DATE: EXPT NO:

DRAG COEFFICIENT
AIM:
To study the drag coefficient of a falling sphere for the given fluid.
To determine the settling velocity for the given fluid.
To plot graph for logarithmic Reynold’s number vs logarithmic CD.
To verify Stokes Law.

THEORY:
When a sphere falls through a liquid at a terminal velocity, the drag coefficient can be determined as a
function of NRE. At low NRE, Stokes law prevails as the initial forces are negligible and drag is a function
of velocity.

When the particle is at sufficient distance from the boundary of the containers and from all other particles
(no particle or solid boundary should be within 20times the diameter of the particle), so that the motion is
not affected by them, the process is called free settling. Now the forces acting on the particle are the
gravitational force, buoyant force and drag force. The resultant force on the particle is equal to Fg-Fb-Fd.
At the terminal velocity, the resultant forces are equal to zero.
( )
CD = )

Ut =

At low Reynolds number i.e. at NRE<1, FD=6πηRv. This is Stokes Law. In this range CD= i.e. graph of
log CD vs log NRE will be straight line with slope -1.

FORMULAE:
1) Ut = height / time taken (m/s)
2)
( )
3) ( )

4)
 Where, Dp = diameter of spherical particle, m
Ut = terminal velocity, m/s
µ = viscosity of fluid, Nm/s2

p = density of particle, kg/m3

l = density of fluid, kg/m3

g = gravity force, m/s2

OBSERVATIONS:

Table 7.1

Diameter of
Spherical Time taken
particle (m) p (kg/m3) Ut (m/s)
particle (s)
x10-2

Glass bead

Glycerine
solution
Lead bead

Glass bead

Gingelly oil

Lead bead

Distance travelled = m
Viscosity of glycerine = kg/ms
Viscosity of gingelly oil = kg/ms
Density of glycerine = kg/m3
Density of gingelly oil = kg/m3
Density of glass = kg/m3
Density of lead = kg/m3

MODEL CALCULATIONS:
For glass bead of diameter 0.0066m in glycerine solution,
Density of glycerine solution = kg/m3
Density of glass = kg/m3
Viscosity of glycerine solution = kg/ms
Distance travelled =m
Time taken = 5s

Experimental Ut = m/s

Predicted m/s

( )

( )
( )

log NRE =

log CD =
CALCULATION:
Table 7.2

Spherical Experimental Predicted

NRE CD log NRE log CD
particle Ut (m/s) Ut (m/s)

Glass

Glycerine
solution

Lead

Glass

Gingelly oil

Lead
PROCEDURE:
The equipment consists of two long columns filled with glycerine solution and gingelly oil. Two points
are marked in the column, one near the top (at a distance of about 20m from the top) and the other near
the bottom. It is assumed that by the time the particle reaches the first mark, it would have attained the
terminal velocity. The distance between the marks is measured.

A spherical particle is taken and its diameter is measured using a screw gauge. The particle is just
dropped at the centre of the column with zero velocity and the time taken to travel the distance is noted.
The experiment is repeated with particles of different diameter and materials. The same procedure is
repeated for the fluid in the second column. The observations are tabulated and log CD vs log NRE is
plotted. Precautions should be taken that the particle should have no initial velocity and the particle
should be dropped exactly at the centre of the column.

SCHEMATICS OF THE APPARATUS

 Fig 7.1 Drag coefficient apparatus

GRAPH
 log(Cd) Vs log(NRe)
1

0.8

0.6

0.4
log(Cd)

0.2

0
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-0.2

-0.4
log(NRe)

glycerine lead glycerine glass gingelly glass gingelly lead

Fig 7.2 Graph between log(Cd) Vs log(NRe)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:
Date: Experiment
no.:

DISCHARGE OVER NOTCHES

AIM:
To study the discharge over different types of notches and to determine the coefficient of
discharge through different types of notches
a) Rectangular Notch
b) V-Notch 45
c) V-Notch 60

THEORY:
Coefficient of discharge: The ratio of actual discharge over a notch to the theoretical discharge is
known as the coefficient of discharge. Mathematically, coefficient of discharge

