relate acceleration to force using Newton’s second law.
amax =
mcar

Fnet, max = Froad on tyres, maximum static friction •• Recognise that the only horizontal force is the static friction force
of the road on the tyres. The maximum net force is therefore the
maximum static friction force.

Froad on tyres, maximum static friction = μs FN, road on tyres •• Write an expression for the maximum friction force.

FN, road on tyres = mcar g •• Recognise that as no other vertical forces are acting, the normal
force is equal to the gravitational force on the car (Newton’s
second law).

Froad on tyres, maximum static friction = μs mcar g •• Write an expression for the force.
Fnet, max µs mcar g •• Substitute the expression for force into Newton’s second law and
amax = = = ms g
mcar mcar simplify.

= 1.1 (9.8 m s )
−2 •• Substitute known values with correct units.
−2 •• Calculate the final value.
= 10.78 m s
−2 •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
amax = 11 m s

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 As the car race in Worked example 5.4 proceeds, the tyres become worn and the maximum
−2
acceleration decreases to 8.5 m s . Calculate the coefficient of static friction for the tyres against the
road at this stage.
2 Would it make any difference to the answer if the car had a larger or smaller mass? Explain your
answer.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 123

 INVESTIGATION 5.1

The static and kinetic friction forces

Critical and
creative AIMS
thinking
•• To determine how the static and kinetic friction forces that a surface exerts on an object depend on the
Numeracy object’s mass
Information and
•• To measure the coefficient of kinetic friction between two surfaces
communication Write a hypothesis and an inquiry question for this investigation.
technology
capability
MATERIALS

•• Adjustable ramp
•• Box
•• Set of weights
•• Protractor
•• Stopwatch or data logger
•• Weighing scales
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT
The box with weights may slide off the end of the ramp and Keep the area at the end of the ramp clear.
hit someone.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

Part 1 (for the static friction force)

1 Measure the mass of the box with only a single weight in it.
2 Beginning with the ramp horizontal, place the box with the weight on the ramp.
3 Slowly raise the ramp until the box just begins to slide. Record the angle at which this happens. Make
repeated measurements.
4 Add a weight to the box and measure the total mass of box and weights.
5 Repeat steps 2–4 until you have run out of weights or have at least six data points.
Part 2 (for the kinetic friction force)
1 Set the ramp at an angle that is large enough to overcome the maximum static friction force.
2 Measure the mass of the box with only a single weight in it.
3 Place the box with weight on the ramp and allow it to slide down.
4 Measure the time taken for the box to slide from rest to some known distance along the ramp. Make repeat
measurements.
5 Add a weight to the box and measure the total mass of box and weights.
6 Repeat steps 3–5 until you have run out of weights or have at least six data points.

RESULTS
Record your results as you measure them.
Part 1
Make a table of data using your measurements from part 1, with mass in one column and angle in a second
column. Add one more column for analysis. Include units and uncertainties. Uncertainties can be calculated
from the spread in your repeat measurements.

124 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Part 2
Make a table of data using your measurements from part 2, with mass in one column and time in a second
column. Add two more columns for analysis. Include units and uncertainties. Uncertainties can be calculated
from the spread in your repeat measurements.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

Part 1
1 Draw a force diagram for the box on the ramp.
2 Identify the forces acting parallel to the ramp surface.
3 Write an expression for the static friction force in terms of the measured angle and mass.
4 Calculate the maximum static friction force for each mass.
5 Plot a graph of maximum static friction force against mass using appropriate software. Add a trend-line
(line of best fit) to your graph, and display the equation for the line on your graph.
Part 2
1 Calculate the acceleration of the box for each mass using kinematics equations. Record the acceleration in
your table of data.
2 Calculate the net force acting on the box using Newton’s second law and add it to your table.
3 Plot a graph of net force against mass using appropriate software. Add a trend-line to your graph, and
display the equation for the line on your graph.
4 Find an expression for the gradient of your graph in terms of θ, μk and g. Use the value for the gradient of
the trend-line to calculate μk.

DISCUSSION

•• Did the two graphs have the shape that you expected? Did the line of best fit pass through the origin?
•• Give the answer to your inquiry question and state whether your hypothesis was supported or not.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

Fluids (liquids and gases) also exert frictional forces on objects that are moving relative to the fluid.
We usually refer to these forces as drag or resistive forces; for example, air resistance. These forces can
be very large. The mechanism of these friction forces is different from that between solid surfaces. For
friction between solid surfaces, the friction force is approximately independent of the relative speed of Weblink
Drag on
aeroplanes
the two surfaces. This is not the case for drag forces. Air resistance has been found to increase with the
Find out more about
square of the speed of the object relative to the air: Fair drag ∝ v2. This is why it is more fuel efficient to air resistance and
drive at 90 km h−1 than at 110 km h−1. Drag in liquids is generally directly proportional to the speed of the aircraft flight.

object: Fliquid drag ∝ v.

KEY CONCEPTS

●● If there is an acceleration, then there must be a force acting. This includes when objects are
slowing down.
●● To identify the forces causing an object to accelerate, consider all surfaces the object is in
contact with and all fields it is in.
●● Draw force diagrams to help you analyse the effects of forces.
●● Friction forces act to oppose the sliding of one surface against another. Friction is due to the
interaction of atoms on the two surfaces.
●● The static friction force acts to prevent sliding, and can take any value up a maximum given by
Fmaximun static friction = μsFN. In general, Fstatic friction ≤ μsFN. The static friction force is what allows
wheels to roll and enables us to walk.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 125

 ●● The kinetic friction force acts when surfaces are sliding against each other, and opposes the
relative motion. The kinetic friction force is given by Fkinetic friction = μkFN.
●● Air resistance is small at low speeds, but increases rapidly with speed. Air resistance cannot be
ignored on objects moving quickly.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Compare and contrast the static and kinetic friction forces.
2 Identify the direction of the friction force acting on a car by the road in each of the following cases, and
5.1 state whether it is the static or kinetic friction force that is acting.
a A car accelerates forwards
b A car makes a left turn
c A car brakes to a stop
3 Identify the direction of the friction force acting on the box by the ute tray in each of the following cases,
and state whether it is the static or kinetic friction force that is acting.
a The box slides forwards as it is loaded on to the back of the ute
b The box sits, without sliding, on the tray of the ute as the ute accelerates forwards
c The box sits, without sliding, on the tray of the ute as the ute brakes
4 Harriet is pushing on a couch. She begins by pushing gently, gradually increasing the force she applies.
Suddenly the couch start to move, and accelerates rapidly. Explain why this happened.
5 Harriet pushes on a couch of mass 40 kg with a force of 100 N, but it doesn’t move.
a What is the friction force acting on the couch?
b Harriet increases the force she applies. The couch begins to move when she applies a force of 180 N.
Calculate μs for the floor on the couch.
6 Marcus sits on the couch described in the previous question while Harriet is trying to push it. Explain why
she now needs to apply a greater force to make it start moving.
7 Harriet finds that she needs to exert a force of 150 N for the couch described in the previous question to
continue moving.
a Calculate μk for the floor on the couch.
b Describe the motion of the couch if Harriet pushes with a constant force of 160 N after the couch has
begun to slide.