Cd =

Discharge over a trapezoidal notch

Qa = √ √

Discharge over a triangular notch

Qa = √

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Starting Procedure
a) Clean the apparatus and make free from dust.
b) Close the drain valves provided.
c) Close the flow control valve provided first water line.
d) Open by-pass valve
e) Fix desired notch on the flow channel.
f) Fill sump tank with clean water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
g) Ensure that ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position
h) Now switch on the main power supply
i) Switch on the pump.
j) Record crest height for notch.
k) Regulate flow of water through channel with help of pointer gauge.
 l) Record the height of water level in the channel with the help of provided drain values.

Closing Procedure
a) When experiment is over, switch off the pump.
b) Switch off the power supply to panel.
c) Drain water from all three tanks with the help of drain valves.

OBSERVATIONS:
For Rectangular Notch, L=6.5cm, V Notch, h0 = 4.8cm, hc =4.6cm
V-Notch
S.No h(cm) t (s) R1 R2 R (cm)

Rectangular Notch
S.No h(cm) t (s) R1 R2 R (cm)

CALCULATIONS:
V-Notch
S.No H Qa * 10-4 Qt* 10-4 Cd ln(Qt) ln(Qa)
 (cm) (m3/s) (m3/s)

Rectangular Notch
S.No H Qa * 10-4 Qt* 10-4 Cd ln(Qt) ln(Qa)
(cm) (m3/s) (m3/s)

GRAPH:
Plot graph between ln(H) v/s ln(Qt)
Rectangular Notch
Triangular notch

FORMULAE USED:
a) Actual discharge: Qa = A * R/t * 100
b) Head over crest: H = h-hc/100
c) Theoretical discharge over rectangular notch: Qt = √
d) Theoretical discharge over triangular notch: Qt = √
e) Coefficient of discharge : Cd =
RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

The coefficient of discharge has been found and is

Cd for V-Notch =

Cd for Rectangular-Notch =

CONCLUSION:
DATE: EXP NO.

VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

AIM:
To verify Bernoulli’s equation experimentally
To calculate total energy at different points
To plot the graph between energy vs distance

THEORY:
This is the energy equation and based on the law of conservation of energy. This equation states that at
two sections of flow field the total energy remains the same; provided that there is no loss or gain of
energy between the two sections. This equation is valid only for steady flow. This eqn. expressed as

If Z1 =Z2

Control valve

Figure : Schematic representation of experimental arrangement

PROCEDURE
a) Ensure that all on/off switches given on the panel are at of position.
b) Close all the drain valves provided.
c) Fill sump tank 3/4th with water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
d) Close flow control valve given at end of test section.
e) Open by-pass valve given on the water supply line.
f) Now switch on the main power supply.
g) Switch on the pump.
h) Partially close by-pass valve to allow water to fill the overhead tank.
i) Wait until overflow occurs from overhead tank.
j) Regulate the flow of water through the test section with the help of test section.
k) Ensure that over flow still occurs; if not partially close the by-pass valve to do so.
l) Measure pressure head by piezometer tubes.
m) Measure flow rate of water using measuring tank and stop watch.
n) Repeat (j) to (m) for different flow rates of water.

Closing Procedure
a) When experiment is over, switch of pump.
b) Switch of power supply to panel.
c) Drain water from all tanks with the help of given drain valves.

Formulae used

Total energy,

Velocity of fluid, m/s

(m3/s)

Kinetic energy =

Nomenclature
Ρ Density of fluid, kg/m3
A Area of measuring tank, m2
a Cross section area at test point, m
E Total energy, J
G Acceleration due to gravity, m2/s
 H Pressure head, mm of water
P Pressure of fluid
Q Discharge through test section, m3/s
R Rise of water level in measuring tank, cm
R1 Final height of water in measuring tank after t1 cm
R2 Initial height of water in measuring tank, cm
T Time taken in seconds
V Velocity of fluid(m/s)
Z Potential energy per unit weight or potential head

Observations:
Table :

Table :

Sl no. Manometer Reading T (s) Height at Piezometer tube no. h (cm)

(cm)

R1 R2 R3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1

4
5

6
7

Calculations:
Table :

Tube No. Q (m3/s) Velocity Z (m) Pressure Kinetic Total

(m3/s) Energy (m) Energy (m) Energy
(m)

Table :

Tube No. Q (m3/s) Velocity Z (m) Pressure Kinetic Total

(m3/s) Energy (m) Energy (m) Energy
(m)
Table :

Tube No. Q (m3/s) Velocity Z (m) Pressure Kinetic Total

(m3/s) Energy (m) Energy (m) Energy
(m)

Table :

Tube No. Q (m3/s) Velocity Z (m) Pressure Kinetic Total

(m3/s) Energy (m) Energy (m) Energy
(m)
Table :

Tube No. Q (m3/s) Velocity Z (m) Pressure Kinetic Total

(m3/s) Energy (m) Energy (m) Energy
(m)

Table :

Tube No. Q (m3/s) Velocity Z (m) Pressure Kinetic Total

(m3/s) Energy (m) Energy (m) Energy
(m)
Table :

Tube No. Q (m3/s) Velocity Z (m) Pressure Kinetic Total

(m3/s) Energy (m) Energy (m) Energy
(m)

PLOT:
Plot between energy (in head (m)) and distance (m) has to be made, where the energy includes kinetic,
potential and pressure energy, for seven different tube numbers.
Reference plot:
RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:
DATE: EXPT NO.

DISCHARGE COEFFICENT OF VENTURIMETER

AND ORIFICEMETER
AIM:
To demonstrate the use of venturimeter and orificemeter as flow-meters and to determine the
coefficient of discharge Cd for venturimeter and orificemeter.

THEORY:
Venturimeter:
A venturimeter consists of

 An inlet section followed by convergent one

 A cylindrical throat
 A gradually divergent one

The inlet section of venturimeter is of same direction as of the pipe, followed by a convergent
cone. The convergent cone is a short pipe which tapers from the original one of the pipe to that
of the throat of the venturimeter. The throat is a short parallel size of the pipe to that of the cross
sectional area smaller than that of the pipe. The divergent cone has a cross section increasing
firmly that through to the original size of the pipe. At inlet section &throat of the pipe, pressure
taps are provided.

Orificemeter:
An orificemeter consists of a flat parallel plate with a circular hole called orifice with pipe axis.

SPECIFICATION:
 Venturimeter : Material clear acrylic compatible to 1” pipe
 Orificemeter: Material clear acrylic compatible to 1” pipe
 Water circulation : FHP pump
 Flow Management : Using measuring tank with piezometer capacity 25L
 Sump Tank : Compatible capacity, material SS

Tanks made of stainless steel. The whole setup is well designed and arranged in a good quality
structure.
Figure Schematic Diagram of a setup of venturimeter and orificemeter

PROCEDURE:
1. Clean the tank and make sure that it’s free from any dust.
2. Close the drain valves provided.
3. Fill the 3/4th of the tank with clean water.
4. Open the by-pass valve.
5. Close all the pressure the taps of manometer connected to venturimeter& orificemeter
6. Switch on the pump and operate flow control valve. Now release the air valve provided
on DPTO to release air from the manometer and then close it.
7. Measure the discharge using stopwatch and measuring tank.
8. Repeat steps for different flow rates.
OBSERVATION:

VENTURIMETER:
Table

R(cm)
S No H(cm) R(cm) T(sec)
R1(cm) R2(cm)
 ORIFICEMETER:
Table :

R(cm)
R(cm) T(sec)
S No. H(cm) R(cm) R(cm)

VETURIMETER
Table :

S No Qa x 10-4(m3/s) Q[theorotical] x 10-4 (m3/s) Cd

Average Cd =

ORIFICEMETER
Table :
S No Qa x 10-4(m3/s) Qtheorotical x 10-4 (m3/s) Cd

Average Cd=
 GRAPHS:

Figure :Graph √H Vs Qt

Figure :Graph Q act vs Q t

FORMULAE:
  Actual Discharge:

m3/s

 Theoretical Discharge:

√
√
m3/s

 Coefficient of discharge:

 Loss of head:

RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

The flow characteristics have been studied & Cd for orificemeter and venturimeter are found.