Acceleration of an object subject

5.2
to a constant net force
Newton’s second law tells us what happens when one or more forces act on an object. When an object
is subjected to forces that do not add to zero, then the object will accelerate. From Newton’s second law:
 
 Fnet, A ∑ FA
aA = =
mA mA
The acceleration is directly proportional to the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass. If the
net force is constant, then the acceleration will also be constant.

126 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 To analyse the motion of an object subject to a net force, we first apply Newton’s second law to find
the acceleration. We can then apply the kinematics equations for constant acceleration:
1 1 Fnet 2
s = ut + at 2 = ut + t
2 2 m
F
v = u + at = u + net t
m
F
v 2 = u 2 + 2 as = u 2 + 2 net s
m
to describe and predict the motion.
Figure 5.7 shows what happens to the velocity and position of an object that is subject to a constant
net force.

c
a b

Displacement (m)
Acceleration (m s22)

Velocity (m s21)

Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

FIGURE 5.7 The a acceleration, b velocity, and c displacement of an object starting at rest and subject to a constant net force

Remember that forces are vectors, and need to be added using vector addition. The net force is also
a vector. The direction of the net force gives the direction of the acceleration.
Alternatively, if we know the direction of an object’s acceleration, this tells us the direction of the net
force acting on it. This in turn tells us about the relative magnitudes of the forces acting on the object.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.5

Draw force diagrams to show the forces acting on a car when it is:
1 speeding up.
2 slowing down by braking.
Remember that thelengths of the arrows represent the relative magnitudes of the forces. Label the
forces in the form FB on A.

ANSWER LOGIC

 
1 When a car is speeding up, the acceleration is forwards so the net •• Relate the change in motion to a and Fnet.
force is also forwards.
When a car is speeding up, the forces acting on the car are: •• Identify the forces acting.
• the normal force of the ground surface on each tyre (up)
• the friction force of the road surface on the car ( forwards)
• air resistance (backwards)
• the gravitational force of Earth on the car (down).

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 127

 ANSWER LOGIC

 The normal and gravitational forces are equal. Friction force of the •• Identify the relationships between the forces.
road surface must be greater than the air resistance

F (by surface F (by surface •• Draw a diagram.

on tyre) on tyre)
•• The contact forces of the ground on the tyres
should sum to be the same length as the
F (by air on car)
gravitational force downwards. The force by the
road on the car is greater than the force by the air
F (by road on car) on the car.

F (by Earth on car)

FIGURE 5.8 


2 When the car is braking, the acceleration is backwards so the net 
•• Relate change in motion to a and Fnet.
force is also backwards.
When a car is braking, the forces acting on the car are: •• Identify the forces acting.
• the normal force of the road surface on each tyre (up)
• the friction force of the road surface on the tyres (backwards)
• air resistance (backwards)
• the gravitational force of Earth on the car (down).
The normal and gravitational forces are equal. Friction force of the •• Identify the relationships between the forces.
road surface is now in the opposite direction, and may be greater
or smaller than the air resistance.
•• Draw the diagram.
F (by air on car)
•• The contact forces of the ground on the tyres
should sum to be the same length as the
gravitational force downwards. The force by the
F (Friction, by road on car) road on the car is now in the opposite direction.

F (by Earth on car)

FIGURE 5.9 

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Draw a force diagram for a car that is rolling on a flat road in neutral, with no braking being applied by
the driver.

If we know the net force that acts on an object and we know the object’s mass, then we can calculate
the acceleration of the object. If we know the acceleration of an object, we can use the kinematics
equations from pages 46–7 in chapter 2 to find the change in the object’s velocity and position. Solving
problems in physics often involves combining ideas.

128 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 WORKED EXAMPLE 5.6
−1
Megan is driving her Mercedes, with a mass of 1000 kg, at a speed of 20 m s . Calculate the average net
force applied to the car if it is to stop in a distance of 25 m to avoid running over a cat.

ANSWER LOGIC
−1
s = 25 m; u = 20 m s ; v = 0; m = 1000 kg •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

We want to find the force.

Use kinematics to find the acceleration, then use •• Plan how to solve the problem.
Newton’s second law to find the force.
•• Relate acceleration to given data.
v 2 = u 2 + 2 as
v 2 − u2 •• Rearrange for acceleration.
a=
2s
(0 m s −1 )2 − (20 m s −1 )2 •• Substitute known values with units.
=
2 ( 25 m )
−2 •• Calculate the answer.
= −8.0 m s
∑ F = Fnet = ma •• Write Newton’s second law.
−2
Fnet = (1000 kg)(−8.0 m s ) •• Substitute known values with units.
−2
= −8000 kg m s •• Calculate the answer.
= −8000 N
•• State the answer with correct units, significant figures and direction.
Fnet = −8000 N

TRY THESE YOURSELF

−1
1 An aeroplane with a mass of 8.0 × 104 kg accelerates from rest to take-off speed of 75 m s in 25 s. Weblink
Newton’s second
What is the average net force on the aeroplane during this time? law
−1 Watch the video and
2 A car with a mass of 1.2 × 103 kg accelerates from rest to 25 m s in 5.0 s. Sketch a v versus t graph to follow along with the
find acceleration as the gradient. If the same car has a load of 400 kg added to it, how long, under the worked examples.
−1
same net force, would it take to accelerate from rest to 25 m s ?

INVESTIGATION 5.2

Critical and
Acceleration due to a constant net force creative
thinking

In this investigation, we will use the gravitational field to exert a constant force on a falling weight. We
Numeracy
attach the weight to a string, which passes over a pulley and is attached to a toy car. The forces acting
on the weight are the gravitational force and the tension in the string. These act in the vertical direction.
Information and
The purpose of the pulley is to change the direction of the tension in the string without changing the communication
magnitude of the tension. This is an approximation, called the ‘ideal pulley’ approximation. In the horizontal technology
capability
direction, there is the tension in the string pulling the car forwards and friction forces opposing this motion.
These will give an approximately constant horizontal net force.

AIM
Write a hypothesis describing how you expect the toy car to behave under the influence of a constant net force.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 129

 MATERIALS

•• Pulley attached to table edge

•• String
•• Masses and mass holder
•• Tape measure
•• Tape
•• Toy car
•• Stopwatch or motion-sensor with data-logger
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT

What risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Set up your equipment as shown in Figure 5.10. Line up the toy car with the pulley so it is pulled directly
towards it. Set up your data-logging equipment if you are using this system.

Toy car
String
a

Pulley

Masses

FIGURE 5.10  Experimental set-up for measuring acceleration due to a

constant force

2 You will need to make a start and finish line on the table (you can do this using tape).
3 Place the car at the start line. Start the data-logger.
4 Allow the weights to fall freely and time how long it takes the car to reach the finish line.
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 at least twice to get a measure of the uncertainty in the time taken.
6 Repeat steps 3–5 with a range of different weights added to the mass holder.

RESULTS

1 Record the distance travelled by the car.

2 Record the times taken for each run, and the weight used. Use a table to organise your results.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Draw a force diagram for the car. Show the horizontal and vertical forces acting.
2 Calculate the average time taken for each value of the falling weights used, and the uncertainty in that
value (use the range method as described in chapter 1). Include this information in your table, as shown.