Cd for orificemeter =
Cd for venturimeter =

The observed value of coefficient of discharge for both venturimeter and orificemeter is less than
that of theoretical value owing to losses due to pipe fittings, friction and instrumental errors.

CONCLUSION:
DATE: EXPT NO:

LOSSES DUE TO PIPE FITTINGS

AIM:

To determine the losses due to various pipe fittings in pipe lines.

INTRODUCTION:

When a fluid flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistance due to which some of the
energy in fluid is lost. This loss of energy in the pipeline comes under major energy losses and minor
energy losses. In long pipe lines the friction losses are much larger than the minor losses and hence, the
latter are often neglected. Losses due to friction in pipeline are known as major losses. The fittings in the
pipe causes minor losses even though they are neglected; they are still losses and we have to account for
it.

THEORY:

The energy loss due to each fittings dependents on the loss coefficient of each fittings
Head losses due to pipe friction is given by;

But for sudden expansion it depends on equivalent velocity V1-V2

Therefore the formula changes as:

FORMULAE:

o Discharge ⁄

o Velocity V1= m/s ;V2= m/s

o Loss Coefficient (contraction): K L= ; Loss of pipe fittings: KL= .
o Loss Coefficient (expansion) KL = ; Loss of head = H=h/1000 m of water.
 OBSERVATION:

Given data:
A=0.1m2
A1=1.76714×10-4 m2
A2=4.908×10-4 m2
D1=0.0106 m
D2=0.028 m
g=9.81 m/s2

Table : observation table for ball valve and gate valve

SL MANOMETER WATER LEVEL IN RECEIVING R TIME TAKEN
NO. READING TANK (cm) (t)
BALL GATE (cm) (s)
VALVE VALVE

Table : observation table for bend, sudden expansion and contraction and elbow

MANOMETER READING (mm H2O) WATER LEVEL TIME

SL
IN RECEIVING TAKEN
NO.
BEND EXPANSION CONTRACTION ELBOW TANK (cm) (t) (s)
 Pump

Fig : schematic diagram for the experiment

CALCULATIONS

V1 = Q/A1
V2 = Q/A2 =

HEAD LOSS:
Table : calculation table for head loss
SL Q V1 V2 HL ×10-3 (m)
NO. (m/s2) (m/s2) BEND EXPANSION CONTRACTION ELBOW BALL GATE
×10-4
VALVE VALVE
(m3/s)

SL Q V1 V2 KL
NO. ×10-4 (m/s2) (m/s2) BEND EXPANSION CONTRACTION ELBOW BALL GATE
(m3/s) VALVE VALVE

LOSS COEFFICIENT:
Table : calculation table for loss coefficient
Sample Calculations:
BEND EXPANSION CONTRACTION

KL = KL = KL =

ELBOW BALL VALVE GATE VALVE

KL = KL = KL =

Graphs :
 Q vs KL bend
0.25

0.2

0.15
KL

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Q * 10-4 m3/s

Fig : Graph 1

Further 5 more plots has to be made for different values.

DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of two pipes of different diameter for which the common inlet connection is
provided with control valve to regulate the flow, near the downstream end of the pipe .Pressure tapings
are taken at suitable distance apart between which a manometer is provided to study the pressure loss due
to friction. Discharge is measured with the help of measuring tank and stop watch.