130 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 MASS OF WEIGHTS AVERAGE TIME ± ACCELERATION ±
UNCERTAINTY (m s 2)
−
USED (kg) TIMES TAKEN (s) UNCERTAINTY (s)

3 Use the kinematics equations to calculate the average acceleration of the toy car and write these in your table.
4 Plot a graph of the acceleration of the car versus mass of the falling weights used, using appropriate
graphing software.
5 Fit a trend-line to your graph and display the equation. Record the gradient.
6 Derive an expression for the gradient of your graph. You will need to use F = ma. Be very careful to
distinguish between the mass of the car and the mass of the falling weights.

DISCUSSION

1 Comment on the shape of your graph. Is it what you expect based on your hypothesis? Does the gradient
agree with what you would expect from Newton’s second law?
2 What other information can you obtain from your graph? For example, can it give you some idea of the
friction forces acting?

CONCLUSION
Write a conclusion that links your findings to your hypothesis. Account for any discrepancies.

 
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Newton’s second law quantifies the relationship between net force and acceleration: Fnet = ma .
●● The direction of the acceleration is given by the direction of the net force.

 F
●● If the net force is constant, then the acceleration is also constant: a = net
m
●● The kinematics equations for constant acceleration are used to analyse the motion of an object
that is subject to a constant net force.

CHECK YOUR
1 An ice skater is travelling in a straight line at constant speed. She turns a skate slightly so that she now UNDERSTANDING
experiences a constant friction force in the direction opposite to her velocity.
a Qualitatively describe her motion. 5.2
b From before she started braking until she stops, sketch graphs of:
i her acceleration as a function of time.
ii her speed as a function of time.
iii her position as a function of time.
−
2 A positron (which has same mass as an electron) has been ejected from a nucleus with a speed of 6.5 × 105 m s 1.
−
It passes into an electric field and experiences a force of 1.5 × 10 16 N in the direction opposite to its motion.
a Calculate its acceleration.
b How far does it travel before coming to a stop?
−
3 Kate is driving her car at 80 km h 1 when she sees a kangaroo on the road in front of her. The mass of the
car is 1900 kg (assume the mass of Kate is negligible compared with the car).
a If the maximum frictional force between the road and tyres is 1.4 × 104 N, what is the minimum
stopping distance when Kate applies the brakes?
b If the car skids, so that kinetic friction rather than static friction is acting on the tyres, will the stopping
distance be greater or smaller? Explain your answer.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 131

 4 A force of 30 N acts in a direction N30°E on a mass of 100 kg at rest on a smooth horizontal surface.
a Calculate the northerly component of the force.
b Calculate the easterly component of the force.
c What is the magnitude and the direction of the acceleration of the mass?
5 Miriam is playing with a toy car. Figure 5.11 shows the velocity–time graph for the toy car, which has a mass
0.5 kg and is travelling in a straight line to the right of the origin.

40

30
Velocity (m s21)

20

10

0 Time (s)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
210

220

FIGURE 5.11  Velocity versus time graph for a toy car

a Copy the following table and use the graph to complete it.

TIME INTERVAL (s) 0–5 5–10 10–15 15–20 20–25 25–30 30–35 35–40 40–45
−
ACCELERATION (m s 2)

FORCE (N)

b At a time of 10.0 s, the toy car experiences combined frictional forces of 0.2 N. What must be the
forwards force to the right on the car when it is travelling at this time?
6 Two masses, A and B, are accelerated together along a frictionless horizontal surface by a force of 30 N, as
shown in Figure 5.12.
The mass of A is 1.5 kg and the mass of B is 3.0 kg.

30.0 N B
A

FIGURE 5.12  Two blocks on a frictionless surface are pushed to the right
by a force of 30.0 N

a What is the acceleration of the two masses?

b What is the magnitude of the force exerted by B on A?
c The two masses are now accelerated together along the same smooth surface, in the opposite
direction by a force of 30 N. What is the force exerted by B on A?

5.3 Energy
Energy is one of the central concepts of physics. If you look again at the concept maps in chapter 1 on pages 5–7,
you will see that energy is one of the most important ideas and is connected to our understanding of forces.
There are two forms of energy: kinetic energy is the energy possessed by objects due to their motion,
and potential energy is due to the forces acting on objects in a system.
132 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063
 Kinetic energy

knilbeW
In this chapter, we will consider the kinetic energy of single, macroscopic objects. In chapter 7, we will
James Prescott
use the idea of kinetic energy of microscopic particles when we describe waves. In a wave, there is no Joule
net movement of material, but all the particles in the medium have kinetic energy as the wave passes Find out more
about James
through the material. In chapter 11, we will look at the kinetic energy of the disorganised motion of Prescott Joule –
physicist and
particles in materials. We call this thermal energy, but it is really just the kinetic energy of many particles, brewer.
which we measure as temperature. Figure 5.13 shows these different examples of kinetic energy.
For a single object, the kinetic energy is given by:
1
Ek = mv 2
2
where m is the mass of the object and v is its velocity.
Looking at this equation, we can see that the units of kinetic energy are kg m2 s−2. We give this the
name joule, 1 J = 1 kg m2 s−2, in honour of James Prescott Joule.
Unlike force, which is a vector, energy is a scalar and does not have a direction. Energy is often an
easier quantity than force to work with when solving problems. Kinetic energy is always positive.

a b

FIGURE 5.13  Kinetic energy. Arrows show the direction and

magnitude of velocity. a A single macroscopic object has kinetic
1
energy Ek = mv 2 . b As a wave passes through a medium, the
2
individual particles have kinetic energy as they move up and
down. c All the individual particles in matter have kinetic energy
due to their random motion, which add up to give the thermal
energy of the material.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.7

−1
Bill is driving his car (mass 1900 kg) through a small town at 50 km h . Calculate the kinetic energy of
the car.

ANSWER LOGIC
−1
m = 1900 kg; v = 50 km h •• Identify the relevant data.

50 km 1h 1000 m •• Convert to SI units.

v= × × = 13.9 m s −1
1h 3600 s 1 km

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 133

 ANSWER LOGIC

1 2 •• Write the expression for kinetic energy.

Ek = mv
2
1
= (1900 kg)(13.9 m s −1 )2 •• Substitute known values with correct units.
2
= 183 549.5 kg m2 s −2 •• Calculate the answer.

Ek = 180 kJ •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

−1
Weblink
Minimum 1 Continuing on from Worked example 5.7, Bill passes through the town and speeds up to 100 km h .
stopping distance Calculate the kinetic energy of the car now.
of a car
Calculate the 2 Calculate the speed of the car if its kinetic energy is doubled, compared to its value when travelling at
minimum stopping −1
50 km h .
distance of a car using
energy considerations.

Potential energy
Potential energy is stored energy, ready to do work. Whenever a force acts on an object, there is a potential
energy associated with that force.
If you hold an object up, you must do so against the gravitational force of Earth. Potential energy is
stored in the Earth–object system. If you let go of the object, the gravitational field of Earth accelerates
the object towards the ground. As it accelerates, potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.
As we will see in chapter 12, an electric field also stores potential energy. A charged particle experiences
a force in an electric field, so it will accelerate. Magnetic fields (see chapter 14) also store potential energy
because they exert forces.
A compressed spring has stored energy. If released, the spring is able to do work by applying a force
through a distance. This is called elastic potential energy. Elastic potential energy is really another form of
electromagnetic potential energy, because the force that a spring exerts is due to its atoms being pushed
closer together or pulled further apart than their normal distance. Atoms interact via their electrons and
the electromagnetic force.