UTILITIES REQUIRED:

a) Power Supply: Single phase 220 V, 50 Hz, 5A

b) Water supply
c) Drain
d) Space Required: 1.6 m*0.6 m

SPECIFICATION:
o Sudden Enlargement: 15mm-25mm
o Sudden Contraction: 25mm-15mm
o Bend : ½ ”
o Elbow : ½ ”
o Ball Valve : ½ ”
o Gate Valve : ½ ”
o Water Circulation : FHP pump
o Flow measurement : Using measuring tank and piezometer
o Sump tank : Capacity 50Ltr
o Stop watch : Electronic
o Control Panel: Standard make on/off switch, mains indicator.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Starting procedure:

a) Clean the apparatus and make all tanks free from dust particles.
b) Close the drain valves provided.
c) Fill the sump with ¾ with clean water and ensure no foreign particles are there.
d) Close all the flow control valve given on the water line and open By-pass valve.
e) Close all pressure taps of manometer connected to pipes.
f) Ensure that On/Off switch given on the panel is at off position.
g) Now switch on the main power supply.
h) Switch on the pump.
i) Operate the flow control valve to regulate the flow of water in the desired section.
 j) Open the pressure taps of manometer of related test section, very slowly to avoid the blow of
water on manometer fluid.
k) Now open the air release valve provided on manometer, slowly to release the air in the
manometer.
l) When there is no air in the manometer, close the air release valves.
Repeat the experiment procedure for different flow rates, operating control valve and By-pass valve.
a) When the experiment is over for one desired section, open the By-pass valve fully, then close
the flow control valve of running test section and open the control valve of secondly desired
section.
b) Repeat the same procedure for selected test section and so on.

Closing procedure:
a) When the experiment is over, close all manometer pressure taps first.
b) Switch Off the pump.
c) Switch Off the power supply.

NOMENCLATURE:

A - Area of measuring tank (m3)

A1 - Cross sectional area of small diameter pipe (m)

A2 - Cross sectional area of larger diameter pipe (m)

D - Diameter of pipe

g - Acceleration due to gravity

h - Manometer reading (mmHg)

h1 - Head loss , mm of H2O

KL - Loss coefficient

Q - Discharge; m3/s

R - Raise of water in the sump tank

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSIONS:
 DATE: EXPT NO:

PRESSURE DROP THROUGH A PACKED BED

AIM:
a) To study the pressure drop through a packed bed.
b) To determine the pressure drop per unit length of bed.
c) To plot a logarithmic graph between modified Reynolds number VS modified friction
factor.

INTRODUCTION:
Packed bed provides a large surface area of contact between two fluids and is thus extensively
used in distillation, extraction, adsorption etc. As the fluid passes through the bed, it does so
through the voids present in the bed. The void forms continuous channel throughout the bed. The
flow may be laminar through some channels.

THEORY:
The Ergun equation expresses the friction factor in a packed column as a function of the
modified Reynolds number as,

=f= + 1.75

The Friction factor for laminar regime from Kozeny –Carman equation can be expressed as

f=

Modified Reynolds number (Rem) is defined as

= (Rem) =
GIVEN DATA:
D = 0.05m A = 1.964x10-3m2

Sp = 4.95 x 10-4m2 d0 = 0.009m

g = 9.81m/s2 di = 0.006m

= 1000kg/m3 Lp = 0.009m

Dp = 0.00847m L1 = 0.36m

= 0.66 s = 0.455m

= 8.29x10-4Ns/m2

OBSERVATIONS:
Observation Table

VOLUMETRIC FULL LENGTH H (mm) HALF LENGTH H (mm)

S.NO FLOW RATE
(LPH) FORWARD REVERSE FORWARD REVERSE
SAMPLE CALCULATION
 Schematic Representation Of Experimental Arrangement

PROCEDURE:
a) Allow the water to flow down from the bottom to top in the packed bed
b) Regulate flow of water by mean of valves
c) Record the flow rates of water from rotameter
d) Note the pressure drop across the bed using manometer
e) Repeat the same procedure at different flow rates of water
f) After the experiments turn off all the valves and switch off the equipment.