Gravitational field, g Electric field, E c

Felectrostatic 1 Magnetic field, B

Fmagnetic
FEarth on book, gravitational N N

FIGURE 5.14  Whenever there is a force, there is potential energy. Potential energy is stored in fields. a Gravitational; b electrostatic; c magnetic

134 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Mass can also be seen as a form of potential energy, as mass can be converted into energy in nuclear
reactions. The forces involved in such reactions are the strong and weak forces that act between
subatomic particles, including quarks. You will learn more about this in Physics in Focus Year 12.
Potential energy belongs to the system, not to a single object. A book held up above Earth’s surface
would not experience a gravitational force if Earth wasn’t there. So the potential energy really belongs to
the combination of the book and Earth, or the book–Earth system. We can model the potential energy as
being stored in the field, just as we model the force as being exerted by the field.
Potential energy can be positive or negative. We define the zero of potential energy using some
convenient or easily measurable configuration of the system. Once we define this configuration,
potential energy is given by the force acting on an object multiplied by the object’s distance from
the reference position. The distance is measured in the direction of the force. For example, for the
gravitational force, if we define the zero of potential energy for the book–Earth system as the book
resting on the surface of Earth, then
Ug = Fgravitational h = mobject g h
where Ug is the gravitational potential energy, m is the mass of the object in Earth’s gravitational field, g
is the gravitational field strength (the acceleration due to gravity) and h is the height of the object above
Earth’s surface. Note that if the object falls into a hole, its potential energy becomes negative.
For the case of the gravitational potential energy at or close to Earth’s surface, we often refer to the
energy as belonging to the object, even though strictly it belongs to the system.
In summary, potential energy is due to the forces that objects exert on each other, and is calculated
from the positions of the objects in the system.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.8

Louise throws a ball to Rob, who misses the catch. The ball, with a mass of 150 g, rolls down a drain.
1 Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the ball when it is at a height of 2.5 m above the ground.
2 Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the ball when it is at the bottom of the drain, 1.5 m
below the ground.

ANSWERS LOGIC

1 m = 150 g; h = 2.5 m •• Identify the relevant data.

m = 0.15 kg •• Convert to SI units.

Ug = mgh •• Write the expression for gravitational potential energy.

−2
= (0.15 kg) (9.8 m s ) (2.5 m) •• Substitute known values with correct units.
−2
= 3.675 kg m2 s •• Calculate the answer.
Ug = 3.7 J •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

2 m = 150 g; h = −1.5 m •• Identify the relevant data, noting that the height is now negative.

m = 0.15 kg •• Convert to SI units.

Ug = mgh •• Write the expression for gravitational potential energy.

−2
= (0.15 kg) (9.8 m s ) (−1.5 m) •• Substitute known values with correct units.
−2
= −2.205 kg m2 s •• Calculate the answer.
Ug = −2.2 J •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
Note that we have taken ground level to be h = 0 in this example,
but this is an arbitrary choice.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

For the same situation, calculate at what height the ball would need to be to have a potential energy of 10 J.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 135

 Conservation of energy
Energy is a conserved quantity. The law of conservation of energy says that energy can neither be created
nor destroyed. It can change forms, but the total amount of energy in the universe remains constant.
When we want to solve problems using the law of conservation of energy, we need to carefully define
the system we are interested in.
An isolated system is one that cannot have energy (or mass) transferred into or out of it. Hence, the
total energy of an isolated system remains constant:
Etotal = ΣU + ΣEk = constant
For a system that is not isolated, the total energy can change, but it only changes by the amount that
is added or removed from the system. Remember that the total energy of the universe is constant, so any
energy added to a system must be taken away from somewhere else in the universe.

Work done by a constant force

Forces act to transfer energy, and to change the form of energy. If a force acts on an object, causing it to
accelerate so that its kinetic energy increases, then there must be an equal decrease in potential energy. If
an object is slowed down by a force, then potential energy or some other kinetic energy, such as thermal
energy, increases.
We call the amount of energy transferred by a force the work done by that force. The amount of
energy transferred to an object when a force acts on it is given by:
(W = F||s = Fscos θ )
where F|| is the component of the force applied to the object in the direction of
F
the object's misplacement, and s is the displacement of the object. The angle,
1 1 θ, is the angle between the applied force and the displacement, as shown in
Figure 5.16.
Note that directions are important as we are dealing with forces. If an object
s moves in the opposite direction to the force, then the work done is negative.
If the displacement, s, is in the direction of the force, then the work done is
FIGURE 5.15  When the force
  is applied in the positive. In cases where the applied force and the motion are not in the same
direction of motion, W = F s .
direction (Figure 5.16), we only consider the component of the force that is in
the direction of motion.

FIGURE 5.16 a The a

force is applied at an
angle to the direction
of the displacement.
b The component of F cos u
F
the force parallel to F
the displacement is
F cos θ, so the work u b
done is W = F s cos θ. 1
u
F cos u
s

This equation for work also tells us that the unit J can be written as N m, which makes sense as
1 N = 1 kg m s−2, so 1 N m = 1 kg m2 s−2 = 1 J.
The work done by a force can be found from a graph of the force versus position. The work done is the
area under the curve, as shown in Figure 5.17. If the curve is an irregular shape, as in Figure 5.17b, then
you may need to find the area by adding up the areas of many small segments.

136 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 FIGURE 5.17  a The
a Force b Force work done by a
constant force.
F2 b When the force
F varies, divide the area
under the curve into
W 5 Fs sections and add all
F2(s22s1) the areas. c The work
F1 done is equal to the
s
Displacement area under the curve,
F1s1 which is the sum of
all the small areas
(such as the segments
c Force s1 s2 Displacement shown in blue).

F˝
F´

s Displacement
Ds

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.9

Phil pushes a textbook across a desk towards Ranji, applying a constant force of 60 N for a distance of 5 cm in the direction
of the book’s motion. The book then slides an additional 20 cm, while subject to a friction force of 10 N, before Ranji stops it.
1 How much work does Phil do on the book?
2 How much work does the desk do on the book?

ANSWER LOGIC

1 F|| = 60 N; s = 5 cm •• Identify the relevant data.

s = 0.05 m •• Convert to SI units.

W = Fs •• Write the expression for work done.

= (60 N) (0.05 m) •• Substitute known values with correct units.
= 3 N m •• Calculate the answer.
W = 3 J
•• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

2 F = −10 N; s = 20 cm •• Identify the relevant data, noting that F is negative because the
friction force is in the opposite direction to the direction of motion.

s = 0.20 m •• Convert to SI units.

W = Fs •• Write the expression for work done.

= (−10 N) (0.20 m) •• Substitute known values with correct units.
= −2 N m •• Calculate the answer.
W = −2 J
•• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

The friction force of the road on the tyres of an accelerating car is 8.5 kN. The car accelerates for a distance of 10 m.
Calculate the work done by the friction force on the car. Identify whether the work is positive or negative.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 137

 When the work done on an object is positive, so that the force is in the direction of motion, the kinetic
energy of the object increases. When the force is in the opposite direction to the motion, the object slows
down and its kinetic energy decreases.
The total work done on an object is equal to the sum of the work done by all forces acting:
Wnet = ∑ (F|| s ) = F net cosθ
Using Newton’s second law, we can say that:

Wnet = F net cosθ = mas
which, using the kinematic equation, v 2 = u 2 + 2 as we can write as:
1 1 1
Wnet = F net cosθ = m (v 2 − u 2 ) = mv 2 − mu 2
2 2 2
Remembering that kinetic energy is
1
Ek = mv 2
2
we can see that:
1 1
Wnet = F net cosθ = mv 2 − mu 2 = ∆Ek
2 2
where the Δ (delta) symbol indicates the change in a quantity.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.10

Phil pushes a textbook from rest across a desk towards Ranji, applying a constant force of 60 N for a
distance of 5 cm. At the same time, the book is subject to a friction force of 10 N. Both forces act in the
direction of motion.
1 Calculate the change in kinetic energy of the book.
2 Calculate the final speed of the book.

ANSWER LOGIC

1 FPhil = 60 N; Ffriction = −10 N; s = 5 cm •• Identify the relevant data, noting that the forces have opposite
signs as they act in opposite directions.

s = 0.05 m •• Convert to SI units.

Wnet = Fnet s = ∆Ek •• Relate forces to change in kinetic energy.

∆Ek = Fnet s = ( FPhil + Ffriction ) s •• Rearrange for change in kinetic energy and expand the expression
for net force.
= (60 N − 10 N) (0.05 m) •• Substitute known values with correct units.
= 2.5 N m
•• Calculate the answer.
∆Ek = 2.5 J
•• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

2 ∆Ek = 2.5 J; Ek, initial = 0; m = 1.5 kg •• Identify the relevant data.

∆Ek = Ek, final − Ek, initial •• Write the expression for change in kinetic energy.

∆Ek = Ek, final •• Recognise that the initial Ek is zero.

138 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC

1 2 •• Relate kinetic energy to velocity.

Ek, final =mv
2
2 Ek •• Rearrange for velocity.
v=
m
•• Substitute known values with correct units.
2 ( 2.5 J )
=
1.5 kg
1 •• Calculate the answer.
= 1.83 (J kg −1 ) 2
•• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures
−1 −2
v = 1.8 m s noting that 1 J = 1 kg m2 s .

TRY THIS YOURSELF

In the same situation, calculate the distance over which the friction force must act to bring the book to a
stop, once Phil has stopped pushing.

Energy and the gravitational field

 
The force that the gravitational field of Earth exerts on an object is given by Fgravitational = mg , where m

is the mass of the object and g is the field strength, which is the same as the acceleration due to gravity.
Remember that potential energy of an object is related to the force exerted on the object and its
position. The potential energy of an object in Earth’s gravitational field is given by:
Ug = Fgravitational h = mobject g h
where we usually take h to be the height above Earth’s surface at the location of interest. Note that this
assumes that g is constant, which is only a valid approximation close to Earth’s surface.
When you drop an object, it falls (Figure 5.18a, page 140), and accelerates as it falls due to the
gravitational force. The kinetic energy of the object increases because the gravitational force is doing
work on it. If we make the approximation that air resistance is negligible, then the only force acting is
the gravitational force. No other forces act, so the Earth–object system can be modelled as isolated.
In this case:
Wgravity = Fgravitational s = mobject g ∆h
if the object falls through a height ∆h, so that s = ∆h.
Look again at the expression for the potential energy. We can see that the magnitude of the work
done by the gravitational field is equal to the change in gravitational potential energy:
Wgravity = mobject g ∆h = −∆Ug
Note the negative sign here, as the force is in the opposite direction to the change in height (measuring
height upwards from the ground), so the work done by gravity acts to decrease the potential energy of
the object.
The work done is also equal to the change in kinetic energy of the object:
Wgravity = ∆Ek = −∆Ug
This allows us to write:
1
mg∆h = m(v 2 − u 2 )
2
for an object falling freely in Earth’s gravitational field.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 139

 b
Gravitational field
a

Gravitational field

FHand on book
s
FEarth on book, gravitational
s

FEarth on book, gravitational

FIGURE 5.18  a Force and displacement are in the same direction when an object falls through some height. Work is
positive and the object gains kinetic energy. b When an object is lifted against the gravitational field, the work done by
gravity is negative and the work done by the applied force is positive. The change in kinetic energy is equal to the net work
done.

The equation Wgravity = ∆Ek = −∆Ug is really a statement of conservation of energy, as it can be
rearranged to say
∆Ek + ∆Ug = 0

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.11

Phil pushes a textbook across a table towards Ranji, but it falls off the edge of the table. Consider motion
in the vertical direction only and ignore air resistance. Calculate the speed at which the book hits the
floor if the table is 75 cm high.

ANSWER LOGIC

∆h = 75 cm; u = 0 •• Identify the relevant data.

∆h = 0.75 m •• Convert data to SI units.

∆Ek = −∆Ug •• Apply conservation of energy.

1 2
mv = mg∆h •• Substitute the expressions for ∆Ek and ∆Ug, and recognise that u = 0.
2
•• Rearrange for velocity.
v = 2 g∆h
•• Substitute known values with correct units.
= 2(9.8 m s −2 )(0.75 m)
−1 •• Calculate the answer.
= 3.83 m s
v = 3.8 m s
−1 •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

−1
Calculate the height a ball must be dropped from if it is to hit the ground at a speed of 5.0 m s .

140 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 If you lift an object, you must exert a force to do so, and do work on the object (Figure 5.18b). At the
same time that you are applying a force upwards, the gravitational field is applying a force downwards. If
the object is moving upwards, then you are doing positive work on it and the gravitational field is doing
negative work.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.12

Ranji picks up the fallen book with mass 1.5 kg and places it back on the table 75 cm above the floor.
1 How much work must Ranji do?
2 How much work is done by the gravitational field?

ANSWER LOGIC

1 ∆h = 75 cm; u = 0; v = 0; m = 1.5 kg •• Identify the relevant data.

∆h = 0.75 m •• Convert data to SI units.

∆Ek = 0 •• Recognise that the change in kinetic energy of the book is

zero if it starts at rest and ends at rest.

∆Ug = mg∆h = WRanji •• Write an expression for the change in potential energy. This is
−2
WRanji = (1.5 kg) (9.8 m s ) (0.75 m) the energy that Ranji must add to the system by doing work in
2 −2 lifting the book.
= 11.025 kg m  s
•• Substitute known values with correct units.
WRanji = 11 J
•• Calculate the answer.
Note: this is the work done by Ranji to increase the
potential energy of the book by lifting it against the •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
gravitational field to the table. She also has to do a
small amount of work to accelerate the book from its
initial zero velocity to the velocity at which she raises it.
How much work this is depends on how fast she lifts it.
2 m = 1.5 kg; ∆h = 0.75 m •• Identify the relevant data.