FORMULAE:

1. Surface area =
( )
2. Volume Vp =
3. Sphericity of particle
4. Discharge of water = (fw × 10-3) / 3600

5. Velocity of water V = Q/A =

6. Modified (NRe)m = =

7. Ergun friction factor f = =

8. Pressure drop per unit length of bed =h =

 Calculation Table For Friction Factor

SL Q V ERGUN EXPERIMENTAL EXPERIMENTAL

x10- FRICTIO FRICTION ,Fp FRICTION ,Fp (full)
NO x 10- NRe
5 3 3
(m/s) N (half)
. m /s FORWA REVER FORWA REVER
f RD SE RD SE

For half length:

For full length:

Calculation Table For Pressure Difference Per Unit Length

SL Q V ERGUN
x10-3(HALF) x10-3 (FULL)
x10-3 NRe FRICTI
NO x 10-5
(m/s) ON
. m3/s FORWAR REVER FORWA REVER
f D SE RD SE
 Tabulation for graph plotting

log(f) log(NRe)

log(f) Vs log(Re)
0.34
0.33
0.32
0.31
0.3
log(f)

0.29
0.28
0.27
0.26
0.25
0.24
2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3
log(Re)

Graph Plotted With Logarithmic Modified Friction And Logarithmic Modified NRe
NOMENCLATRE:

Q = Discharge, m3/s

= Sphericity

Sp = Surface area of particle, m2

= Inside diameter, m

= Outer diameter, m

f = Ergun friction factor

= Density of water, kg/m3

= Viscosity of water, N s/m2

A = Area of cross section of pipe, m2

RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:
DATE: EXPT NO.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPTEST

AIM:
To determine the performance characteristics of a centrifugal pump by determining the capacity and
efficiency of a centrifugal pump when operating under the assigned conditions.

APPARATUS:
A 1.375 inch inside diameter pipe is connected from a water tank to the inlet of the centrifugal pump. A
pressure gauge is located just before the pump inlet to measure vacuum or suction pressure at the inlet of
the pump. Connected to the 1.375-inch diameter discharge pipe of the pump are a discharge pressure
gauge, fluid flow meter and head valve before the discharge pipe returns to the tank.

The pump is driven by an AC electric motor. A mechanical variable speed pitch controller is connected to
the motor to vary the speed of the pump. Between the variable speed controller and the pump is a torque
transducer that consists of an intermediate shaft that is instrumented with a full-bridge strain gauge torque
sensor.
 Figure 1.1 Schematic of centrifugal pump

OBSERVATIONS:
Table No.

Head Suction Discharge Q(×10-5 Time Efficiency

RPM
(m) pressure (Pa) pressure (Pa) m3/s) (s)
Given Data:
Area of cross-section of the piezometer tube = 0.1m2

Power input = 746 W

MODEL CALCULATIONS:
 Pressure Head:

H=

 Volumetric Flow rate:

Q= m3/s

 Power Out:
Pout = ghQ = W

 Efficiency:

ε=

PROCEDURE:
Before starting the motor, connect the magnetic pick-up to the pulse counter and the torque transducer to
a strain indicator. Balance the strain indicator to zero at zero load. Indirectly calibrate the torque sensor
using the precision calibration resistors provided (50 kohm or 60 kohm resistor depending on torque
sensor serial number) to simulate the load (torque) noted on the specification sheet.

Note: Since the pump operation is to be counter-clockwise (negative), the precision calibration resistor is
to be connected across the green and black terminals of the strain indicator.

Check the head valve on the discharge pipe and start the motor. Check to see if the pump discharge
pressure increases. If there is no pump discharge pressure in 10 seconds, the pump is probably dry and
must be primed. To prime the pump, open the cap on the flowmeter and add water to fill the pump. Close
the flowmeter cap and start the pump again. Allow the pump to operate few minutes before takin any
data. During this time, open and close the discharge valve and observe the suction and discharge pressure.
Begin each of the two tests with the head valve open. Use variable pitch speed control knob to set the
motor shaft speed as prescribed by the instructor. There are 60 teeth on the gear (inside the torque sensor
housing) that passes through the flux of the magnetic pickup. Determine the number of teeth per second
that is equivalent to the prescribed shaft RPM, set the pulse counter gate to one second, and adjust the
variable pitch speed control knob until the prescribed shaft speed is obtained. Before taking data make
sure the head valve is open. Vary the head of the pump by gradually opening the head valve over several
increments until the head valve is fully closed. At such increment (at fully closed initial head valve
position) record.
Suction pressure, Discharge pressure, Time taken and Flow capacity. The experiment is to be repeated at
three different rpms and corresponding values are to be noted. Calculate the output power and efficiency
for each reading.