W = Fs = Fgravitational ∆h •• Write the expression for the work done by the gravitational
force.

W = −mg∆h •• Substitute the expression for the gravitational force, noting

−2
W = (1.5 kg) (−9.8 m s ) (0.75 m) that the force is negative as it acts down and the displacement
2 −2 is upwards.
Ug = −11.025 kg m  s
•• Substitute known values with correct units.
Ug = −11 J
•• Calculate the answer.
Note: this answer is the same as the work done by
Ranji in lifting the book, but negative. The change in •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.
kinetic energy of the book is zero. But work, equal to
the change in potential energy, has been done on the
book–Earth system by Ranji.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Continuing on from the example, Ranji throws Phil’s textbook directly up into the air and then catches
it at the same height that she threw it from. How much work has the gravitational force done on the
book over the entire trajectory of the book? Explain your answer and state any assumptions that you
are making.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 141

 INVESTIGATION 5.3

Energy changes of falling objects

Numeracy
AIM
To investigate the transformation of gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy as an object is accelerated
Critical and creative by a gravitational field.
thinking
Write a hypothesis or inquiry question for this investigation.
Information and
communication MATERIAL
technology
capability •• Objects to drop
•• Data-logger equipment for measuring motion, with computer and software
What other equipment will you need?
!
RISK WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
ASSESSMENT

What risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

•• Design a method to answer your inquiry question or test your hypothesis.

•• When using a data-logger, you need to read the instructions and make sure that you can use it and the
associated software.
•• You will need to be able to record the motion of a falling object and display graphs of position, velocity and
acceleration as a function of time and/or distance.

RESULTS
Record your results as you measure them. Make sure you save each set of graphs with a name that tells you
what the data is for.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

•• How will you analyse your data?

•• A graph of velocity as a function of time will allow you to calculate kinetic energy as a function of time.
•• A graph of position as a function of time will allow you to calculate gravitational potential energy as a
function of time.
•• A graph of acceleration as a function of time will allow you to calculate net force as a function of time.

DISCUSSION

1 Did your graphs have the shapes that you expected?

2 How much gravitational potential energy was converted to kinetic energy? Was air resistance significant? If
you used a range of different objects, did the size, shape or mass of the objects make any difference?
3 Give the answer to your inquiry question and state whether your hypothesis was supported or not.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

142 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Mechanical energy
The kinetic energy of macroscopic objects and gravitational potential energy are sometimes grouped
under the term mechanical energy. In the absence of friction and other resistive forces, such as air
resistance, mechanical energy is conserved. Sometimes potential energy stored in springs is also
considered a form of mechanical energy.
Often we make the approximation that mechanical energy is conserved. This makes calculations
simpler. When objects are moving slowly so air resistance is small, and there are no solid surfaces sliding
against each other, this is a reasonable approximation.
However, remember that it is an approximation. In reality, mechanical energy is almost never
conserved. Real systems usually have friction and air resistance acting. When the kinetic friction force
acts to slow down an object, the kinetic energy lost by the object is converted into the random kinetic
energy of the atoms on the surfaces – the surfaces get warmer. This random kinetic energy of microscopic
particles is not considered a form of mechanical energy.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● There are two types of energy: kinetic and potential. Kinetic energy is associated with motion
and potential energy with forces.
1
●● Kinetic energy is given by E k = mv 2.
2
●● Potential energy belongs to a system, and is stored because forces act between objects in the
system. Potential energy is calculated from the positions of objects.
●● The gravitational potential energy of an object close to Earth is U g = mgh .
●● Energy is conserved. The total amount of energy in the universe is constant.
●● An isolated system is one that energy cannot be transferred into or out of. For an isolated
system, E total = ∑U + ∑ E k = constant.
●● When a force acts on an object and there is a displacement in the direction of the force, the
force does work, W = F||s = Fscos θ , on the object. Work can be positive or negative.
●● Work can be found from the area under a F versus s graph.
●● When the force and motion are in the same direction, positive work is done and the object
speeds up, gaining kinetic energy.
●● When the force is in the opposite direction to the motion, negative work is done and the object
slows down, losing kinetic energy.
●● Kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy are types of mechanical energy. Mechanical
energy is conserved only in the absence of friction.

CHECK YOUR
1 Define ‘work’ and give its units. UNDERSTANDING
2 When you are holding a book above your head, explain why you are not doing any work on the book.
3 Identify whether the work done by the force is positive or negative in each of the following situations. 5.3
a the force you exert on a ball with your hand when you throw it
b the gravitational force on the ball as it rises
c the gravitational force on the ball as it falls
d the force of your hand on the ball as you catch it
4 A car has a mass of 1500 kg.
a Calculate the kinetic energy of the car at different speeds to complete the table below.
b Plot a graph of kinetic energy as a function of speed. Comment on the shape of your graph.

SPEED (M S 1)
−
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Ek (J)

5 A cockatoo is chewing pinecones from a pine tree. A pinecone falls from a height of 4.5 m. Calculate the
speed with which it hits the ground.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 143

 6 A toolbox of mass 15 kg sits on the back of a ute without slipping as the ute accelerates forwards. The ute
−
takes 10 s to accelerate to a speed of 80 km h 1. Calculate the work done by the static friction force on the
toolbox.

5.4 Power
A crane that can lift a 10 tonne block of concrete to the top of a building in 1 minute is more powerful
than a crane that can do the same task but takes 2 minutes. Both cranes do the same amount of work on
the load, but they take different times to do so.
The rate at which work is done is called power, P. As work is the energy transferred by a force, power
is the rate at which energy is transferred, or transformed from one form into another.
∆W ∆E
P= =
∆t ∆t
The unit of power is the watt (W); 1  W = 1  J  s−1 = 1  N  s−1. A 100  W light globe transforms 100  J
of electrical energy into light and heat every second. A 1 kW crane motor increases the gravitational
potential energy of a load by 1 kJ every second (assuming 100% efficiency).
The amount of energy transformed or transferred in a process is the power multiplied by the time
interval:
∆E = P∆t
If you plot the energy being transferred to an object as a function of time (Figure 5.19a), then the
gradient of this graph at any moment is the power. If you plot a graph of power as a function of time
(Figure 5.19b), then the area under the line is the total energy transferred.

DE b
P5
Dt
Energy (J)

Power (W)

DE
DE 5 P Dt

Dt

Time (s) Time (s)

FIGURE 5.19  a Power is the gradient of an energy–time graph. b Energy transferred is the area under the line of a power–
time graph.

We can relate power to force using the equation for work, W = F||s = Fscos θ :
Weblink
Saturn V F-1 ∆E W ∆(Fscosθ) ∆s
engines P= = = = Fcos θ = Fvcosθ
Find out about
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t
the most powerful
engines ever built. This means that the power, or rate at which energy is being transferred by a force, is equal to the force
applied multiplied by the speed at which the object is moving.

144 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 WORKED EXAMPLE 5.13

A crane takes 1 minute to lift a 1000 kg block of concrete vertically upwards through a height of 10 m at
constant speed. Calculate the power used by the crane to lift the block.

ANSWER LOGIC

m = 1000 kg; s = 10 m, t = 1 min •• Identify the relevant data.

t = 60 s •• Convert to SI units.

W •• Identify the appropriate formula to determine the power.

P= = Fv
∆t

Fnet = 0 so F = Fgravitational •• As speed is constant, net force = 0 (Newton’s second law), so the
force applied by the crane must be equal to the gravitational force.

F = mg •• Identify the appropriate formula to determine the force.

∆s •• Identify the appropriate formula to determine the velocity.

v=
∆t
mg∆s •• Substitute these expressions into the equation for P.
P = Fv =
∆t
(1000 kg)(9.8 m s −2 ) (10 m ) •• Substitute known values with correct units.
=
60 s
−3
•• Calculate the answer.
= 1633 kg m2 s
P = 1600 W or 1.6 kW •• State the final answer with correct units and significant figures.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

Calculate the power of the crane if the crane takes 2 minutes to raise the 1000 kg block.
One of the factors that determines the top speed of a car is the power of its engine. Air resistance WS

on the car increases significantly as the speed of the car increases. The work done on the car by this air
The power of
Homework
resistance decreases the energy of the car. In order to keep the car travelling at constant speed, the engine modern aircraft
must provide this amount of energy by converting the energy stored in the fuel, so fuel consumption
increases with speed.
Other frictional forces also oppose the motion of a car. Rolling friction acts on the tyres. Ideally, when
a wheel rolls, there is no slipping of the wheel against the ground. In reality, there may be slight slipping
as well as deformation of the tyre and the road surface. These combine to give rolling friction, which must
also be overcome to keep the car at constant speed.
Internal friction forces also affect a car’s efficiency as they reduce the power that goes from the engine
to the wheels. There is friction at all points along the drive train of a car. This reduces the amount of force

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 145

 INVESTIGATION 5.4

with which the tyres can push against the ground.

Critical and
creative Power
thinking
In this investigation, you will explore the way energy is transformed from gravitational potential energy to
Numeracy kinetic energy. Falling weights do work on a toy car or block. The rate at which the work is done is the power
that is transferred to the car/block.
Information and
communication
AIM
technology
capability Write an inquiry question for this investigation.

MATERIALS

•• Pulley attached to table edge

•• String
•• Masses and mass holder
•• Tape measure
•• Tape
•• Toy cars, blocks with different surfaces (smooth, rough)
!
RISK •• Stopwatch or motion-sensor with data-logger
ASSESSMENT
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?

Falling weights could land on someone. Keep area beneath weights clear.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Measure and record the masses of the toy car, blocks and falling weights.
2 Set up your equipment as shown in Figure 5.20. Line up the toy car with the pulley so it is pulled directly
towards it.
3 You will need to make a start and finish line on the table (you can do this using tape).

FIGURE 5.20  Toy car

Experimental set-up String
for investigating a
power transferred
Pulley

Masses

146 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 4 Set up your data-logging equipment to record the motion of the car. If you don’t have data-logging
equipment, you can use a stopwatch to record the time taken for the car to travel a given distance.
5 Place the car at the start line. Allow the weights to fall freely through some measured distance. Record the
motion of the car or time how long it takes the car to reach the finish line.
6 Lock the wheels of the car so they cannot rotate (you can do this using tape). Repeat step 5.
7 Repeat step 5 with blocks with various surfaces.

RESULTS

•• Using the data-logger, record the motion of the car and blocks. You should get a set of data including
speed as a function of time, or a graphical display including a plot of speed as a function of time.
•• You will need to know the mass of the falling weights, the height through which they fell, the speed of the
car when the weights reached the end of the fall and the time taken for the fall. Record this data in a table
as shown.

FINAL MASS OF DISTANCE

OBJECT BEING TIME FOR SPEED CHANGE FALLING FALLEN CHANGE CHANGE
(m s 1)
−
PULLED FALL (s) IN Ek (J) WEIGHTS (kg) (m) IN Ug (J) IN Ek (J)

CAR – ROLLING

CAR – SLIDING

ROUGH BLOCK –
SLIDING

SMOOTH BLOCK –
SLIDING

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
You will need to perform calculations for each measurement to complete your table.
1
1 Calculate the final kinetic energy of the car/block using Ek = mcarv 2 .
2
∆Ek
2 Calculate the power being transferred to the car from Pto car = .
∆t
3 Calculate the change in gravitational potential energy of the falling weights using ∆U g = m weight g∆h .
1 2
4 Calculate the final kinetic energy of the weights using Ek = mweightsv . As the weights are attached to the
2
car via the string, they must move at the same speed. So, the final speed of the car is the same as the final
speed of the weights.
∆E
5 Calculate the power being transformed into kinetic energy of the weights: Pto weights = k .
∆t
∆Ug
6 Calculate the power being transferred from the weights from Pfrom weights = .
∆t
7 Calculate the difference between the power transformed from potential energy and the combined kinetic
energy of the weights and car. This difference is the rate at which energy is lost as thermal energy.

DISCUSSION

1 For each of the rolling and sliding situations you investigated, comment on how much of the power
transferred from the falling weights went into increasing the kinetic energy of the car/block.
2 Was there a difference between sliding and rolling? Was there significant rolling resistance for your car?
What effect did kinetic friction have for sliding objects?
3 Was mechanical energy conserved for any of these situations?

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion that answers the inquiry question of
this investigation.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 147

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● Power is the rate at which energy is transferred, or transformed from one form into
WS ∆E ∆W
another: P = = .
∆t ∆t
General
Homework
●● When a force acts on a moving object, the rate at which energy is transferred by the
knowledge
force is P = F||v = Fvcosθ.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Explain how power, work and time are related.
2 Give the units of power in fundamental units.
5.4 3 The kinetic energy of a 200 kg satellite is raised by 4.0 × 107 J in a 10-minute rocket burn. Calculate the
average power of the rocket motors.
4 A crane is lifting a 900 kg elephant upwards.
a Calculate the work done by the crane if the elephant is lifted through a vertical displacement of 16 m.
−
b The crane is lifting the elephant at a speed of 1.5 m s 1. Calculate the power at which the crane is
operating.
5 Calculate the constant vertical speed with which a 2.5 kW winch motor could lift an injured hiker into a
helicopter if the hiker and stretcher have a combined mass of 100 kg.
6 A sprinter can run 100 m in 10 s, accelerating the entire time. Calculate the average power required for this
if the sprinter has a mass of 75 kg.