FORMULA USED:

Z = Elevation
U = Internal Energy
P = Pressure
g = Specific weight of fluid
V = Average free velocity of stream1
Ws = Work applied to pump
Q = Net heat flow
hf = Friction loss

 Pressure Head:

H= m

 Volumetric Flow rate:

V= m3/s
  Power Out:
Pout = ghV

 Efficiency:

ε=

GRAPHS:

flow rate, efficiency and head curve

efficiency and head

15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
flow rate(10-5 m3/s)

Series1 Series2

Figure : Performance characteristic curve depicting the variation of head and efficiency of the pump with volumetric
flow rate at 290rpm

Figure : Performance characteristic curve depicting the variation of head and efficiency of the pump with volumetric
flow rate at 381rpm
Figure : Performance characteristic curve depicting the variation of head and efficiency of the pump with
volumetric flow rate at 541rpm

RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:
 DATE: EXP NO:

REYNOLD’S APPARATUS

AIM:
To study different types of flow and to determine the Reynolds’s number.

THEORY:
In Reynolds’s experiments, the ratio of inertia to viscous forces was observed to be dimensionless
and related to viscosity, average pipeline velocity and geometrically similar boundary conditions. For a
homogeneous Newtonian fluid, this dimensionless ratio is Re expressed as

p-density of fluid(kg/m3)

V-Velocity of fluid

D-diameter of glass tube

µ-viscosity of fluid (N-s/m2 )
For Re < 2100 - Laminar flow
Re > 4200- Turbulent flow
2100 < Re < 4200 - Transition zone

Depending on the relative magnitude of viscous and inertial forces, flow can occur in two different
manners. A stream line flow is defined as a line, which lies in the direction of flow is defined as a line,
which lies in the direction of flow at a given instant. For lower Reynold’s number streamline flow or
laminar flow to occur. As Reynold’s number increases, eddies are generated and flow becomes turbulent.
Figure : Reynold’s apparatus

PROCEDURE:
Clean the apparatus and make all tanks free from dust. Close the drain valves provided. Close flow
control valve at the end of test section ie) Glass tube. Fill sump tank with clean water and ensure no
foreign particles are there. Prepare a dye solution (KMnO4) in clean water in a separate vessel. Close the
control valve for dye, given on the P.V tubing. Put this section in Dye Vessel after ensuring no foreign
particles. Regulate minimum flow rate with the help of dye through capillary tube so that affine colour
thread is observed indicating laminar flow. Increase the flow through glass tube and observe the colour
threads, if it is still straight the flow is still straight the flow still remains to be in laminar flow and if
waviness starts it is non laminar flow. Measure flow rate using measuring cylinder and stop watch.

FORMULAE:

Discharge

Average Velocity of Fluid

Reynold’s number

Nomenclature
= Density of fluid kg/m3
V= velocity of fluid (m/s)
D= Diameter of glass tube (m)
µ= Viscosity of fluid (Ns/ )
OBSERVATIONS:
Table

Sl.no V₀ (ml) t(s) Observed flow type

GIVEN DATA:
D=0.025m
A=0.00049

CALCULATIONS:

Table

Sl.no Q (mᵌ/s) V (m/s) Rₑ Observed Calculated

flow type flow type
RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSION:
DATE: EXPT
NO.

FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE AND MOUTHPIECE

AIM:
a) To study the flow through orifice and mouthpiece.
b) To determine the coefficient of discharge.
c) To determine the coefficient of velocity.

THEORY:
Orifice:
When a liquid flows from a vessel or a tank through an orifice it changes its direction. Due to change in
direction, the liquid jet is acted upon by lateral or side forces which gradually reduces its area up to a
certain section. This area does not reduce further beyond. With it causes and stream line, first become
parallel known as Vena contracta.