148 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 5   CHAPTER SUMMARY
1
◗◗ If there is an acceleration, there must be a force acting. To ◗◗ Ek = mv 2.
Kinetic energy is given by     
identify the forces causing an object to accelerate, consider 2
◗◗ Potential energy belongs to a system, and is stored because
all surfaces the object is in contact with and all fields it is in.
forces act between objects in the system. The gravitational
◗◗ Draw force diagrams to help you analyse the effects of potential energy of an object close to Earth is Ug = mgh.
forces.
◗◗ Energy is conserved. The total amount of energy in the
◗◗ Friction forces act to oppose the sliding of one surface universe is constant.
against another.
◗◗ An isolated system is one that energy cannot be
◗◗ The static friction force acts to prevent sliding, and transferred into or out of. For an isolated system,
can take any value up to a maximum given by E total = ∑ U + ∑ Ek = constant.
Fmaximun static friction = μsFN. In general, Fstatic friction ≤ μsFN.
◗◗ When a force acts on an object and there is a displacement
The static friction force is what allows wheels to roll and
in the direction of the force, the force does work on the
enables us to walk.
object. Work can be positive or negative.
◗◗ The kinetic friction force acts when surfaces are sliding
◗◗ When the force and motion are in the same direction,
against each other, and opposes the relative motion. The
positive work is done and the object speeds up, gaining
kinetic friction force is given by Fkinetic friction = μkFN.
kinetic energy. When force and motion are in opposite
◗◗ Air resistance is small at low speeds, but increases rapidly directions, negative work is done and the object slows
with speed. Air resistance cannot be ignored on objects down.
moving quickly.
◗◗ Kinetic energy of macroscopic objects and gravitational
◗◗ Acceleration
 can be calculated from Newton’s second potential energy are types of mechanical energy.

law: Fnet = ma . Mechanical energy is conserved only in the absence of
friction.
◗◗ If the net forceis constant, then the acceleration is also
 F ◗◗ Power is the rate at which energy is transferred, or
constant: a = net .
m ∆E ∆W
transformed from one form into another: P = = .
◗◗ There are two types of energy: kinetic and potential. Kinetic ∆t ∆t
energy is associated with motion and potential energy with ◗◗ When a force acts on a moving object, the rate at which
forces. energy is transferred by the force is P = F||v = Fvcos θ .

5   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

−2
1 Identify the quantity calculated by finding the area under 7 A car accelerates at a rate of 2.0 m s when a force of 3.0 kN
a F versus s graph. is applied to it by the road. Calculate the mass of the car.
2 Explain how you could tell if work has been done on an 8 A student draws a force diagram for a car and includes a
object. force of the engine on the car. The student says that the
engine is what makes the car go, so it must exert a force
3 How does a falling object gain its kinetic energy, given
on the car. Explain what is wrong with this diagram and
that energy cannot be created or destroyed?
explanation.
4 A 1000 kg car and a 2.00 × 105 kg aeroplane accelerate at
F 9 Define ‘isolated system’. Apply the ideas of both force and
−2
the same rate of 3.5 m s . Calculate the ratio net on aeroplane . energy to explain what an isolated system is.
Fnet on car
5 Does friction always oppose motion? Justify your answer. 10 Two children are fighting over a toy of mass 500 g. Marcus
pulls it to the left with a force of 25 N. Laurence pulls it to
6 Kate is driving when a kangaroo jumps in front of her car. the right with a force of 35 N.
She slams on the brakes and the car skids. Explain why
a Calculate the acceleration of the toy.
it takes longer for a skidding car to come to a stop than
when the wheels are still gripping the road and rolling. b If Marcus suddenly lets go, what is the acceleration of
the toy now?

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 149

 11 An object with an initial speed u is subject to a constant 16 A student carries a heavy backpack to school along a level
force in the direction opposite to its motion. Sketch street. The student says, ‘that was hard work’. Evaluate the
graphs, as a function of time, of the object’s: student’s statement.
a acceleration. 17 A box is subject to two forces, as shown in Figure 5.22.
b speed. The box has a mass of 2 kg and force F1 has a magnitude
c kinetic energy. of 10 N.
Calculate
12 A toboggan and child of combined mass 67 kg slide
down a frictionless snowfield inclined at 15° to the a the magnitude of the acceleration, a.
horizontal. Calculate the magnitude of: b the magnitude of force F2.
a the component of the gravitational force perpendicular
to the snowfield.

b the force down the slope of the snowfield on the F2 
a
toboggan and child.
c the acceleration.
60.0°
13 A snowboard and rider with combined mass of 95 kg are
sliding down a snow-covered slope inclined at 38° to the
horizontal. The coefficient of kinetic friction for the snow m 
on the board is 0.08. Calculate the magnitude of: F1
a the net force on the snowboard and rider.
FIGURE 5.22
b the force down the slope on the snowboard and rider.
c their acceleration. 18 Darren’s car is stuck in slippery mud and he is trying to
push it out.
14 When an aeroplane is flying, it is subject to four forces:
gravity, lift (upwards), thrust (forwards) and air resistance a Draw a force diagram showing the forces acting on
(backwards). For each of these forces, identify whether it the car.
does positive, negative or no work when the plane is: b Draw a force diagram showing the forces acting on
a climbing after take-off. Darren.
b cruising at constant speed. c Apply Newton’s second and third laws to explain what
will happen if Darren pushes with more force on the
c descending to land.
car than the maximum static friction force that the
15 The force that must be applied to stretch a spring varies mud exerts on him.
with the distance it is stretched. The graph in Figure 5.21
19 Two objects are connected via a pulley, as shown in
shows the force exerted on the end of a particular spring
Figure 5.23. Assume the table is very smooth so friction
versus the distance it is stretched. Use the graph to find:
can be ignored.
a the work that must be done to stretch the spring from
no extension to 10 cm.
m1
b the work that must be done to then stretch the spring
by an additional 5 cm.

80

60 m2
Force (N)

40
FIGURE 5.23

20 a Draw a force diagram for each object.

b Calculate the acceleration of the objects if m1 = 5 kg
0 5 10 15 and m2 = 10 kg.
Extension (cm) c Now assume the coefficient of kinetic friction between
the table and object 1 is 0.6. Calculate the acceleration
FIGURE 5.21  Force required to stretch a spring versus distance
stretched of the objects now.

150 CHAPTER TWO

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» DYNAMICS 9780170409063
 20 A meteor enters the atmosphere and slows down quickly 24 A 10 kg rock is dropped from a height of 30 m. Assume air
while burning up and vaporising. Describe how the law of resistance is negligible during the fall.
conservation of energy applies to this event. a Draw a graph of kinetic energy as a function of time for
21 The maximum static friction force between a 1200 kg car’s the rock.
tyres and the road is 9.5 × 103 N. b Describe how you could find the power being
a Calculate the minimum stopping distance if the car is transferred at any moment from your graph.
−1
travelling at 60 km h . c Describe how the power varies as the rock falls.
b Calculate the minimum stopping distance if the car is 25 A toboggan and child of combined mass 67 kg slide
−1
travelling at 40 km h . down a snowfield inclined at 15° to the horizontal. They
c Compare your answers to parts a and b, and use them start at rest and travel a distance of 10 m down the slope.
−1
to justify the 40 km h speed limit in school zones. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the snow and
the toboggan is 0.10. Calculate the magnitude of:
22 Using the ideas of work and energy, calculate the speed
with which a 10 kg rock released from a height of 30 m a the net force down the slope on the toboggan and
hits the ground. child.
b the acceleration of the toboggan and child.
23 A 10 kg rock is dropped from a height of 30 m. Assume air
resistance is negligible during the fall. c the work done on the child and toboggan.
a Apply kinematics to find the time taken for the rock to d the final velocity of the child and toboggan.
fall to the ground. e the average power being transferred to the child and
b Calculate the kinetic energy of the rock just before it toboggan as they slide.
hits the ground.
c Calculate the average power being transferred to the
rock as it falls.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 5 » FORCES, ACCELERATION AND ENERGY 151