Mouthpiece:
A short piece of length about three times of its diameter connected to the face of the orifice known as
mouthpiece; in what flows its will be proved that under a given head the rate of discharge through a
mouthpiece will be more than that through the orifice of the same diameter, the reason being that while
entering in to the mouthpiece the liquid yet a Vena contracta. Due to that the velocity of liquid increases
and pressure decreases. The pressure at Vena contracta is less than at atmosphere. This may be verified by
applying Bernoulli’s theorem at the outlet and at the Vena contracta.
Coefficient of velocity: It is defined as the ratio of the actual velocity of jet of liquid at vena contracta to
the theoretical velocity of jet. It is denoted as Cv.

i.e.
√
(Eq. 1)
Coefficient of discharge: It is defined as the ratio of actual discharge from the orifice or mouthpiece to the
theoretical discharge through the orifice or mouthpiece. It is denoted as Cd.

i.e.
(Eq. 2)
OBSERVATIONS:
Mouthpiece:
Table 9. 1

SL. HEIGHT X Y TIME PIEZOMETER

NO OF TAKEN
(cm) (cm) R2-R1
WATER
(s)
R1 R2 (cm)
H (cm)

Orifice:
Table 9. 2

SL. HEIGHT X Y TIME PIEZOMETER

NO OF TAKEN
(cm) (cm) R2-R1
WATER
(s)
R1 R2 (cm)
H (cm)

Given data:
D = 0.01 m (of mouth piece)
= 0.01 m and 0.15 m (of orifice)
a = 1.767x10-4 m2 (for orifice of diameter 10 mm)
= 7.854x10-5 m2 (for mouth piece)
L = 10mm, 25mm, 40mm
A = 0.1 m2

OPENING PROCEDURE:
a) Clean the apparatus and make all the tanks free from dust.
b) Close the drain valves provided.
c) Fill the sump tank ¾ with clean water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
d) Close all flow control valves given on the water line.
e) Open the bypass valve.
f) Fix desired test piece at testing section.
g) Ensure that all ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
h) Now switch ON the main power supply.
i) Switch ON the pump.
j) Open the flow control valve to regulate the flow of water on the measurement tank.
k) Adjust the head of water in the tank with the help of given flexible varying head system in the center of
the tank,
l) Now the pointer gauge at Vena contracta observes water coming out from the tank.
m) Record the pointer gauge reading.
n) Measure the flow of water discharged through the desired test section using stop-watch and measuring
tank.
o) Repeat the experiment for different water reads.
p) When the experiment is over for one desired test piece, first open the by-pass valve fully.
q) Then close the flow control valve.
r) Drain the variable head tank in sump tank by means of given drain valve.
s) Change second test piece.

CLOSING PROCEDURE:
a) Switch OFF the pump.
b) Switch OFF the power supply to panel.
c) Drain the water from all tanks with the help of given drain valve.
Mouthpiece:
Table 9. 3

SL. H Qa * 10-4 Cd CV V Qt * 10-4

NO
(cm) (m3/s) (m/s) (m3/s)

Orifice:
Table 9. 4

SL. H Qa Cd CV V Qt
NO
(cm) (m3/s) (m/s) (m3/s)

Formula used:

Cv = √
= √

Cd =

Where; Qa = Actual discharge =

 Qt = Theoretical discharge = a √
X = Horizontal distance of bend of flow from test system.
y = 7.2 cm. (given)
H = the head of system.
a = 1.767 x 10-4 m2 ( for orifice ) ; 7.854 x 10-5 m2 ( for mouthpiece).
D = 0.01 m (for mouthpiece) ; 0.01m and 0.015 m ( for orifice).
A = 0.1 m2

Variable head tank

Pointer gauge

Test piece
Measuring Tank

Control valve

By-pass valve

Pump
Sump tank

Drain

Figure 9.1: Schematic diagram of orifice and mouthpiece apparatus

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

CONCLUSIONS: