Adult  Psychiatry  I  
Paper  B   Syllabic  content  7.1  
 
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 1. Major Depressive Disorder
Epidemiology:  Various  studies  including  NCS  and  its  replication  NCS-­‐‑R,  NSEARC  and  ECA  have  
implicated  that  the  lifetime  prevalence  of  depression  is  changing.  The  1-­‐‑year  prevalence  of  depression  
in  the  general  population  was  5.3%  while  lifetime  prevalence  was  13%.  NSEARC  showed  that  the  point  
prevalence  estimate  of  depression  nearly  doubled  from  3.3  to  7%  (1992  to  2002).  The  highest  risk  was  for  
age  group  greater  than  30,  as  opposed  to  previous  finding  of  19  to  29  age  group.  
According  to  NESARC  (National  epidemiological  survey  of  alcoholism  and  related  conditions.  Hasin  et  al.  
Arch.  Gen.  Psychiatry  2005;  62,  1097)  mean  age  of  onset  of  depression  is  30  years.  The  first  depressive  
episode  occurs  before  age  40  in  about  50%  of  patients.  The  mean  number  of  episodes  in  patients  with  
lifetime  major  depressive  disorder  is  5.  The  longest  duration  was  24  weeks  per  episode.    
According  to  EseMED  (European  data),  only  21%  of  depressed  patients  received  antidepressants  in  a  year.  
One-­‐‑third  of  identified  patients  have  consulted  their  general  practitioner  in  preceding  12  months  while  21%  
cases  have  seen  a  psychiatrist.    Nearly  one-­‐‑third  of  those  who  sought  help,  have  never  seen  any  mental  
health  professional.    Nearly  21%  remained  untreated  in  spite  of  seeking  help.  The  mean  age  of  treatment  
onset  33.5  years  –  lag  3  years.    
Most  common  comorbidity  was  alcohol  use  (>40%)  and  anxiety  (>40%),  30%  had  a  personality  disorder.  
Notably,  29%  of  those  who  have  alcohol  dependence  satisfy  criteria  for  the  1-­‐‑year  prevalence  of  clinical  
depression.  Cluster  C  personality  disorders  except  anankastic  PD  show  strong  associations  with  lifetime  
MDD.  Suicide  is  attempted  by  9%.  
According  to  DEPRES  (Depression  Research  in  European  Society)  study,  a  significant  proportion  of  
sufferers  from  depression  (43%)  failed  to  seek  treatment  for  their  depressive  symptoms.  Sufferers  from  
major  depression  made  almost  three  times  as  many  visits  to  their  GP  or  family  doctor  as  non-­‐‑sufferers,  
placing  huge  demands  on  the  primary  care.  Only  31%of  those  who  sought  help  were  given  a  drug  therapy  
and  among  these,  only  25%  were  given  antidepressant  drugs    
 
Diagnostic  stability:  In  approximately  56%  of  patients,  the  initial  diagnosis  of  depressive  disorder  
eventually  changes  during  follow-­‐‑up  mainly  to  the  schizophrenic  spectrum  (16%),  but  also  to  personality  
disorders  (9%),  neurotic,  stress-­‐‑related  and  somatoform  disorders  (8%)  and  to  bipolar  disorder  (8%)  
(Kessing,  2005).  
In  community  studies,  one  in  ten  patients  who  begin  with  a  depressive  episode  go  on  to  develop  an  
episode  of  mania  within  10  years.  If  the  illness  began  at  a  younger  age,  the  switch  was  earlier.  This  rate  
increases  to  nearly  50%  if  severely  depressed  hospitalised  patients  are  considered.  Among  hospitalised  
depressed  patients  followed  up  for  nearly  a  decade  1%  a  year  converted  to  bipolar  I  and  0.5%  a  year  
converted  to  bipolar  II.  
It  is  known  that  the  majority  of  bipolar  patients,  particularly  women,  begin  with  depressive  episodes.  
Factors  associated  with  a  change  of  polarity  from  unipolar  to  bipolar  were  younger  age,  family  history  of  
bipolarity,  antidepressant-­‐‑induced  hypomania,  hypersomnia  and  retarded  phenomenology,  psychotic  
depression,  and  postpartum  episode.  The  mean  age  at  which  the  switch  occurs  is  32  years.  The  average  
number  of  previous  episodes  in  those  who  switch  varies  between  two  and  four.    
 

©  SPMM  Course   2  
Mortality/  physical  morbidity:    Longstanding  or  recurrent  depression  is  a  significant  predictor  of  
mortality  (RR=1.5,  1.06-­‐‑2.20).  This  risk  may  come  down  in  those  who  were  once  depressed  but  recovered  
now.    People  with  major  depression  have  up  to  a  five-­‐‑fold  increased  risk  of  MI.  Taking  all  diagnostic  
categories  together,  suicide  among  mood  disorder  patients  was  nearly  14  times  more  frequent  than  in  the  
general  population.  
 
Duration  of  episodes:  An  untreated  depressive  episode  lasts  6  to  13  months;  most  treated  episodes  last  
about  3  months.  As  the  course  of  the  disorder  progresses,  patients  tend  to  have  more  frequent  episodes  
that  last  longer.    
 
Recurrence  rates:  In  a  population-­‐‑based  follow-­‐‑up  study  of  first  episode  depression,  the  median  episode  
length  was  noted  to  be  12  weeks.  About  15%  of  those  with  first  episodes  did  not  have  a  year  free  of  
episodes,  even  after  23  years.  About  50%  of  first  episode  participants  recovered  and  had  no  future  
episodes.    Approximately  50%  of  patients  with  an  episode  of  depression  will  experience  a  recurrence  
within  5  years.  For  those  who  have  had  2  major  depressive  episodes,  the  probability  of  recurrence  goes  up  
to  70%,  and  after  three  episodes  it  increases  to  80%  to  95%.  Paykel  et  al  showed  that  the  risk  of  relapse  or  
recurrence  is  significantly  higher  in  patients  with  residual  symptoms  (  75%  in  15  months)  after  treatment  
compared  with  patients  who  were  treated  to  full  remission  (25%  in  15  months).    
Over  a  lifetime,  bipolar  patients  experience  twice  as  many  episodes  as  unipolar  depressives    
 
The  5  Rs  of  depression  &  The  Kupfer  Curve:    Imagine  someone  in  depression;  if  they  achieve  50%  
symptom-­‐‑free  they  are  responding  to  treatment;  26-­‐‑49%  decrease  in  symptom  severity  compared  with  
baseline  is  termed  as  partial  response;  once  they  achieve  a  state  where  no  scales  can  detect  meaningful  
measure  of  depression  
(say  HAMD<7)  
and  continue  to  
do  so  even  after  
the  natural  period  
of  a  treated  
depressive  
episode  (usually  
>3m)  is  over,  they  
are  said  to  be  in  
remission.  If  they  
continue  to  be  
remitted  after  the  
natural  period  of  
an  untreated  
depressive  
episode  (usually  

©  SPMM  Course   3  
>6m  after  the  acute  period),  they  are  said  to  be  recovered.  Any  repeat  of  depressive  episodes  before  this  
period  is  a  relapse  and  after  this  is  a  recurrence  i.e.  a  new  episode.  (From  www.rethinkdepression.com)  
Good  prognostic  indicators   Relapse  indicators  
Mild  episodes   Persistent  dysthymia  
Absence  of  psychotic  symptoms   Comorbid  conditions,  including  both  psychiatric  and  
general  medical  conditions.  
A  short  hospital  stay     Female  sex  
History  of  solid  friendships  during  adolescence.   Longer  episodes  of  illness  before  seeking  treatment,    
Stable  family  functioning.     Greater  number  of  prior  episodes  (3  or  >),    
Sound  social  functioning  for  the  5  years  preceding   Never  marrying  
the  illness.    
The  absence  of  the  comorbid  psychiatric  disorder.   Remission  status  at  3  months  –  partial  remission  predicts  
recurrence    
No  more  than  one  previous  hospitalization  for  major   Previous  episode  in  past  year  
depressive  disorder.    
  Severity  of  episodes  (for  example,  suicidality  and  
psychotic  features)  
  Long  previous  episodes  
 
Evidence-­‐‑Based  Treatment:  
NICE  guidelines  for  depression  -­‐‑  summary:  
NICE  guidelines  for  depression  -­‐‑  summary  
Ø        Most  points  are  for  primary  care  management.  
Ø Screening  high-­‐‑risk  primary  care  attendees  (past  history,  physically  ill,  demented,  etc.)  is  necessary  
Ø If  comorbid  depression  and  anxiety  present,  treat  the  depression  first.  
Ø Depression  must  be  classified  as  per  severity  for  proper  management  
Ø Watchful  waiting  with  no  active  intervention  for  mild  depression  is  an  advocated  strategy  if  agreeable;  the  
review  must  be  in  2  weeks.  
Ø Antidepressants  have  a  poor  risk-­‐‑benefit  ratio  for  mild  depression  –  so  not  advocated.  CBT-­‐‑based  guided  
self-­‐‑help  can  be  advised.  
Ø For  mild/moderate  depression  CBT,  counselling  or  problem-­‐‑solving  therapy  can  be  advised.  
Ø SSRIs  to  be  used  as  the  first  line  of  antidepressants.  
Ø When  patients  present  initially  with  severe  depression,  a  combination  of  antidepressants  and  CBT  should  
be  considered  as  the  combination  is  more  cost-­‐‑effective  than  either  treatment  on  its  own.    
Ø For  patients  with  a  moderate  or  severe  depressive  episode,  continue  antidepressants  for  at  least  6  months  
after  remission  
Ø Patients  with  >2  episodes  in  recent  past,  or  with  residual  impairment  should  continue  antidepressants  at  
least  for  2  years  
Ø SSRIs  to  be  used  first  in  atypical  depression  before  referral  to  a  specialist.  In  women  with  atypical  features,  
the  specialist  may  consider  phenelzine  if  no  response  to  SSRIs.  
Ø Patients  who  have  had  multiple  episodes  but  good  response  to  lithium  augmentation  of  antidepressant  
should  remain  on  the  combination  for  at  least  6  months  
Ø Electroconvulsive  therapy  (ECT)  should  only  be  used  to  achieve  rapid  and  short-­‐‑term  improvement  of  
severe  symptoms  after  an  adequate  trial  of  other  treatments  has  proven  ineffective,  and/or  when  the  
condition  is  considered  to  be  potentially  life-­‐‑threatening,  in  a  severe  depressive  illness.    
Ø ECT  maintenance  is  not  recommended.  

©  SPMM  Course   4  
  
Principles  of  prescribing  in  depression  
• For  a  single  episode,  continue  treatment  for  at  least  6-­‐‑9  months  after  resolution  of  symptoms  
(multiple  episodes  may  require  longer)  
• Withdraw  antidepressants  gradually;  always  inform  patients  of  the  risk  and  nature  of  
discontinuation  symptoms  
• SSRIs  -­‐‑  Summary  of  Suggestions  from  the  Medicines  and  Healthcare  products  Regulatory  Agency:    
Use  the  lowest  possible  dose.  Monitor  closely  in  early  stages  for  restlessness,  agitation  and  suicidality.    
This  is  particularly  important  in  young  people  (<30  years).  Doses  should  be  tapered  gradually  on  
stopping.    
Do  antidepressants  work?    
Reanalysis  of  individual  patient  data  available  at  FDA  has  shown  the  following;  
§ In  adults  NNT  for  an  antidepressant  response  seems  to  be  4-­‐‑5;  for  remission  it  may  be  6-­‐‑7  for  short-­‐‑
term  trials  (around  12-­‐‑14  weeks).  In  elderly  it  is  found  that  the  NNT  for  tricyclics  is  4;  8  for  SSRIs  and  
3  for  MAOIs.  In  children  and  adolescents  NNT  for  SSRIs  was  of  uncertain  clinical  and  statistical  
significance;  paroxetine  had  NNT  benefit  12  (5  to )  and  NNT  harm  20.    Sertraline  had  NNT  benefit  
10  (95%  CI  5  to   ).  Fluoxetine  had  somewhat  clinically  worthwhile  NNT  benefit  of  5  (4–13).    
§ Kirsch’s  meta-­‐‑analysis  of  data  from  47  trials  (conducted  between  1987  and  1999,  and  submitted  to  
FDA  for  successfully  approved  antidepressants)  included  4-­‐‑8  weeks  RCTs  of  nefazodone,  
venlafaxine,  fluoxetine  and  paroxetine.  The  weighted  mean  improvement  was  9.60  points  on  the  
HRSD  (Hamilton)  in  the  drug  groups  and  7.80  in  the  placebo  groups,  yielding  a  mean  drug–placebo  
difference  of  1.80  on  HRSD  improvement  scores.  This  difference  attained  statistical  significance  but  
did  not  meet  the  three-­‐‑point  HRSD  criterion  difference  between  drug–placebo  required  by  NICE  for  
clinical  significance.  But  the  magnitude  of  the  difference  (effect  size)  was  a  function  of  baseline  
severity  of  depression.  The  effect  
of  placebo  declined  as  severity  
Primary  care  and  General  Hospitals  -­‐‑  Recognition
increased.  This  significant  
difference  between  drug  and   • Assessment  &  Screening

placebo  (i.e.  exceeding  NICE'ʹs   Treatment  of  mild  depression  in  primary  care
0.50  standardized  mean  
• Mild  depression  -­‐‑  watchful  wait,  self-­‐‑help,  computerised  CBT,  
difference  criterion)  was   exercise,  brief  psychological  therapies.

observed  in  comparisons  

Treatment  of  moderate-­‐‑severe  depression
exceeding  HRSD  score  28  in  
• Medication  use,  psychosocial  support
baseline  severity.    
§ Stepped  care  approach:    NICE   Specialist  treatment
advocates  a  stepped  care  model   • Medication,  omplex  psychotherapies,  combined  treatments
advocated  by  WHO  in  managing  
Inpatient  treatment
chronic  illnesses.    
  • Risk  management  -­‐‑  ECT/combined  treatments

©  SPMM  Course   5  
Phases  of  depression  treatment:  from  Hirschfeld  2001  (after  one  episode)  
Acute  phase   Stabilisation  of  acute  symptoms  –  up  to  3  months  
Continuation  phase   Provided  relapse  free,  this  lasts  6-­‐‑12  months.  Covers  the  natural  (if  
untreated)  course  of  depression.  
Maintenance  phase   Aims  to  prevent  recurrences  –  depends  on  risk  factors  and  probability  or  
recurrence.  
 
To  continue  or  not?  Geddes  and  colleagues  performed  a  pooled  analysis  of  data  from  31  randomized  
trials  that  included  4,410  patients;  they  found  that  continued  treatment  with  all  classes  of  antidepressants  
reduced  the  risk  of  relapse  by  70%  compared  with  treatment  discontinuation  after  acute  episode,  which  
was  a  highly  significant  difference.  The  average  rate  of  relapse  on  placebo  was  41%  compared  with  18%  
on  active  treatment.  The  treatment  effect  seemed  to  persist  for  up  to  36  months,  although  most  trials  were  
of  12  months'ʹ  duration.  
 
STAR*D  
1. Sequenced  treatment  alternative  for  depression  was  a  pragmatic  RCT  study  –  nearly  2/3rd  had  comorbid  
physical  disorder,  nearly  2/3rd  has  co-­‐‑morbid  psychiatric  diagnosis  and  about  40%  had  onset  of  
depression  less  than  age  18  –  very  similar  to  real  world  findings.    
2. Enrolled  4041  patients  with  a  broad  range  of  symptoms  and  severity  at  25  participating  sites  in  the  USA.  
3. The  study  involved  4  possible  'ʹsteps'ʹ  for  treatment,  and  any  patient  who  failed  to  meet  remission  
criteria  at  each  step  was  then  asked  to  move  to  the  next  level.  In  each  level,  more  than  one  
randomisation  options  were  available  
4. Level  1:  Citalopram  was  given  (n  =  3671;  dropout  rate  was  approximately  8%)  -­‐‑  Patients  were  
encouraged  to  continue  the  treatment  for  up  to  12  weeks    
5. Level  2:  After  12  weeks,  if  patients  failed  to  reach  remission  in  level  1,  they  were  randomized  to  the  
next  level,  depending  on  their  preference  to  ‘switch’  (bupropion  SR,  N  =  239;  sertraline,  N  =  238;  or  
venlafaxine  XR,  N  =  250),  switch  to  cognitive  therapy  (N  =  62),  ‘augment’  citalopram  (bupropion  SR,  N  
=  279;  or  buspirone,  N  =  286),  or  ‘combine’  citalopram  with  cognitive  therapy  (N  =  85).    
6. Level  3:  Participants  who  did  not  achieve  remission  after  12  weeks  in  level  2  were  randomized  to  
switch  to  mirtazapine  (N  =  110);  switch  to  nortriptyline  (N  =  116);  or  augment  level  2  treatment  with  
lithium  (N  =  63)  or  thyroid  medication  (N  =  70).  
7. Level  4:  Patients  who  did  not  achieve  remission  after  12  weeks  in  level  3  were  required  to  switch  to  the  
monoamine  oxidase  inhibitor,  tranylcypromine  (N  =  55);  or  switch  to  a  combination  of  venlafaxine  XR  
and  mirtazapine  (N  =  50).  
8. To  ensure  that  every  participant  had  the  best  chance  of  recovery  with  each  treatment  strategy,  a  
systematic  approach  called  measurement-­‐‑based  care  was  used.  Accordingly,  routine  measurement  of  
symptoms  and  side  effects  at  each  treatment  visit  with  the  use  of  a  treatment  manual-­‐‑guided  when  
and  how  to  modify  doses  tailored  to  each  individual.    
9. Patients  tended  to  choose  an  option  based  on  their  experiences  with  the  initial  antidepressant.  If  they  
experienced  a  partial  response,  they  chose  augmentation;  if  they  were  not  responding,  they  preferred  
to  switch,  and  so  forth.  
©  SPMM  Course   6  
10. Remission  rates  dropped  while  relapse  rates  increased  with  moving  higher  to  each  level  (  see  table  
below)  
 
STAR*D   Level  1  (SSRI   Level  2  (switch  or   Level  3  (switch   Level  4  (switch  
mono)   augment  or   MZP/NTP  or   MAOI  or  
combine  CBT)   Li  or  T3   VFX/MZP  
augment)   combo)  

Remission  (Quick  Inventory  of   37%   31%   14%   13%  

Depressive  Symptomatology–
Self-­‐‑Report)  

Relapse  rates  (more  in  those  who   34%   47%   43%   50%  
did  not  have  complete  remission)  

Intolerance  to  treatment   16%   20%   26%   34%  

Drop-­‐‑out  rates   After  level  1   After  level  2,  30%   After  level  3,    
21%  withdrew   withdrew   42%  withdrew  

 
11.  The  cumulative  remission  rate  after  all  4  steps  was  67%;  the  cumulative  non-­‐‑response  rate  was  33%.  
About  half  of  participants  in  the  STAR*D  study  became  symptom-­‐‑free  after  two  treatment  levels.  
12. The  observed  differences  among  the  3  switch  options  -­‐‑-­‐‑  sertraline,  bupropion  SR,  and  venlafaxine  XR  -­‐‑-­‐‑  
were  small  and  below  the  threshold  of  statistical  significance.    
13.  Switch  to  a  class  outside  SSRIs  was  not  different  from  the  within-­‐‑class  switch  option.  
14.  At  level  3  again  no  statistical  difference  was  seen  within  2  different  switches  or  2  different  
augmentations  (switch  vs.  augment  not  compared  as  patients  chose  one  or  other  –  were  not  
randomized).  T3  was  better  tolerated  than  lithium.  
15. At  level  4  again  no  differences  were  noted  between  MAOI  and  VFX/MZp  combination  though  the  
degree  of  symptom  relief  (not  proportion  responding)  was  better  with  VFX/MZp  combo.  
 
Who  will  drop  out?  
In  STAR*D  immediate  attrition  after  one  visit  was  associated  with  younger  age,  less  education,  and  higher  
perceived  mental  health  functioning.  Attrition  later  in  treatment  (but  within  12  weeks)  was  associated  
with  younger  age,  less  education,  and  African  American  race.  Experience  with  more  than  one  episode  of  
depression  was  associated  with  less  attrition.  
 
Does  dose  escalation  help  non-­‐‑responders?  
At  least  for  SSRIs  the  evidence  is  equivocal.  In  STAR*D  dose  escalation  was  not  used  as  an  individual  
option  or  step  in  managing  depression.  A  systematic  review  identified  8  true  dose-­‐‑escalation  studies  and  3  
meta-­‐‑analyses.  The  available  data  provided  no  unequivocal  base  for  dose  escalation.  Especially  dose  
escalation  before  4  weeks  of  treatment  at  a  standard  dose  appeared  to  be  ineffective.  
©  SPMM  Course   7  
Also,  when  the  patients  and  clinicians  make  the  choice  of  antidepressant  randomly,  significantly  lower  
symptom  reduction  occurs,  when  compared  to  the  algorithm-­‐‑based  treatment  of  depression  (Trivedi  et  al.,  
2006).    
Are  there  any  gender  differences?  
Men  report  more  suicidal  ideation.  But  women  report  more  suicidal  attempts.  Men  are  2-­‐‑4  times  more  
likely  to  be  successful  in  their  suicidal  attempts.  Women  have  more  symptoms  of  anxiety  and  atypical  
depression,  earlier  age  of  onset  of  depression  and  a  trend  towards  longer  episodes.  Men  have  more  
psychomotor  agitation  and  substance  use  than  women.  According  to  BAP  guidelines  (Cleare  et  al.,  2015),  
“there  is  no  consistent  evidence  for  a  clinically  important  effect  of  gender  on  response  to  different  
antidepressants,  although  younger  women  may  tolerate  TCAs  less  well  than  men.  
Do  antidepressants  increase  suicide  risk?  
§ MHRA  has  issued  a  black  box  warning  that  Under  18s  may  have  an  increased  risk  of  suicide  
secondary  to  SSRI  prescription.  This  increased  risk  may  be  seen  in  adults  too.  In  May  2007,  the  Food  
and  Drug  Administration  (FDA)  ordered  that  all  antidepressant  drugs  carry  an  expanded  black-­‐‑box  
warning  incorporating  information  about  an  increased  risk  of  suicidal  symptoms  in  young  adults  aged  
18–24  years.    
§ The  risk  of  suicidal  behaviours  associated  with  antidepressants  was  found  to  be  elevated  in  subjects  
under  age  25,  neutral  in  subjects  aged  25–64  (reduced  if  suicidal  behaviour  and  ideation  are  considered  
together),  and  reduced  in  subjects  aged  65  and  older  (so  protective  in  elderly).      
§ Khan,  analysing  FDA  data  concluded  that  no  increase  in  suicides  is  seen  in  adults,  but  Healy  
reappraised  this  and  showed  that  1.62  
times  more  suicides  mean  a  significant  
difference.  
§ BAP’s  most  recent  update  of  
Lack  of  response  to   Confirm  true  resistance  
antidepressant  use  (2015)  states  that     antidepressant  therapy (rule  out  5As)*

“Antidepressant  (including  SSRI)  

treatment  is  not  associated  with  an  
increased  risk  of  completed  suicide  and  
ecological  studies  find  it  is  associated   Augment  using  lithium,  
with  decreased  suicide  rates.   Switch  to  another  drug   antipsychotic,  
same/different  class psychotherapy  or  
Antidepressant  (including  SSRI)   another  antidepressant

treatment  does  not  appear  associated  

with  a  clinically  significant  increased  risk  
of  suicidal  behaviour  in  adults,  although  
the  individual  sensitivity  cannot  be  ruled   No  response  after  2  or  3  
adequate  trials
out.  SSRIs  are  associated  with  a  small  
(<1%)  increase  in  non-­‐‑fatal  suicidal  
ideation/behaviour  in  
adolescents/younger  adults  with  a  
benefit–risk  ratio  of  >10”.  
Neurostimulation  (TMS  
or  ECT)  or  novel  agents
©  SPMM  Course   8  
§ From  epidemiological  and  cross-­‐‑sectional  data,  it  is  likely  that  suicidal  behaviour  leads  to  treatment  
rather  than  treatment  leading  to  suicidal  behaviour.    
§ There  are  several  difficulties  in  studying  the  association  between  suicide  and  antidepressant  usage.  
Some  results  such  as  sertraline  increases  self-­‐‑harm  but  not  suicide  risk  do  not  make  biologically  
plausible  sense.  Suicide  is  a  complex  behaviour  and  studying  it  in  ‘all  or  none’  manner  is  not  useful.  
The  role  of  anxiety,  akathisia  induced  by  SSRIs  in  this  is  unclear.  Nevertheless,  the  reported  
association  may  not  be  a  general  psychotropic  prescription  effect;  prescription  related  suicides  are  not  
seen  with  antipsychotic  usage  (Khan,  2001).  
 
Antidepressant  toxicity  in  overdose  
In  an  observational  study  by  Hawton  et  al.  2010,  TCAs  showed  greater  toxicity  than  venlafaxine  and  
mirtazapine,  both  of  which  had  greater  toxicity  than  SSRIs.    Within  the  TCAs,  dosulepin  and  doxepin  
were  more  toxic  in  comparison  with  amitriptyline.    Within  the  SSRIs,  citalopram  had  a  higher  case  fatality  
than  other  SSRIs.  
 
Managing  treatment  resistant  depression  (TRD):  
The  5As  that  can  result  in  apparent  resistance  to  antidepressant  treatment    (‘pseudoTRD’)  are  Alcoholism,  
lack  of  Adequate  dosage,  lack  of  Adherence,  Axis  2  disorders  (personality  disorders),  Alternate  
diagnoses  (e.g.  PTSD).  See  the  flowchart  above  for  further  details.    
   
Is  combining  two  antidepressants  an  effective  strategy?  
The  evidence  base  for  combination  antidepressants  is  very  sparse  (Palaniyappan  et  al.,  2008).  There  are  no  
clear  recommendations  that  could  be  made  from  available  evidence,  but  the  following  points  are  for  the  
purpose  of  MRCPsych  MCQs:  
1. Serotonin  syndrome  is  a  risk  with  many  combinations  especially  SSRI-­‐‑MAOIs  
2. Venlafaxine  mirtazapine  combination  is  called  Californian  rocket  fuel.  This  has  some  support  for  
use  in  TRD    
3. The  neuropharmacological  rationale  must  be  checked  before  combinations  –  for  e.g.  combining  
two  SSRIs  may  not  give  any  pharmacodynamic  advantage,  combining  two  different  mechanisms  
of  action  must  be  aimed  for.  
4. SSRI  TCA  combinations  may  work  both  by  pharmacodynamic  and  kinetic  mechanism  –  SSRIs  
inhibiting  TCA  metabolism.  
5. Some  combinations  may  be  used  for  specific  symptom  relief  e.g.  trazodone  for  insomnia  in  
combination  with  other  antidepressants.  
6. No  single  combination  is  found  superior  to  others  in  head  to  head  trials.  
Novel  antidepressant  options:  (Palaniyappan  &  McAllister-­‐‑Williams,  2007)  
Agomelatine  is  a  new  antidepressant  that  is  a  5HT2C  antagonist  (and  a  melatonergic  agonist).  GABA  
interneurons  tonically  inhibit  noradrenergic  circuits  (from  locus  coeruleus)  and  dopaminergic  circuits  
(from  ventral  tegmentum)  projecting  to  the  prefrontal  cortex.  5HT2C  receptor  stimulation  drives  these  
GABA  interneurons.  Thus,  norepinephrine  and  dopamine  circuits  are  inhibited  by  the  normal  tonic  

©  SPMM  Course   9  
release  of  serotonin  (Stahl,  2007).  Agomelatine,  through  5HT2C  inhibition,  therefore,  may  in  part  act  as  a  
norepinephrine  and  dopamine  disinhibitor.  Clinical  trials  have  confirmed  significant  antidepressant  
efficacy  for  this  agent  (Olie´  and  Kasper,  2007)  though  the  relative  contribution  of  melatonergic  properties  
of  this  drug  still  remains  unknown.    
 
Side  effects:  Combining  benzodiazepines  with  antidepressants  early  in  treatment  speeds  response  and  
reduces  drop-­‐‑outs  and  may  be  useful  for  managing  early  agitation/anxiety  and  insomnia,  but  needs  to  be  
balanced  against  the  risk  of  long-­‐‑term  use.    

Beneficial  strategies  for  sexual  side  effects  are:  switching  to  an  anti-­‐‑  depressant  with  a  lower  tendency  to  
cause  sexual  side  effects  (II);  adding  sildenafil  (I)  or  tadafinil  (II)  for  erectile  dysfunction,  or  bupropion  150  
mg  twice  daily  for  sexual  dysfunction  (II),  in  men;  and  adding  bupropion  (I)  or  sildenafil  (II)  in  women.  
Modafinil  may  improve  sleepiness  in  partial  respond-­‐‑  ers  to  SSRIs  with  fatigue  and  sleepiness  but  its  
effect  on  fatigue  is  unclear  (II).  

 
What  about  St.  John’s  wort?  
An  initial  meta-­‐‑analysis  of  St  Johns’s  Wort  (Hypericum  perforatum)  published  in  2001  showed  an  
adjusted  RR  of  1.94  (1.5  to  2.5)  in  favour  of  SJW.  But  when  3  later  studies  were  added,  and  the  data  was  re-­‐‑
analysed,  this  effect  size  dropped  to  1.30  (1.0  to  1.60).  In  fact,  SJW  may  not  be  as  effective  as  once  claimed.  
Evidence  from  at  least  one  systematic  review  of  multiple  well-­‐‑designed  RCTs  are  found  for  the  use  St  
John'ʹs  wort,  tryptophan/5-­‐‑hydroxytryptophan,  S-­‐‑adenosyl  methionine,  inositol  and  folate  in  depressive  
disorders.  None  of  these  findings  was  conclusively  positive,  and  folate  had  a  significant  effect  only  when  
combined  with  an  antidepressant.  St  John’s  wort  can  increase  the  effects  of  conventional  SSRIs.  
 
Ketamine:    
§ The  anaesthetic  and  hallucinogenic  drug    
§ Demonstrated  to  be  an  extremely  rapidly  acting  antidepressant  acting  via  blockade  of  glutamatergic  
NMDA  receptors  and  relative  upregulation  of  AMPA  receptors.  May  also  act  on  mammalian  target  of  
rapamycin  (mTOR)  and  brain-­‐‑derived  neurotrophic  factor  (BDNF  to  affect    intracellular  signalling.    
§ The  clinical  evidence  from  relatively  small  trials  to  date  reveals  rapid  improvements  in  mood  and  
suicidal  thinking  in  most  participants  (~70%),  although  the  effects  appear  temporary  when  a  single  
infusion  is  administered,  with  no  pharmacological  augmentation  effective  to  date.    
§ Ketamine  (0.5  mg/kg  single  dose)  demonstrated  a  notable  improvement  over  placebo  saline  at  24  
hours  (effect  size  =  1.46;  later  dropping  to  0.68  by  1  week;  71%  on  ketamine  showed  response)  (Zarate  
et  al.,  2006).  Two  studies  investigating  the  effect  of  ketamine  in  bipolar  depression  yielded  similar  
positive  results  [DiazGranados  et  al.  2010b;  Zarate  et  al.  2012].  Studies  have  evaluated  augmenting  
ECT  with  a  sub  anaesthetic  dose  of  ketamine,  using  ketamine  as  the  anaesthetic  agent.  
 

©  SPMM  Course   10  
 2. Bipolar Disorder
Epidemiology  
§ Consistently  in  large  epidemiological  studies,  1.5%  point  prevalence  is  quoted  for  bipolar  disorders.  
But  note  that  hypomania,  being  positively  appraised  by  patients  themselves,  is  often  missed  in  
structured,  non-­‐‑clinician  interviews,  so  underrepresented  in  surveys.    
§ In  NCS-­‐‑replication  (part  of  World  Mental  Health  survey  initiative),  lifetime  prevalence  of  bipolar  1  
was  1.0%,  bipolar  2  was  1.1%  while  subsyndromal  bipolar  spectrum  was  2.4%.    
§ NCS-­‐‑R  showed  that  the  mean  age  of  onset  for  BP-­‐‑I  was  18.2  while  BP-­‐‑II  started  around  age  20.  
Subsyndromal  BPD  started  around  22  years  of  age.    
§ Clinical  severity  and  role  impairment  were  more  common  in  BP-­‐‑II  than  BP-­‐‑I  (Merikangas  et  al.;  Arch  
Gen  Psychiatry.  2007;  64:543-­‐‑552).  Angst  et  al.  (2003)  observed  in  a  20-­‐‑year  long  prospective  study  
that  patients  with  depression  and  clinically  undiagnosed  subsyndromal  hypomania  have  similar  risk  
factors,  course  and  outcome  compared  to  bipolar  disorder  type  2.  
§ The  suicide  rate  in  bipolar  disorder  is  ~15-­‐‑18  times  higher  than  the  general  population.  
§ According  to  NICE,  around  two-­‐‑thirds  of  people  with  bipolar  disorder  also  experience  another  
mental  disorder,  usually  anxiety  disorders,  substance  misuse  disorders,  or  impulse  control  disorders  
(Kendall  et  al.,  2014))  
The  spectrum  
Akiskal,  Angst  and  other  authors  have  long  supported  the  view  of  a  spectrum  of  mood  disorders.  This  
spectrum  can  be  expressed  in  two  dimensions  –  a  proportionality  dimension  ranging  from  predominant  
depression  to  predominant  mania  and  a  severity  dimension  ranging  from  normal  day-­‐‑to-­‐‑day  emotional  
states  to  psychotic  mood  states.(adapted  from  Angst  2007)  
Severity   Predominant  depression      à    _________à            Predominant    mania  
Psychotic   Psychotic  unipolar   Bipolar  2;   Bipolar  1  both   Mania   Unipolar  
depression   psychotic   depression  and   (psychotic)   mania  -­‐‑  
depression   mania  -­‐‑  psychotic   and  mild   psychotic  
depression    
Non  psychotic   Non  psychotic   Bipolar  2;  non-­‐‑ Bipolar  1  both   Mania  (non-­‐‑ Unipolar  
major  mood   unipolar  depression   psychotic   depression  and   psychotic)  and   mania  no  
disorder   depression   mania  –  non-­‐‑ mild   psychosis  
psychotic   depression  
Subthreshold/minor     Dysthymia,  recurrent     cyclothymia     hypomania  
brief  depression  
 

Personality   Characterological     Borderline      

disorders   depression  –   personality  
depressive   (affective  
poersonality   instability)  
temperament   Depressive     Cyclothymic     hyperthymic  
temperament   temperament   temperament  
Symptoms  (normal)   sadness         happiness  
No  symptoms            
(supernormal)  

©  SPMM  Course   11  
  
Akiskal  and  Pinto  (1999)  described  an  extension  to  bipolar  1  &  2  classification.    
Evolving  Spectrum  of  Bipolar  Disorders    

Bipolar  I:  Manic-­‐‑depressive  illness    

Bipolar  I  1/2:  Depression  with  protracted  hypomania    
Bipolar  II:  Depression  with  spontaneous  hypomanic  episodes    
Bipolar  II  1/2:  Depression  superimposed  on  cyclothymic  temperament    
Bipolar  III:  Recurrent  depression,  plus  hypomania  occurring  solely  in  association  with  antidepressant  or  
other  somatotherapy    
Bipolar  III  1/2:  Mood  swings  that  persist  beyond  stimulant  and/or  alcohol  abuse    
           Bipolar  IV:  Depression  superimposed  on  a  hyperthymic  temperament  
 
Note  that  DSM-­‐‑V  now  includes  an  emphasis  on  changes  in  activity  and  energy  as  well  as  mood,  when  
making  a  diagnosis  of  manic  and  hypomanic  episodes.  
 
Is  there  a  prodrome  for  bipolar  disorder?  
A  predominantly  insidious  prodrome  (>1  year)  is  seen  in  more  than  half  of  the  patients;  acute  
presentations  with  less  than  1  month  of  prodrome  were  very  rare;  subacute  was  more  common  than  acute  
but  less  common  than  insidious  prodromes.  The  prodrome  duration  did  not  differ  between  those  with  
psychotic  and  nonpsychotic  mania.  Attenuated  positive  symptoms  and  increased  energy/goal-­‐‑directed  
activity  were  significantly  more  common  in  the  prodrome  of  patients  with  later  psychotic  mania.  For  
mania  and  schizophrenia,  the  prodromal  characteristics  overlapped  considerably.  However,  
subsyndromal  unusual  ideas  were  significantly  more  likely  part  of  the  schizophrenia  prodrome;  
obsessions/compulsions,  suicidality,  difficulty  thinking/communicating  clearly,  depressed  mood,  
decreased  concentration/memory,  tiredness/lack  of  energy,  mood  lability,  and  physical  agitation  were  
more  likely  part  of  the  mania  prodrome.  
Ambelas  confirmed  that  there  was  a  strong  correlation  between  stressful  life  events  and  first  manic  
admissions.  This  lessens  as  the  illness  progresses.  This  is  particularly  true  for  younger  bipolar  patients  and  
is  significantly  linked  to  mania  and  not  depression.  Sleep  reduction  may  be  a  final  common  pathway  to  
mania.  
Prognosis  of  bipolar  disorder:  
Diagnostic  stability:  Approximately  40%  of  patients  with  bipolar  disorder  get  misdiagnosed  previously  
as  having  unipolar  depressive  disorder  initially.  But  once  a  diagnosis  is  made  the  stability  of  bipolar  
disorder  has  generally  been  reported  to  be  high,  ranging  from  70%  to  91%.  In  bipolar  disorder,  bipolar  I  is  
more  stable  than  bipolar  II  just  because  bipolar  II  may  switch  to  bipolar  I,  but  not  vice  versa.    
Course:  Median  time  to  recover  from  mania  (treated)  is  around  4-­‐‑5  weeks.  The  course  specifiers  in  DSM  
include  chronicity  (with  or  without  full  interepisode  recovery),  seasonality,  and  rapid  cycling.    Around  56%  
bipolar  patients  display  a  specific  pattern  of  predominant  polarity;  60%  of  those  may  be  classified  as  
predominantly  depressed  (with  at  least  two-­‐‑thirds  of  past  episodes  fulfilling  criteria  for  major  depression),  
whereas  40%  may  be  classified  as  predominantly  manic  or  hypomanic.  
 

©  SPMM  Course   12  
Depressive  polarity   Manic  polarity  
Around  1/3rd  of  bipolar  patients     Around  1/4th  of  bipolar  patients  
More  in  bipolar  2   More  bipolar  1  
Onset  is  with  depressive  episode  often;  somewhat   Onset  is  often  with  mania;  earlier  age  
later  age  
More  seasonality   Less  seasonal;    
More  suicide  attempts   More  substance  use  
Better  response  to  Lamotrigine  on  longer  term   Better  response  to  antipsychotics  in  long  term  
More  exposure  to  antidepressants    
(From  Vieta  &  Phillips,  2007)  
 
Mortality:  Suicide  rates  in  people  with  bipolar  disorder  is  estimated  to  be  around  10%  -­‐‑  19%.  This  is  
15  times  that  of  the  general  population  At  least  a  quarter  will  attempt  suicide.  This  is  higher  than  that  seen  
in  unipolar  depression.  The  depressed  phase  of  bipolar  disorder  is  linked  to  about  80%  of  suicide  attempts  
and  completed  suicides.  Mortality  rates  from  natural  causes  (mainly  vascular  disease)  are  also  increased  in  
people  with  bipolar  disorder  (Mitchell  et  al.,  2004)  
 
Recurrence  &  recovery:  .According  to  NICE,  the  risk  of  recurrence  in  the  year  after  a  mood  episode    in  
patients  with  bipolar  disorders  is  especially  high  (50%  in  one  year  and  >70%  at  four  years)  compared  with  
other  psychiatric  disorders  (Kendall  et  al.,  2014)  
 
Bipolar  1  vs.  2:    Bipolar  II  disorder  is  often  thought  of  as  a  milder  expression  of  bipolar  disorder.  However,  
it  is  only  milder  in  its  severity  of  manic  symptoms  as  hypomania  is  less  severe  than  mania.  Patients  with  
bipolar  type  II  disorder  suffer  more  depressed  days  than  patients  with  bipolar  type  I  disorder  over  time.  
According  to  prospective  studies,    bipolar  II  patients  experienced  mood  symptoms  54%  of  the  time  
compared  with  47%  in  bipolar  I  patients.  For  both  bipolar  I  and  bipolar  II  patients,  those  mood  symptoms  
were  dominated  by  depressive  versus  manic  symptoms,  although  bipolar  II  patients  experienced  more  
depressive  symptoms  (93%)  than  bipolar  I  patients  (67%).  This  finding  may  explain  the  increased  
suicidality  rates  and  poor  functional  recovery  observed  among  bipolar  2  patients  (Keck,  2007).  
Relapse  indicators:    
§ Perlis  et  al.  (STEP-­‐‑BD)  found  that  the  biggest  predictor  of  relapse  was  residual  symptoms,  and  the  
majority  of  relapses  were  into  depression.    
§ Index  phase  may  have  a  bearing  on  relapse  and  overall  outcome.  Patients  with  a  depressive  index  
phase  spent  the  highest  proportion  of  time  being  ill  (~65%  of  the  time),  especially  with  depression  
in  both  bipolar  1  and  2  types.  Patients  with  a  manic  index  phase  spent  the  smallest  proportion  of  
time  ill  (30%  time  nearly),  especially  in  depressive  states  (n=  191,  18m  follow  up.  Mantere  et  al.,  
2008).  
§ Sleep  disruption  is  often  the  ‘final  common  pathway’  triggering  mania  and  depression:  stressors  
that  lead  to  reduced  sleep  may  contribute  to  relapse.  Sleep  disturbance  may  also  be  a  sign  of  relapse  
having  occurred  and  a  hypomanic  state  having  set  in.  Social  and  circadian  rhythm  disruptions  are  
strongly  linked  to  bipolar  relapses.    

©  SPMM  Course   13  
 § Comorbidities  often  contribute  to  relapses.  A  current  substance  use  disorder  increases  the  risk  of  
manic  relapse  while  a  current  anxiety  diagnosis  was  associated  with  increased  risk  of  a  depressive  
relapse  but  not  manic  relapse  (Perlis,  2005).  Alcoholism  is  the  commonest  significant  clinical  co-­‐‑
morbidity  in  Europe.  
Switch:  
Antidepressant-­‐‑induced  mania  is  called  as  ‘switch’.  This  is  a  short-­‐‑term  phenomenon  and  takes  place  soon  
after  starting  antidepressants  (Ghaemi  empirically  defines  it  as  happening  within  2  months  of  
antidepressant  treatment).  ‘Mood  destabilization’  is  a  long-­‐‑term  phenomenon  wherein  antidepressants  
result  in  increased  frequency  of  mood  episodes  over  time  than  would  have  occurred  in  the    natural  course.  
Antidepressants  may  cause  long-­‐‑term  mood  destabilization  without  a  short-­‐‑term  manic  switch,  and  vice  
versa.  In  spite  of  having  low  rates  of  acute  manic  switch,  new  generation  of  antidepressants  can  produce  
long-­‐‑term  mood  destabilization  –  as  suggested  by  the  results  of  STEP-­‐‑BD  trial  (Ghaemi,  2008)  
Antidepressant-­‐‑induced  mania/hypomania  has  been  reported  with  all  major  antidepressant  classes  in  a  
subgroup  of  about  20-­‐‑40%  of  bipolar  patients.  Lithium  may  confer  better  protection  against  this  outcome  
when  compared  with  other  standard  mood  stabilizers,  although  switch  rates  have  been  reported  with  
comparable  frequencies  on  or  off  mood  stabilizers.  Mood  switches  were  less  frequent  in  patients  receiving  
lithium  (15%)  than  in  patients  not  treated  with  lithium  (44%)  in  a  small  naturalistic  study.    
Risk  factors  for  antidepressant-­‐‑induced  switch  includes      
(i) previous  antidepressant-­‐‑induced  manias,  
(ii) a  bipolar  family  history,  and    
(iii) exposure  to  multiple  antidepressant  trials  and    
(iv) initial  illness  beginning  in  adolescence  or  young  adulthood.    
The  switch  can  also  occur  from  mania  to  depression  when  treated  with  antimanic  agents.  Typical  
antipsychotics  are  more  likely  to  result  in  patients  switching  from  mania  into  depression.  Evidence  in  this  
area  is  very  limited,  but  BAP  guidelines  quote  data  from  the  lamotrigine/  lithium/  placebo  trials  
suggesting  that  the  risk  of  relapse  of  the  index  episode  was  higher  than  the  risk  of  switching  during  
treatment.  
Differentiating  bipolar  and  unipolar  depression:  
Very  few  significant  differences  have  been  noted,  but  these  are  not  consistent  across  studies.  It  is  thought  
that  bipolar  depression  has  a  shorter  natural  course  though  this  is  not  clearly  proven.  
Unipolar  depression   Bipolar  depression  
More  anxiety   Lesser  anxiety  
More  somatic  complaints   Fewer  physical  complaints  
Less  withdrawal   More  withdrawal  
Lesser  degree  of  retardation   More  retardation  
Insomnia   Hypersomnia  
Less  atypicality   More  atypical  symptoms  
Psychomotor  differences  have  largely  been  identified  in  inpatient  studies,  and  may  not  be  as  useful  
among  less  severely  ill  outpatients.  Higher  family  history  of  bipolar  disorder  suggests  bipolar  depression;  
the  presence  of  psychotic  depression  in  early  adulthood  is  also  suggestive  of  bipolar  disorder.  
 
Rapid  cycling:  
©  SPMM  Course   14  
The  phenomenon  of  rapid  cycling  involves  experiencing  ≥4  episodes/year.  This  includes  both  depression  
and  mania.  Rapid  cycling  can  appear  and  disappear  at  any  time  during  the  clinical  course  of  bipolar  
disorder.  Patients  who  have  ≥4  episodes/month  are  considered  ultra-­‐‑rapid  cyclers  and  those  who  switch  
within  a  day  on  ≥4  days/week  are  termed  ultra-­‐‑ultra  rapid  or  ultradian  cyclers.  20%  of  bipolar  patients  
had  rapid  cycling  in  STEP-­‐‑BD  cohort.  Women  were  more  likely  to  be  rapid  cyclers  than  men  (nearly  80%  
of  all  rapid  cyclers  are  women).  Rapid  cyclers  had  an  earlier  onset  of  illness  than  non-­‐‑rapid  cyclers.  Rapid  
cyclers  had  more  severe  depression  and  mania  and  had  lower  global  functioning  (Schneck  et  al  2004).    It  is  
controversial  whether  bipolar  2  patients  have  a  higher  proportion  of  rapid  cycling.  STEP  BD  reported  both  
bipolar  1  and  2  having  an  equal  incidence  of  rapid  cycling,  but  Kupka  (2003)  in  a  meta-­‐‑analysis  reported  
that  bipolar  2  patients  have  more  rapid  cycling  spells.  
Current  hypothyroidism  and  poor  response  to  lithium  (especially  the  depressive  component)  are  also  
associated  with  rapid  cycling.  
Secondary  mania:  
Secondary  mania  due  to  organic  brain  damage  (especially  right  hemisphere)  is  more  common  in  the  
elderly.  L-­‐‑Dopa  and  corticosteroids  are  the  most  common  prescribed  medications  associated  with  
secondary  mania.  In  stimulant  or  other  street  drugs  induced  mania,  if  the  mood  state  significantly  outlasts  
the  drugged  state  then  a  diagnosis  of  bipolar  disorder  can  be  made.  Hypothyroidism  creates  a  picture  akin  
to  depression;  in  hyperthyroid  state  one  may  present  as  hypomanic  or  agitated  depressed.  
Mania  vs.  hypomania:  
Note  that  the  difference  between  mania  and  hypomania  lies  in  the  degree  of  functional  impairment.  The  
need  for  hospitalisation  can  be  considered  as  a  proxy  of  functional  deterioration.  The  duration  criteria  of  4  
days  for  hypomania  and  7  days  for  mania  in  DSM  is  quite  arbitrary;  follow-­‐‑up  studies  have  shown  that  
most  hypomanic  episodes  in  bipolar  2  lasts  for  less  than  4  days.    
 
Evidence-­‐‑Based  Treatment  (as  per  NICE  CG185,  updated  2014  and  BAP  recommendations)  
 
Treatment  of  acute  de  novo  mania:  
Ø Antipsychotics  (haloperidol,  olanzapine,  quetiapine,  or  risperidone)    must  be  used  first  line  in  the  
previously  untreated  because  of  their  rapid  anti-­‐‑manic  effect.  .  Do  not  offer  lamotrigine  to  treat  
mania  (New  recommendation).  
Ø If  the  patient  is  already  on  an  antidepressant  monotherapy:  Consider  stopping  the  antidepressant  
first;  then  offer  an  antipsychotic  regardless  of  whether  the  antidepressant  is  stopped.  (New  
recommendation.)  
Ø Adjunctive  benzodiazepine,  such  as  clonazepam  or  lorazepam  can  be  used  for  agitation  and  
insomnia.  RCTs  in  people  with  bipolar  type  I  disorder  experiencing  a  manic  episode  suggest  that  
clonazepam  may  be  as  effective  as  lithium  in  improving  manic  symptoms  at  1–4  weeks.  But  
guidelines  do  not  recommend  it  as  monotherapy.  
Acute  manic  relapse  in  a  known  bipolar  patient:  
Ø Increasing  the  dose  of  mood  stabiliser  must  be  the  first  option.  

©  SPMM  Course   15  
 Ø Check  serum  lithium  levels  and  consider  establishing  a  higher  serum  level  if  compliance  is  good.  If  
the  person  is  already  on  lithium,  optimise  plasma  levels  first;  then  consider  adding  haloperidol,  
olanzapine,  quetiapine,  or  risperidone  
Ø Antipsychotic  augmentation  can  also  be  done  for  patients  on  valproate.  
Ø ECT  may  be  considered  for  severely  ill  manic  patients,  treatment-­‐‑resistant  mania,  for  those  who  
prefer  ECT  and  patients  with  severe  mania  during  pregnancy.  
Ø For  psychosis  during  a  manic  or  mixed  episode  that  is  not  congruent  with  severe  affective  
symptoms,  antipsychotics  must  be  used.  
Carbamazepine  is  associated  with  a  risk  of  hyponatraemia  –  often  higher  than  other  psychotropics.  This  is  
related  to  SIADH.  In  some  cases,  carbamazepine  has  been  used  to  treat  diabetes  insipidus  (not  when  it  is  
lithium  related).  Oxcarbazepine,  a  related  drug,  has  3-­‐‑5%  risk  which  is  even  higher  than  carbamazepine.  
Treating  bipolar  depression:  
Ø NICE  suggests  offering  a  psychological  intervention  specific  for  all  bipolar  depression  or  high-­‐‑
intensity  psychological  intervention  for  depressive  disorder  as  the  first  line.  
Ø NICE  also  states  that  “If  a  person  develops  moderate  or  severe  bipolar  depression  and  is  not  
taking  a  drug  to  treat  the  disorder,  offer  fluoxetine  combined  with  olanzapine,  or  quetiapine  on  its  
own,  depending  on  the  person’s  preference  and  previous  response  to  treatment”.    The  second  step  
is  offering  Lamotrigine.  Any  of  the  three  can  be  used  (including  olanzapine  on  its  own,  but  not  
fluoxetine  on  its  own)  if  the  patient  prefers  so.  
Maintenance  treatment:  
Ø BAP  guidelines  recommend  long-­‐‑term  treatment  (relapse  prevention/maintenance)  following  a  
single  severe  manic  episode  (i.e.  diagnosis  of  bipolar  I  disorder).  Long-­‐‑term  treatment  even  if  does  
not  control  all  relapses,  can  make  them  less  severe.    
Ø NICE  recommends  using  long-­‐‑term  maintenance  treatment    
• after  a  manic  episode  involving  significant  risk  and  adverse  consequences  
• bipolar  I  disorder  with  two  or  more  acute  episodes  
• Bipolar  II  disorder  with  significant  functional  impairment,  or  risk.  
Ø Lithium  monotherapy  is  the  first  line.  It  is  probably  effective  against  both  manic  and  depressive  
relapse,  although  it  is  more  effective  in  preventing  mania.  Lithium  is  also  associated  with  a  
reduced  risk  of  suicide  in  bipolar  disorder.  
Ø Lithium  maintenance  responders’  profile:  Euphoric  mania,  no  rapid  cycling,  full  interepisode  
remission,  no  comorbidity,  no  psychotic  features,  fewer  lifetime  episodes,  mania-­‐‑depression-­‐‑
euthymia  course.  
Ø Other  options  include:  
Ø Valproate  -­‐‑  probably  prevents  manic  and  depressive  relapse    
Ø Olanzapine-­‐‑  prevents  manic  more  than  depressive  relapse    
Ø Quetiapine  –  especially  if  it  was  effective  during  an  acute  episode  
Ø Carbamazepine    -­‐‑  less  effective  than  lithium  but  may  be  used  as  monotherapy  
Ø Lamotrigine  -­‐‑  prevents  depressive  more  than  manic  relapse.  
Managing  mixed  episodes:  

©  SPMM  Course   16  
 Ø Must  be  treated  as  manic  episodes.  Avoid  antidepressants  if  possible.  Higher  risk  of  suicide  may  
be  present.  No  single  agent  with  clear  superiority  in  mixed  episodes.  The  best  evidence  for  efficacy  
in  treating  mixed  episodes  is  for  valproate,  which  has  been  shown  to  be  more  effective  than  
lithium  or  placebo  (Mitchell  et  al.,  2004).  
Ø Atypical  antipsychotics  have  also  been  shown  to  be  effective.  Monotherapy  may  be  insufficient,  
and  patients  may  require  combination  treatment.  Subgroup  analysis  of  olanzapine  vs.  placebo  in  
prophylaxis  for  bipolar  revealed  olanzapine  treatment  significantly  lengthened  the  time  to  relapse  
in  patients  with  a  mixed  index  episode.  For  this  mixed  subgroup,  estimated  median  time  to  bipolar  
relapse  was  46  days  for  olanzapine  and  15  days  for  placebo.  But  no  specific  recommendations  can  
be  made  using  this  secondary  analysis.  
Managing  rapid  cycling:  
Ø Hypothyroidism  or  substance  misuse  may  contribute  to  rapid  cycling.  These  must  be  managed.  
Ø Antidepressants  may  contribute  and  so  should  be  discontinued.  
Ø Suboptimal  medication  regimes,  the  effects  of  lithium  withdrawal,  and  erratic  compliance  must  
also  be  considered  when  treating  rapid  cycling  (NICE)  
Ø For  initial  treatment  of  rapid  cycling  lithium,  valproate  or  lamotrigine  could  be  considered.  
 
NICE  guidelines  for  bipolar  disorder  (2014  update)  -­‐‑  summary:  
NICE  guidelines  for  bipolar  disorder  –  summary  

Ø Encourages  routine  enquiry  about  hypomania  in  those  who  see  GPs  with  
depression.  
Ø Avoiding  excessive  stimulation  –  delaying  important  decisions–  calming  activities  –  
a  structured  routine  with  a  lower  activity  level  must  be  advised  for  all  patients  
during  an  acute  manic  episode  
Ø Rapid  cycling  episodes  must  be  managed  in  secondary  care  
Ø Avoid  antidepressants  for  patients  who  have  rapid-­‐‑cycling  bipolar  disorder,  a  
recent  hypomanic  episode  and  recent  functionally  impairing  rapid  mood  
fluctuations.  
Ø For  mixed  episodes  consider  treating  patients  as  if  they  had  an  acute  manic  episode,  
and  avoid  prescribing  an  antidepressant.  
Ø Maintenance  should  be  continued  for  at  least  2  years  after  an  episode  of  bipolar  
disorder  or  up  to  5  years  if  the  person  has  high-­‐‑risk  factors  for  relapse.  
Ø In  paediatric  bipolar  disorder,  use  as  first  line  an  atypical  antipsychotic  to  treat  
mania.    
 
 
Interestingly  though  BAP  and  NICE  endorse  adjunctive  antidepressant  use  in  bipolar  depression,  data  
from  STEP_BD  suggest  otherwise.  In  a  pragmatic  26  weeks  RCT,  179  bipolar  depressed  patients  were  
randomised  to  receive  adjunctive  antidepressants  (paroxetine  and  bupropion)  or  placebo  together  with  
the  mood  stabilizers  they  were  already  on.  The  main  outcome  analysed  was  8weeks  consecutive  euthymia.  
Nearly  24%  of  the  antidepressant  group  achieved  primary  outcome  while  27%  of  the  placebo  group  
achieved  the  same.10%  in  both  groups  had  a  ‘switch’  to  mania  (Sachs  et  al.  2007).  

©  SPMM  Course   17  
Tricyclic  antidepressants  carry  a  greater  risk  of  precipitating  a  switch  to  mania  than  other  antidepressants.  
As  depressive  episodes  tend  to  be  shorter  than  in  unipolar  disorder  antidepressants  may  be  discontinued  
after  3-­‐‑4  months.  
Antidepressant-­‐‑associated  chronic  irritable  dysphoria  develops  in  some  bipolar  patients  who  have  received  
antidepressants  over  long  periods;  it  may  be  the  bipolar  equivalent  of  the  antidepressant  tachyphylaxis  
(‘poop-­‐‑out’)  seen  in  unipolar  depression.  A  triad  of  irritability,  middle  insomnia  (restless  sleep  or  night-­‐‑
time  awakening),  and  dysphoria  is  often  seen.  Discontinuation  of  the  antidepressant  usually  results  in  
slow  resolution  of  these  symptoms  without  any  worsening  of  the  depressive  symptoms  (El-­‐‑Mallakh  &  
Karippot,  2006)    
Vigabatrin  is  an  antiepileptic  with  no  proven  efficacy  in  bipolar.  It  is  associated  with  visual  field  defects  as  
a  side  effect.  It  can  also  cause  psychosis.  Similarly,  topiramate  and  phenytoin  have  no  place  in  the  
treatment  of  bipolar  disorder.  
 
What  is  a  mood  stabiliser?  
There  is  no  clear  definition  for  a  mood  stabiliser.  Antiepileptics  and  lithium  are  commonly  called  as  mood  
stabilisers.  Bauer  et  al.  proposed  that  an  agent  be  considered  a  mood  stabilizer  if  it  has  efficacy  in  each  of  
four  distinct  uses:  1)  treatment  of  acute  manic  symptoms,  2)  treatment  of  acute  depressive  symptoms,  3)  
prevention  of  manic  symptoms,  and  4)  prevention  of  depressive  symptoms.  According  to  their  analysis,  
only  lithium  was  eligible  to  be  called  a  mood  stabiliser.    
Suicide  prevention:  
For  hospital  admitted  patients,  the  suicide  risk  is  around  10%  over  long-­‐‑term  follow-­‐‑up.  Based  on  
naturalistic  comparison  of  patient  cohorts,  the  findings  from  different  centres  
Consistently  report  that  lithium  could  have  a  suicide  prevention  effect.  The  treatment  effect  is  very  large  
for  this  finding.  (Geddes  2003).    
 
Cognitive  behavioural  therapy  for  bipolar  disorder  includes  following  components:  
°  Psycho-­‐‑education.  °  Self-­‐‑monitoring  °  Self-­‐‑regulation:  action  plans  and  modification  of  behaviours  °  
Increased  compliance  
 
Children  and  adolescents:  NICE  recognises  the  possibility  of  bipolar  disorder  in  those  under  18;  NICE  
encourages  the  use  of  adult  diagnostic  criteria  except  that:  
§ Mania  must  be  present  for  diagnosing  BPAD  
§ Euphoria  must  be  present  most  days,  most  of  the  time  (for  7  days)  
§ Irritability  is  not  a  core  diagnostic  criterion.  It  can  be  helpful  in  adolescents  if  it  is  episodic,  severe,  
impairs  function  and  is  not  in  keeping  or  out  of  character.  
 
 
 
 
 

©  SPMM  Course   18  
 3. Schizophrenia & Psychotic disorders
 
Epidemiology:    
Incidence  In  1986,  WHO  published  results  from  7  countries;  ICD  9  schizophrenia  was  16  to  42  per  100,000.  
Using  narrow  criteria,  it  was  7  to  14  per  100,000.  It  showed  considerable  between  sites  variation.  McGrath  
et  al.  has  showed  a  five-­‐‑fold  difference  in  the  incidence  rates  of  schizophrenia  across  various  sites.  Being  
urban  born  increases  the  risk  of  schizophrenia  two-­‐‑fold  compared  to  rural  born  individuals.    
Living  in  the  city  is  also  noted  to  increase  the  incidence  of  schizophrenia.  The  incidence  of  
schizophrenia  is  3  to  5  times  more  common  in  migrants  than  native  population;  this  becomes  1.8  when  
considering  prevalence  rates.  Winter/spring  birth  increases  the  risk  of  schizophrenia  to  a  small  extent  
(RR  1.11);  but  as  prevalence  of  birth  itself  is  common  in  winter/spring,  10.5%  of  all  schizophrenia  
incidences  can  be  attributed  to  the  seasonal  birth.    
Irrespective  of  broad  or  narrow  definition,  the  incidence  of  schizophrenia  has  definitely  increased  in  
certain  urban  areas  over  last  40  years.  Boydell  et  al.  (BJP,  2003;  182,  45  -­‐‑49)  demonstrated  a  large  increase  
in  Camberwell  between  1965  and  1997  using  case  record  analyses.  The  male:  a  female  difference  in  the  
incidence  of  schizophrenia  is  estimated  to  be  around  1.4:1,  with  more  males  being  diagnosed  with  the  
disease.  The  male  excess  persists  even  when  factors  such  as  age  range  and  diagnostic  criteria  are  taken  
into  account.  
 
Prevalence  The  median  prevalence  of  schizophrenia  is  estimated  4.6/1,000  for  point  prevalence,  3.3/1,000  
for  period  prevalence,  4.0/1000  for  lifetime  prevalence  (not  1%  as  quoted  in  DSM  manual),  and  7.2/1000  for  
lifetime  morbid  risk  (Saha  et  al.,  2004).  There  were  no  significant  differences  between  males  and  females,  
or  between  urban,  rural,  and  mixed  sites,  although  migrants  and  homeless  people  had  higher  rates  of  
schizophrenia  and,  not  surprisingly,  developing  countries  had  lower  prevalence  rates  (as  previously  
documented).    As  it  is  well  known  that  outcome  is  better  in  developing  nations,  point  prevalence  must  be  
low  as  a  corollary,  as  it  was  shown  by  Saha  et  al.  Of  note,  catatonia  was  10%  in  developing  vs.  1%  in  
developed  nations;  hebephrenia  was  13%  in  developed  vs.  4%  in  developing  nations.  
 
AESOP  study  concluded  that  all  psychoses  are  more  common  in  the  black  and  minority  ethnic  group  
compared  to  White  population  in  Bristol,  south-­‐‑east  London  and  Nottingham  (crude  IRR,  3.6  [95%  CI,  3.0-­‐‑
4.2]).  Differences  in  age,  sex,  and  study  center  accounted  for  approximately  a  quarter  of  this  effect  
(adjusted  IRR,  2.9  [95%  CI,  2.4-­‐‑3.5]).  The  age-­‐‑sex  standardized  incidence  rate  for  all  psychoses  was  higher  
in  Southeast  London  (IRR,  49.4  [95%  CI,  43.6-­‐‑55.3])  than  Nottingham  (IRR,  23.9  [95%  CI,  20.6-­‐‑27.2])  or  
Bristol  (IRR,  20.4  [95%  CI,  15.1-­‐‑25.7]).  
 
Surveys  of  psychotic  symptoms  in  general  population  
ONS  2000  Psychiatric  morbidity  survey  from  apparently  healthy  individuals  in  private  households  
revealed  that  5.5%  endorsed  at  least  one  psychosis  item  in  a  validated  questionnaire.  4.2%  endorsed  
hallucination  item  (Johns,  LC  BJPsych  2004  185:  298-­‐‑305)  This  4.2%  of  the  sample  said  that  there  had  been  

©  SPMM  Course   19  
 times  when  they  heard  or  saw  things  that  other  people  could  not,  but  only  0.7%  reported  hearing  voices  
saying  quite  a  few  words  or  sentences  when  there  was  no-­‐‑one  around  that  might  account  for  it.  
While  4%  of  the  White  British  sample  endorsed  a  hallucination  question,  hallucinations  were  2.5-­‐‑fold  
higher  in  the  Caribbean  sample  and  half  as  common  in  the  South  Asian  sample.  (Johns  et  al.,  2002).  
 
  Gender   Migration   Urbanicity   Trend   Economic  status   Latitude  

Core   M>F   Migrant>       Urban>   Falling   Developed  =  Less   High  >  Lower  
Incidence   Native   Rural/Mixed   over  time   developed   latitude  in  males  
Prevalence     M=F   Migrant>   Urban  =   Stable   Developed>Less   High  >  Lower  
Native   Rural/Mixed   developed   latitude  
Standardize M=F   -­‐‑NA-­‐‑   -­‐‑NA-­‐‑   Rising   Developed  =  Less   -­‐‑NA-­‐‑  
d  Mortality   over  time   developed  
(All  causes)  

McGrath  et  al.  Epidemiol  Rev  2008;30:67–76  

 
High-­‐‑risk  prediction  studies  in  schizophrenia:    
§ It  is  thought  that  the  individuals  at  enhanced  genetic  risk  of  schizophrenia  (family  history)  inherit  a  
state  of  vulnerability  characterised  by  transient  and  partial  psychosis-­‐‑like  symptoms,  but  not  all  of  
these  develop  florid  schizophrenia.    
§ According  to  Edinburgh  High  Risk  Study  (Johnstone  et  al.,  2005),  the  10%  risk  present  in  those  with  
high  risk  family  history  increases  to  nearly  50%  in  those  subgroup  who  have  high  score  on  schizotypal  
cognition  and  social  withdrawal  characterised  by  introversion  and  anxiety.  Measures  of  episodic  
memory  are  also  proposed  to  be  significantly  discriminating  between  those  with  high  risk  who  
develop  schizophrenia  from  those  who  do  not;  this  is  suggestive  of  temporal  lobe  dysfunction.  It  is  
also  shown  that  temporal  lobe  volume  deteriorate  with  the  passage  of  time  in  those  with  psychotic  
symptoms  (this  is  controversial).  
§ In  an  Australian  PACE  clinic  sample,  twenty  of  49  ultra  high-­‐‑risk  subjects  (40.8%)  developed  a  
psychotic  disorder  within  12  months.    Some  highly  significant  predictors  of  psychosis  were  found:  
long  duration  of  prodromal  symptoms,  poor  functioning  at  intake,  low-­‐‑grade  psychotic  symptoms,  
depression  and  disorganization.  
§ In  German  sample  using  Bonn  Basic  Symptoms  criteria,  a  very  high  conversion  rate  was  seen  in  help-­‐‑
seeking  individuals  in  a  long  follow-­‐‑up  period  of  nearly  10  years.    The  Bonn  Scale  has  5  symptom  
clusters  of  which  the  presence  of  thought,  language,  perception,  and  motor  disturbances  showed  a  
significantly  greater  predictive  discrimination  than  any  other  cluster.  
§ The  NAPLS  –  North  American  Prodrome  Longitudinal  study:  The  ultrahigh  risk  UHR  criteria  predict  
an  early  transition  to  psychosis  (with  a  huge  relative  risk  of  405  compared  with  the  incident  rate  of  
psychotic  disorders  in  the  general  population  the  predictive  power  can  be  enhanced  by  the  use  of  key  
variables  such  as  genetic  risk,  functional  impairment,  and  higher  levels  of  psychopathology  at  baseline  
(especially  odd  beliefs  and  suspiciousness).    Substance  use  (but  not  a  specific  class  of  substance  per  se)  

©  SPMM  Course   20  
 also  increased  the  predictive  value,  but  the  former  3  variables  together  nearly  doubled  the  predictive  
power.    
 
Delusional  disorders    
Delusional  disorder  
Incidence   0.7  –  1.3  per  100  000  
Prevalence   24  –  30  per  100  000  
Proportion  of  hospital  first  admission  cases   1  -­‐‑3%  
Mean  age  of  onset   39  years  
Sex  ratio   1.18:  1  =    M:F  
From  Kendler  1982  &  Retterstol  1966  
 
Outcome  of  schizophrenia:    Very  long-­‐‑term  follow-­‐‑ups  generally  suggest  a  more  favourable  outcome  that  
what  is  assumed  by  practicing  clinicians.  In  the  Iowa  500  study,  186  persons  with  schizophrenia  were  
followed  for  an  average  of  35  years.  Excluding  affective  or  schizoaffective  disorder,  46%  of  those  people  
with  schizophrenia  had  improved  or  recovered.    The  Bonn  Hospital  Study  (Germany)  followed  502  
persons  with  schizophrenia  for  an  average  of  22.4  years.  The  results  were  that  22%  of  the  research  
participants  had  complete  remission  of  symptoms,  43%  had  non-­‐‑characteristic  types  of  remission  
(defined  as  involving  non-­‐‑psychotic  symptoms  only)  and  35%  experienced  characteristic  schizophrenia  
residual  syndromes.  Therefore,  65%  had  a  more  favorable  outcome  than  would  have  been  expected  from  
clinical  experience.  In  Chestnut  Lodge  study,  446  patients  were  followed  for  an  average  of  15  years.  One-­‐‑
third  (36%)  were  recovered  (strict  recovery  criteria)  or  functioning  adequately.  In  Vermont  longitudinal  
study,  68%  of  patients  (n=269,  follow  up  average  32  years)  who  underwent  a  rehabilitation  programme  
had  good  functioning  as  determined  by  GAF  scale.    
 
International  Study  of  Schizophrenia  –  WHO  ISoS  (1997)  reported  on  the  follow-­‐‑up  analysis  of  two  major  
WHO  incidence  cohorts.  1st  cohort  was  part  of  IPSS  –  International  pilot  study  of  schizophrenia  while  the  
2nd  cohort  was  from  the  Determinants  of  Outcome  of  Severe  Mental  Disorder  and  the  reduction  of  
disability  study  (DOSMeD)  which  followed  IPSS  with  more  rigorous  method  and  outcome  measurement  
(n=1202,  from  9  countries.    In  total  52%  of  persons  in  the  developing  countries  (e.g.,  Columbia,  India,  
Nigeria)  were  assessed  to  be  in  the  “best”  outcome  category  (defined  as  a  single  episode  only,  followed  by  
full  or  partial  recovery)  compared  with  39%  in  the  developed  countries  (e.g.,  Moscow,  London,  
Washington,  Prague,  Aarhus  and  Denmark).  In  a  5-­‐‑year  follow-­‐‑up,  73%  of  those  participants  from  the  
developing  world  were  in  the  best  outcome  group  compared  with  52%  in  the  developed  world.  DOSMeD  
used  more  rigorous  criteria  and  followed  more  than  1,300  patients  in  10  countries  and,  similar  to  the  IPSS,  
discovered  that  the  highest  rates  of  recovery  occurred  in  the  developing  world.  DOSMeD  excluded  
mode  of  onset  being  a  confounding  factor.    Differential  follow-­‐‑up  rates,  differential  outcome  measures,  
differential  sex  and  age  distribution,  diagnostic  ambiguities  did  not  confound  the  above  results  as  proved  
later  by  Hopper  &  Wanderling  (Scz  Bulletin  2000;  26,  835-­‐‑46)  
 

©  SPMM  Course   21  
Risk  factors:  Risk  factors  is  a  broad  term  which  is  more  usefully  divided  into  risk  indicators,  which  denote  
increased  risk  but  are  not  causative,  and  risk  modifiers  which  are  associated  with  causation.  For  example,  
minor  physical  anomalies  are  risk  indicators.  Maternal  influenza,  perinatal  brain  insults,  family  history,  
etc.  are  unmodifiable  fixed  markers.  Genetic  risk  of  schizophrenia  decreases  as  one  moves  from  closer  to  
distant  relatives.  If  both  parents  have  schizophrenia,  the  risk  is  around  40  to  50%.  Social  deprivation  and  
illicit  drug  use  are  modifiable  causal  factors.    
 
The  table  below  is  adapted  from  Harrison  (2015)  Journal  of  Psychopharmacology  2015,  Vol.  29(2)  85–  
96.  This  summarizes  the  most  recent  genetic  findings  in  schizophrenia  from  GWAS  and  CNV  studies.  
Locus   Gene   Notes  
Single  Nucleotide  Polymorphisms  
12p13.33   CACNA1C  (L-­‐‑type  calcium   Important  for  neuronal  function;  mutations  cause  
channel)   Timothy  syndrome  and  Brugada  syndrome  
12q24.11   D-­‐‑amino  acid  oxidase   Enzyme  that  degrades  d-­‐‑serine  (NMDA  co-­‐‑agonist)  
1q42.2   DISC-­‐‑1  (Disrupted  in   Seen  in  a  Scottish  family  with  1:11  translocation  
schizophrenia-­‐‑1)  
11q23.2   Dopamine  D2  receptor   Target  for  antipsychotic  action  
2q33-­‐‑34   Receptor  tyrosine  kinase  erbB4   Neuregulin  1  receptor  
5q33.2   AMPA  receptor  subunit  1   Affects  synaptic  plasticity  
16p13   NMDA  receptor  subunit  2A   Influences  channel  conductance  and  synaptic  
localisation  
7q21   Metabotropic  glutamate  receptor  3   Inhibitory  autoreceptor  
1p21   Micro  RNA  137   Regulates  transcription  
8p12   Neuregulin  1   Growth  factor  
17p13   Serine  racemase   Synthesizes  d-­‐‑serine  from  l-­‐‑serine  
18q21   Transcription  factor  4   Deletion  causes  Pitt-­‐‑Hopkins  syndrome  
2q32   Zinc  finger  804A   Affects  gene  regulation  esp.  in  cortical  pyramidal  
neurons  
Copy  Number  Variations  
2p16.3  deletion   Neurexin  1   Involved  in  synaptic  structure  
7q36.3  duplication   Vasoactive  intestinal  peptide   Regulates  synaptic  transmission  in  the  hippocampus,  
receptor  2   and  development  of  neural  progenitor  cells  in  the  
dentate  gyrus  
hemi  deletion  of   Involves  COMT  coding  genes   velocardiofacial  syndrome  
22q11  
 
 
Perinatal  complications  have  stimulated  interest  as  putative  risk  factors  for  schizophrenia.  Low  birth  
weight  was  initially  implicated  as  a  risk  factor;  later  anoxic  brain  damage  at  delivery  was  implicated,  
especially  the  dose  of  hypoxia  was  correlated  to  neuronal  death.  Kendell  in  1996  showed  that  pregnancy  
induced  hypertension  increased  the  risk  of  psychosis  almost  9  fold  in  a  retrospective  study  design.  Three  
different  types  of  obstetric  events  have  been  described;  1.  Growth  related  events  e.g.  low  birth  weight,  
small  for  gestational  age  2.  Perinatal  factors  e.g.  PIH  3.  Hypoxic  events  e.g.  premature  rupture  of  
membrane.  Lewis-­‐‑Murray  scale  has  been  specifically  used  to  measure  obstetric  complications  during  
childbirth.  The  odds  ratio  from  various  studies  has  been  too  low  to  be  significant.  It  is  also  not  clear  if  
©  SPMM  Course   22  
obstetric  complications  influence  age  of  onset  independently;  also  obstetric  complications  may  be  
confounded  by  family  history  of  schizophrenia  where  difficult  perinatal  periods  may  not  be  uncommon.  
 
Cannabis  has  been  strongly  debated  in  the  aetiology  of  schizophrenia.  The  interest  more  or  less  began  
with  1960s  Swedish  conscript  study  by  Andreassen.  The  pooled  estimate  for  development  of  psychosis  
associated  with  prior  cannabis  use  is  an  odds  ratio  (OR)  of  2.1  (95%  CI:  1.7–2.5).  This  holds  regardless  of  
whether  only  studies  using  the  narrow  clinical  outcome  are  used  or  whether  studies  using  the  broad  
outcome  of  psychotic  symptoms  are  considered.    
§ Confounders  such  as  amphetamine  use  are  not  able  to  explain  the  association  by  themselves.    
§ Reverse  causality  remains  plausible  but  cannot  be  proven  i.e.  patients  do  not  smoke  cannabis  because  
they  have  psychotic  mental  state  or  distressed.    
§ In  Dunedin  cohort,  exposure  at  age  15  was  measured  against  developing  psychosis  at  age  26  and  an  
association  was  present  even  after  adjusting  for  psychotic  liability  at  age  11.    
§ A  Greek  cohort  study  examined  the  self-­‐‑medication  hypothesis  by  testing  whether  subtle  psychotic  
experiences  with  distress  would  have  stronger  associations  with  cannabis  use  than  psychotic  
experiences  without  distress.  But  stronger  associations  were  found  between  cannabis  and  psychotic  
experiences  in  the  absence  of  distress,  making  self-­‐‑medication  theory  unlikely.  Nevertheless,  there  
are  studies  that  suggest  a  bidirectional  association.    
§ Cannabis  shows  dose-­‐‑response  relationships  to  psychosis  outcome;  exposure  often  precedes  the  
outcome,  and  there  is  a  plausible  biological  mechanism  linking  the  cannabis  and  schizophrenia  either  
via  role  of  endocannabinoids  in  neurodevelopment  or  dopamine  sensitization.    
 
Psychosocial  interventions  in  schizophrenia:  
Psychosocial  interventions  in  schizophrenia  are  aimed  at  improving  functional  outcomes  and  quality  of  
life  and  not  merely  improving  PANS  or  SAPS  scores.    
Psychosocial  interventions  are  classified  as  obligatory  ones  and  voluntary  ones  by  Bauml  et  al.  The  
process  of  empowerment  of  patients  and  their  relatives  to  understand  and  accept  the  illness  and  cope  with  
it  in  a  successful  manner  is  described  as  a  basic-­‐‑level  competency.  This  is  considered  to  be  an  ‘‘obligatory-­‐‑
exercise’’  program  upon  which  additional  ‘‘voluntary-­‐‑exercise’’  programs  such  as  individual  behavioral  
therapy,  self-­‐‑assertiveness  training,  problem-­‐‑solving  training,  communication  training,  and  further  family  
therapy  interventions  can  be  built.    
Thus,  psychoeducation  becomes  the  most  basic  and  important  part  of  psychosocial  interventions  in  
schizophrenia.  The  term  ‘‘psychoeducation’’  was  first  employed  by  Anderson  and  was  used  to  describe  a  
behavioral  therapeutic  concept  consisting  of  4  elements;  briefing  the  patients  about  their  illness,  problem  
solving  training,  communication  training,  and  self-­‐‑assertiveness  training,  whereby  relatives  were  also  
included.  Cochrane  review  of  psychoeducation  demonstrates  a  reduction  in  relapse  and  improved  
compliance.  Psychoeducation  does  not  increase  suicidal  thoughts  in  patients.  It  empowers  patients  and  
helps  carers  to  act  as  cotherapists.  
Family  Therapy:  

©  SPMM  Course   23  
Brown  &  Rutter  demonstrated  that  schizophrenia  patients  in  families  with  high  expressed  emotion  were  
more  likely  to  experience  a  relapse  during  the  following  year  despite  adequate  pharmacotherapy.  Family  
therapy  reduces  relapse  rates  from  nearly  64%  to  24%  in  such  situations.  The  effectiveness  of  family  
therapy  is  more  if  the  baseline  relapse  risk  is  increased  in  the  first  place.  A  Cochrane  review  (Pharaoh  2000)  
shows  than  NNT  for  family  therapy  in  relapse  prevention  for  schizophrenia  is  around  6.  
 
Social  skills  training:  Following  the  framework  described  by  Bellack  and  Mueser,  there  are  three  forms  of  
social  skills  training:    
1. The  basic  model:  here  complex  social  repertoires  are  broken  down  into  simpler  steps,  subjected  
to  corrective  learning,  practiced  through  role  playing,  and  applied  in  natural  settings.    
2. The  social  problem-­‐‑solving  model:  This  focuses  on  improving  impairments  in  information  
processing  that  are  assumed  to  be  the  cause  of  social  skills  deficits.  The  model  targets  domains  
needing  changes  including  medication  and  symptom  management,  recreation,  basic  
conversation,  and  self-­‐‑care.    
3. The  cognitive  remediation  model:  Here  the  corrective  learning  process  begins  by  targeting  
more  fundamental  cognitive  impairments,  like  attention  or  planning.  The  assumption  is  that  if  
the  underlying  cognitive  impairment  can  be  improved,  this  learning  will  be  transferred  to  
support  more  complex  cognitive  processes,  and  the  traditional  social  skills  models  can  be  better  
learned  and  generalized  in  the  community.    
 
CBT  in  psychosis:  
Though  CBT  is  gaining  popularity  in  treating  psychotic  symptom,  clinicians  are  still  unsure  about  the  
symptoms  targeted  in  CBT.  According  to  Birchwood,  the  target  is  emotional  dysfunction  that  accompanies  
psychotic  experience  and  not  the  psychotic  symptoms  per  se.  Turkington  described  the  following  
elements  in  CBT  for  psychosis:  
1. Therapeutic  alliance  –  not  colluding  with  delusions  but  validation.  
2. Improving  medication  adherence.  
3. Providing  alternate  explanations  to  unusual  experiences  e.g.  normalisation.  
4. Decreasing  the  impact  of  positive  symptoms  e.g.  addressing  the  omnipotence  of  voice.  
5. Graded  reality  testing  using  peripheral  questioning  and  inference  chaining.    
CBT  strongly  complements  the  recovery  model  for  schizophrenia.  It  is  unclear  when  and  how  CBT  should  
be  delivered,  what  are  the  most  effective  and  essential  components  of  such  CBT,  the  reliability  of  CBT  
among  various  therapists,  what  kind  of  patient  is  the  most  suited,  etc.  
Some  trials  have  shown  reasonable  benefits  for  the  first  episode  of  psychosis  using  CBT.  Overall  
considering  CBT  in  psychosis,  thirty-­‐‑four  trials  were  included  in  a  meta-­‐‑analysis  which  concluded  
positive  beneficial  effects  for  the  target  symptom  (33  studies;  effect  size  =  0.4)  as  well  as  significant  effects  
for  positive  symptoms  (32  studies),  negative  symptoms  (23  studies),  functioning  (15  studies),  mood  (13  
studies),  and  social  anxiety  (2  studies)  with  effects  ranging  from  0.35  to  0.44.  However,  there  was  no  effect  
on  hopelessness.  Trials  in  which  raters  were  aware  of  group  allocation  had  an  inflated  effect  size  of  

©  SPMM  Course   24  
approximately  50%–100%.  Secondary  outcomes  (e.g.,  negative  symptoms)  were  also  affected,  but  the  
effect  sizes  were  not  significant.    
Vocational  rehabilitation:  
• Competitive  employment  has  been  estimated  at  less  than  20%  for  severely  mentally  ill  persons  and  is  
probably  lower  in  patients  with  schizophrenia.    
• Traditional  approaches  include  vocational  training,  voluntary  working,  clubhouses  run  by  mental  
health  service  providers,  and  sheltered  employment.    
• Supported  employment  programs,  aims  to  improve  opportunities  for  competitive  employment.  This  
follows  individual  placement  model  where  place-­‐‑  and-­‐‑  train  sequence    is  used  instead  of  the  train-­‐‑  
and  -­‐‑place  concept.  Several  common  components  across  various  models  of  supported  employment  
are  1.  including  a  goal  of  permanent  competitive  employment  2.  minimal  screening  for  employability,  
3.  avoidance  of  preoccupational  training,  4.  individualized  placement  (i.e.,  not  enclaves  or  mobile  
work  crews),  5.  time-­‐‑unlimited  support,  6.  consideration  of  client  preferences  
 
Three  randomized  controlled  trials  for  supported  employment  programs  that  had  competitive  
employment  as  the  primary  targeted  outcome  were  analysed,  and  significant  advantages  for  supported  
employment  programs  over  control  interventions  have  been  demonstrated.  The  unweighted  mean  of  
patients  in  supported  employment  programs  for  obtaining  competitive  employment  was  65%  whereas  the  
corresponding  rate  for  patients  in  the  control  conditions  was  26%.  
 
Prognosis  and  recovery  in  schizophrenia:  
Relapse  &  recovery  after  a  psychotic  episode  
 
27%  of  patients  with  a  first  episode  of  psychosis  have  a  relapse  within  one  year  irrespective  of  
antipsychotic  treatment.  
61%  of  patients  with  a  first  episode  of  psychosis  have  a  relapse  within  one  year  if  receiving  
placebo  and  not  antipsychotics.  
48%  of  patients  with  five  or  more  previous  episodes  relapse  within  one  year  irrespective  of  
antipsychotic  treatment  
87%  of  patients  with  five  or  more  previous  episodes  have  a  relapse  within  one  year  if  receiving  
placebo  and  not  antipsychotics.  
40%  of  all  patients  relapse  within  one  year  in  spite  of  taking  antipsychotic  drugs;    
62%  of  patients  living  in  a  stressful  environment  relapse  within  one  year  in  spite  of  taking  
antipsychotic  drugs.  
19%    relapse  within  one  year  if  antipsychotics  and  family  education  are  combined;    
20%  relapse  within  one  year  if  antipsychotics  and  social  skills  training  are  combined;    
Recovery  at  15-­‐‑25  years  as  defined  by  GAF>60    is  seen  in  37.8%  of  patients  with  schizophrenia  and  
54.8%  of  patients  with  other  psychoses  
Adapted  from  Byrne,  P.    Managing  the  acute  psychotic  episode.  BMJ,  2007;  334(7595):  686  -­‐‑  692.  
 

©  SPMM  Course   25  
Suicide:  
A  meta-­‐‑analysis  of  61  studies  by  Palmer  et  al.  has  estimated  lifetime  suicide  prevalence  in  those  observed  
from  first  admission  or  illness  onset  with  schizophrenia  as  5.6%  (95%  confidence  interval,  3.7%-­‐‑8.5%).  
Most  of  these  suicides  occur  within  few  years  of  the  illness  onset.    Non-­‐‑fatal  acts  of  self-­‐‑harm  are  also  
increased,  with  a  study  of  people  with  chronic  schizophrenia  finding  that  38%  had  at  least  one  episode  of  
self-­‐‑harm  in  a  2-­‐‑  to  12-­‐‑year  follow-­‐‑up  period.  
Mortality  rates:  
The  median  standardised  mortality  rate  for  schizophrenia  patients  was  2.58,  with  no  obvious  sex  
difference.  Suicide  was  associated  with  the  highest  SMR  (12.86);  however,  most  of  the  major  causes-­‐‑of-­‐‑
death  categories  were  found  to  be  elevated  in  people  with  schizophrenia.  The  SMRs  for  all-­‐‑cause  mortality  
have  increased  during  recent  decades  (P  =  .03).  Considering  that  (1)  case  fatality  rates  (i.e.  ‘deadliness’  of  
schizophrenia)  for  schizophrenia  did  not  significantly  differ  among  the  decades  and  (2)  standardized  
mortality  rates  are  generally  decreasing  in  most  nations,  increasing  SMR  in  schizophrenia  suggests  that  
people  with  schizophrenia  have  not  fully  benefited  from  the  improvements  in  health  outcomes  available  
to  the  general  population.  As  mortality  rates  in  the  general  population  decreased  over  time  at  a  faster  rate  
than  those  for  people  with  schizophrenia,  the  SMRs  for  people  with  schizophrenia  have  increased  over  
time.  This  suggests  that  the  differential  mortality  gap  has  widened  over  time.  Of  note  is  the  fact  that  the  
SMRs  in  schizophrenia  did  not  differ  by  economic  status.  
  Prognostic  predictors:  
The  prognostic  significance  of  schizophrenia  subtypes  employed  in  current  classificatory  systems  is  
controversial.  In  fact,  well  designed  longitudinal  studies  exploring  the  prognostic  differences  among  the  
subtypes  are  scarce.  Despite  this  DSM-­‐‑IV  text  revision  asserts  that  these  subtypes  have  sufficient  
prognostic  value  to  be  retained.  The  paranoid  and  catatonic  subtypes  of  schizophrenia  have  the  best  
outcome;  disorganised  (hebephrenic)  subtype  has  the  worst  prognosis.  The  undifferentiated  type  has  an  
intermediate  prognosis.  Subtyping  and  rediagnosis  of  187  schizophrenic  patients  from  the  Chestnut  Lodge  
follow-­‐‑up  study  (19  years  long)  throws  some  light  on  this  issue.  Paranoid  schizophrenia  had  an  older  age  
at  onset,  often  developed  rapidly  in  individuals  with  good  premorbid  functioning,  tended  to  be  
intermittent  during  the  first  5  years  of  illness,  and  was  most  associated  with  good  outcome  or  recovery.  
Hebephrenia  had  an  earlier  age  at  onset,  often  developed  insidiously,  and  was  associated  with  a  greater  
family  history  of  psychopathology,  poor  premorbid  functioning,  and,  frequently,  a  continuous  illness  with  
a  poor  long-­‐‑term  prognosis.  While  also  early  and  insidious  in  onset,  unlike  hebephrenia,  undifferentiated  
schizophrenia  was  poorly  distinguished  from  the  patients'ʹ  premorbid  state,  associated  with  an  early  
history  of  behavioral  difficulties,  and  often  resulted  in  a  continuous  but  stable  disability  (intermediate  
between  paranoid  and  hebephrenic).  
 
 
 
 
 
 

©  SPMM  Course   26  
  
 
 
 
Prognostic  factors  in  Schizophrenia  (with  respect  to  relapses  and  rehospitalisations)  
Good  Prognosis   Poor  Prognosis  
Late  onset   Early  onset*  (not  strong)  
Obvious  precipitating  factors   No  precipitating  factors**  
Acute  onset   Insidious  onset**  
Good  premorbid  adjustment   Poor  premorbid  adjustment  
Affective  symptoms  (esp.  depression)   Social  withdrawal  
Being  married   Single,  divorced,  or  widowed  
Family  history  of  affective  disorders   Family  history  of  schizophrenia*  (weak,  controversial)  
Good  social  support     Poor  social  network,  High  EE  families  
Positive  symptoms  only   Negative  symptoms  
Good  initial  response  to  treatment  (best   Poor  compliance  
predictor)   Neurological  signs  and  symptoms  
  History  of  perinatal  trauma  
  No  remissions  in  3  years  
Many  relapses  
History  of  violence  
 *  Suvisaari,  JM.  Br  J  Psychiatry.  1998  Dec;173:494-­‐‑500.  
**  Rosen,  K  &  Garety,  P.  Schizophr  Bull  .  2005;  31:735–750.  
 

Adapted  from  Kaplan  and  Sadock'ʹs  Synopsis  of  Psychiatry,  9th  ed.  New  York,  NY:  Lippincott  Williams  &  Wilkins;  2003.  
 
Robust  predictors  of  short-­‐‑term  outcome  (in  an  acute  episode):  
Stressful  life  events,  high  expressed  emotions  and  noncompliance  are  the  best  predictors  of  poor  response  
to  a  psychotic  episode.  
Robust  predictors  of  medium  (2  to  5  years)  outcome:  
A  good  outcome  is  seen  in  females,  married  patients,  those  with  social  contacts  outside  the  home,  and  in  
acute  onset.  Age  of  onset  is  not  a  consistent  predictor  in  prognostic  studies.  Family  history  of  psychosis  
does  not  consistently  predict  the  worse  outcome  (some  studies  showed  better  outcome  in  those  with  
higher  familial  loading).  Clear-­‐‑cut  negative  symptoms  that  appear  early  in  the  course  have  some  
predictive  power  for  poor  prognosis.  The  course  of  illness  in  first  2  years  is  the  best  predictor  of  the  
subsequent  course.  First  rank  symptoms  have  no  prognostic  significance.  
 
Evidence-­‐‑based  treatment  of  schizophrenia  
RCT  evidence  to  support  practice  in  schizophrenia  is  analysed  under  following  areas:  (Davis  &  Leucht,  
2008)  
1.    Do  drugs  work?  
There  is  excellent  evidence  that  both  first-­‐‑generation  antipsychotics  (FGAs)  and  second-­‐‑generation  
antipsychotics  (SGAs)  substantially  benefit  patients  better  than  placebo  alone  based  on  over  30  double-­‐‑

©  SPMM  Course   27  
blind  studies.  There  are  also  a  number  of  comparisons  of  second-­‐‑generation  drugs  vs.  first-­‐‑generation  
drugs.    
2.  Choice  of  drugs:  
It  is  only  clozapine  that  shows  moderate  to  large  effect  size  differences  from  FGAs  on  clinical  outcome.  
Olanzapine  and  risperidone  show  low  to  moderate  effect  size  differences  from  FGAs,  but  not  consistently  
(Tamminga  &  Davis  2007).No  evidence  to  suggest  which  one  antipsychotic  must  be  used  in  which  clinical  
situation  while  treating  schizophrenia.  Clozapine  has  evidence  in  resistant  schizophrenia  –  not  first  
episode.  CATIE  and  CUtLASS  showed  that  second-­‐‑generation  drugs  were  no  better  than  first  generation  
ones  in  terms  of  efficacy  and  cost.  Olanzapine  fared  better  than  other  atypicals  in  CATIE  in  terms  of  
dropouts.  (see  below  at  research  update  section  for  further  info  on  CATIE)  
3.  Dose:  
There  is  no  evidence  as  to  the  correct  mean  dose  for  FGA  drugs,  but  there  is  some  evidence  for  SGAs.  
There  is  no  information  about  when  to  escalate  or  reduce  the  dose.  There  is  a  limited  evidence  study  that  
shows  first-­‐‑episode  patients  require  less  medication.  But  there  are  no  RCTs  of  first-­‐‑episode  patients  
randomized  to  several  doses.  Dose  escalation  with  chronicity  or  severity  has  not  been  studied  in  RCTs.    
There  is  no  evidence  that  a  lower  dose  is  required  for  maintenance  than  for  the  acute  episode.    
In  a  meta-­‐‑analysis  of  dose  comparison  studies  (Davis  &  Chen  2002),  it  was  determined  that  for  typical  
antipsychotic  haloperidol  the  near  maximal  effective  dose  ranges  from  3.3–10  mg/day.  There  was  no  
evidence  that  higher  doses  of  first  generation  antipsychotics  were  more  effective  than  medium  doses  (3.3–
10  mg/day  haloperidol  or  equivalent).  For  atypical  antipsychotics,  the  near  maximal  efficacy  dose  for  
aripiprazole  was  10  mg/day,  clozapine  >400  mg/day,  olanzapine  possibly  >16  mg/day,  and  risperidone  4  
mg/day.  (For  risperidone,  a  dose  of  2  mg  daily  consistently  produced  a  lower  level  of  efficacy.  Doses  of  6  
mg  or  greater  produced  no  additional  benefit  and  doses  tend  to  be  less  efficacious  at  10  mg  daily  and  
above.  (Ezewuziie  &  Taylor,  2006)).  The  optimal  dose  of  risperidone  in  relapsed  schizophrenia  is  4mg  
daily.  Higher  doses  are  unlikely  to  improve  efficacy  and  may  reduce  it.  Adverse  movement  disorders  
become  more  common.For  both  atypical  and  typical  antipsychotics,  there  was  no  evidence  that  higher  
doses  were  less  effective,  arguing  against  a  "ʺtherapeutic  window"ʺ.  The  Royal  College  guideline  on  high  
dose  prescription  is  discussed  below.  
Chlorpromazine     100mg/day  
Risperidone   2  mg/day  
Olanzapine   5  mg/day  
Quetiapine   75  mg/day  
Ziprasidone   60  mg/day  
Aripiprazole   7.5  mg/day.  
Haloperidol   2mg/day  
Woods  SW.  Chlorpromazine  equivalent  doses  for  the  newer  atypical  
antipsychotics.  J  Clin  Psychiatry.  2003  Jun;64(6):663-­‐‑7.  
 
 
 
 
©  SPMM  Course   28  
  
 
 
4.  Emergency  treatment:  
There  is  no  evidence  base  to  suggest  whether  benzodiazepines  alone  or  combination  with  antipsychotics  
will  be  needed  for  rapid  tranquillisation  of  the  acute  agitated  psychotic  patient.  
5.  When  to  change  drug  or  augment:  
RCTs  have  not  informed  us  as  to  when,  with  what  drug,  and  in  which  patient  augmentation  is  useful.  
There  is  some  evidence  to  indicate  that  patients  who  seem  to  have  depressive  disorders  superimposed  on  
schizophrenia  may  respond  to  augmentation  with  an  antidepressant  or,  if  recurrent,  need  prophylactic  
antidepressants.  
Essock  et  al.  (2007)  used  the  CATIE  data  to  find  out  whether  switching  or  staying  with  same  regimen  will  
be  useful  in  those  who  require  a  review  of  their  treatment.  In  general,  the  "ʺstayers"ʺ  did  better  than  the  
"ʺswitchers"ʺ  for  each  medication,  but  especially  for  olanzapine.  Thus,  if  patients  are  taking  olanzapine  or  
risperidone  and  switch  to  another  medication,  they  will  probably  have  a  poorer  outcome  than  if  they  did  
not  switch.    
6.  Specific  situations:  
A.  Aggression:  
A  12  weeks  double-­‐‑blind  RCT  compared  clozapine,  olanzapine,  and  haloperidol  in  high-­‐‑risk  patients  with  
a  history  of  aggressive  behaviour.  Clozapine  showed  greater  efficacy  than  olanzapine  and  olanzapine  
greater  efficacy  than  haloperidol  in  reducing  aggressive  behaviour.  This  anti  aggressive  effect  appeared  to  
be  separate  from  the  antipsychotic  and  sedative  action  of  these  medications.  
B.  Negative  symptoms:  
• Negative  symptoms  include  anhedonia,  avolition,  apathy,  amotivation  and  restricted  affect.    The  
term  ‘negative  symptoms’  is  a  descriptive  term.  
• Primary  and  secondary  negative  symptoms  refer  to  distinct  subgroups  of  negative  symptoms  
differing  in  their  cause,  longitudinal  stability,  or  duration  and  differentiated  through  longitudinal  
observation.    
• Primary  and  enduring  negative  symptoms  or  deficit  symptoms  refer  to  the  symptoms  that  are  
intrinsic  to  schizophrenia.  
• Secondary  negative  symptoms  refer  to  negative  symptoms  occurring  in  association  with,  or  
presumably  caused  by,  positive  symptoms,  affective  symptoms,  medication  side  effects,  
environmental  deprivation,  or  other  treatment-­‐‑  and  illness-­‐‑  related  factors.      
• In  clinical  samples,  patients  with  the  deficit  form  of  schizophrenia  or  primary  negative  symptoms  
represent  about  20%–30%  of  patients,  whereas  in  population-­‐‑based  samples  approximating  
incidence  samples,  patients  with  the  deficit  form  of  schizophrenia  comprise  14%–17%  of  patients  
with  schizophrenia.  
• The  deficit  schizophrenia  is  defined  by  the  following  criteria:  

©  SPMM  Course   29  
1.  At  least  2  of  the  following  6  features  must  be  present  and  of  a  clinically  significant  severity:  (1)  restricted  
affect  (2)  diminished  emotional  range  (3)  poverty  of  speech  (4)  curbing  of  interest  (5)  diminished  sense  of  
purpose  and  (6)  diminished  social  drive.  
2.  Two  or  more  of  these  features  must  have  been  present  for  the  preceding  12  months  and  must  have  
always  been  present  during  periods  of  clinical  stability  (including  chronic  psychotic  states).  These  
symptoms  may  or  may  not  be  detectable  during  transient  episodes  of  acute  psychotic  disorganization  or  
decompensation.  
3.  Two  or  more  of  these  enduring  features  are  also  idiopathic,  i.e.,  not  secondary  to  factors  other  than  the  
disease  process.  Such  factors  include:  (1)  anxiety,  (2)  drug  effects  (especially,  extrapyramidal  side  effects),  
(3)  suspiciousness,  (4)  formal  thought  disorder,  (5)  hallucinations  or  delusions,  (6)  mental  retardation,  and  
(7)  depression.  
4.  The  patient  meets  DSM-­‐‑5  Schizophrenia  criteria.    Note  that  in  DSM-­‐‑5,  as  opposed  to  DSM-­‐‑IV,  there  is  no  
special  attribution  to  bizarre  delusions  or  first-­‐‑rank  auditory  hallucinations.    In  DSM-­‐‑5  two  Criterion  A  
symptoms  are  required  for  any  diagnosis  of  schizophrenia  (among  them  at  least  one  of:  delusions,  
hallucinations  and  disorganized  speech).  
• Various  features  are  suggested  to  be  
Deficit  syndrome  -­‐‑  associations  
associated  with  deficit  syndrome:  
Frontal  atrophy  
• There  are  3  studies  that  compared  the  
Familial  pattern  
efficacy  and  tolerability  of  antipsychotics   Summer  birth  
in  deficit  and  nondeficit  subjects.  Two  of   Increased  eye  tracking  dysfunctions  
them  looked  into  olanzapine  while  the   More  tardive  dyskinesia  
third  looked  into  clozapine.  Unfortunately,   Poorer  functional  outcome  

no  significant  improvement  in  deficit   Lower  suicide  and  depression  rates  

symptoms  was  noted  in  all  3  trials.    

• SGAs  are  marketed  as  being  especially  efficacious  for  negative  symptoms;  good  evidence  to  
support  this  hypothesis  is  scarce.  Most  RCTs  are  conducted  on  patients  with  predominantly  
positive  symptoms.    
• Amisulpride  is  still  the  best-­‐‑examined  SGA  as  regards  negative  symptoms  because  several  studies  
in  patients  with  predominantly  negative  symptoms  have  been  carried  out  with  this  compound.  But  
the  effect  of  amisulpride  in  reducing  negative  symptoms  at  a  low  dose  (50  to  100mg/day)  may  be  
due  to  a  concurrent  reduction  in  positive  symptoms  or  depression.  When  compared  head  to  head  
with  haloperidol,  the  effect  of  amisulpride  on  negative  symptoms  weakened.  
• A  well-­‐‑conducted  study  appeared  to  show  superiority  for  Olanzapine  (only  5mg/day)  over  
Haloperidol,  but  the  magnitude  of  the  effect  was  modest.  
• Efficacy  of  add-­‐‑on  therapy  with  d-­‐‑cycloserine,  a  partial  agonist  acting  at  the  glycine  modulatory  site  
of  the  glutamatergic  N-­‐‑methyl-­‐‑d-­‐‑aspartate  receptor,  was  examined  in  3  double-­‐‑blind  trials  in  
patients  with  deficit  syndrome.  2  of  the  3  studies  suggest  add-­‐‑on  d-­‐‑cycloserine  50  mg/day  may  have  
some  effect  on  negative  symptoms  in  patients  with  deficit  syndrome  despite  small  sample  sizes  and  
different  study  designs  and  duration.    

©  SPMM  Course   30  
 • Glycine  administration  resulted  in  a  significant  30%  6  16%  reduction  (P  <  0.001)  in  negative  
symptoms  in  a  study  wherein  positive  symptoms  were  also  concurrently  reduced.    
• Selegiline  was  studied  in  a  small  number  of  patients  in  a  12-­‐‑week  placebo-­‐‑controlled  trial  with  
some  favourable  results.  
 
 
C.  Suicide  prevention:  
In  terms  of  suicide  prevention,  the  Intersept  study  (INTERnational  SuicidE  Prevention  Trial)  compared  
clozapine  and  olanzapine.  This  was  a  2-­‐‑year  multicenter  RCT  study  comparing  the  risk  for  suicidal  
behaviour  in  980  patients  with  schizophrenia  or  schizoaffective  disorder  treated  with  clozapine  vs.  
olanzapine.    Suicidal  behaviour  was  significantly  less  in  patients  treated  with  clozapine  vs.  olanzapine  
(hazard  ratio,  0.76;  95%  confidence  interval,  0.58-­‐‑0.97;  P  =.03).    
D.  Cognitive  symptoms:  
Cognitive  symptoms  occur  independent  of  negative  symptoms  in  schizophrenia.  A  number  of  studies  
have  claimed  cognitive  benefits  from  treatment  with  various  second-­‐‑generation  antipsychotic  drugs  
(SGAs).  This  claim  is  based  on  randomised  comparative  trials  that  demonstrated  that  SGAs  produce  
significant  improvement  in  neurocognition,  measured  by  means  of  cognitive  tasks  administered  at  
baseline  and  follow-­‐‑up  assessments.  Goldberg  et  al.  2007  designed  an  RCT  of  risperidone  vs.  olanzapine  
in  patients  with  first-­‐‑episode  schizophrenia,  including  a  control  group  of  individuals  for  whom  data  from  
multiple  assessments  were  also  collected.  The  main  finding  was  that  the  effect  size  for  cognitive  change  in  
patients  exposed  to  SGAs  was  very  similar  to  the  effect  size  for  cognitive  change  calculated  in  the  healthy  
control  group.  Hence,  cognitive  improvements  observed  in  RCTs  may  have  been  due  to  the  non-­‐‑specific  
effects  of  multiple  testing  (practice  effects).    
 
7.  Treating  the  first  episode:  
Summary  of  NICE  guidelines  (from  Patel  &  David  2005):  
The  choice  of  antipsychotic  drug  should  be  made  jointly  by  the  patient  and  responsible  clinician,  on  the  
basis  of  an  informed  discussion  of  benefits  and  side-­‐‑effects  
Oral  atypical  antipsychotics  are  recommended  as  first-­‐‑line  treatment  for  patients  with  newly  diagnosed  
schizophrenia  
If  a  patient  on  oral  typical  antipsychotics  has  adequate  symptom  control  but  is  experiencing  
unacceptable  side-­‐‑effects,  an  oral  atypical  should  be  considered  
If  a  patient  on  an  oral  typical  has  good  symptom  control  and  no  unacceptable  side-­‐‑effects,  a  routine  
switch  to  an  atypical  preparation  is  not  recommended  
Clozapine  should  be  used  at  the  earliest  opportunity  for  patients  with  evidence  of  treatment-­‐‑resistant  
schizophrenia  
A  risk  assessment  should  be  performed  regarding  treatment  adherence,  and  depot  preparations  should  
be  prescribed  when  appropriate  
Where  more  than  one  atypical  drug  is  considered  appropriate,  the  drug  with  the  lowest  purchase  cost  
(allowing  for  daily  required  dose)  should  be  prescribed  

©  SPMM  Course   31  
Where  full  discussion  between  the  patient  and  responsible  clinician  is  not  possible,  oral  atypicals  should  
be  the  treatment  of  choice  because  of  the  lower  potential  risk  of  extrapyramidal  symptoms  
Antipsychotic  therapy  should  be  initiated  as  part  of  a  comprehensive  package  of  care  that  addresses  the  
patient’s  clinical,  emotional  and  social  needs  
Atypical  and  typical  antipsychotics  should  not  be  prescribed  concurrently,  except  for  short  periods  to  
cover  changeover  of  medication  
 

©  SPMM  Course   32  
  
 
From  www.ipap.org/schiz  

©  SPMM  Course   33  
Note  that  other  factors  such  as  risk  posed  by  the  patient,  support  available  and  presence  of  comorbidities  
could  dictate  differences  in  treatment  and  admission  to  acute  wards.  
 
The  treatment  of  later  episodes  will  depend  on:  compliance  with  medication,  therapeutic  response,  side-­‐‑
effects,  the  cause  of  relapse  and  treatment  resistance.  
 
8.  Maintenance  phase:  
The  antipsychotic  medication  must  be  continued  at  the  minimum  necessary  dose.  Often  this  is  the  same  
dose  as  the  dose  to  which  the  acute  phase  responded.  The  goals  for  maintenance  treatment  are  to  prevent  
psychotic  relapse  and  to  assist  patients  in  improving  their  level  of  functioning.  20%  of  patients  receiving  
treatment  will  relapse  within  a  year  despite  treatment;  60%  will  relapse  if  not  taking  medications.  Even  
those  with  only  one  episode  have  a  four  in  five  chance  of  relapsing  at  least  once  over  the  following  5  years.  
Stopping  medication  increases  this  risk  fivefold.  Most  guidelines  suggest  that  1  or  2  years  maintenance  is  
needed  after  an  episode;  this  is  arbitrary  and  may  not  be  adequate.  It  is  generally  recommended  that  
multiepisode  patients  receive  maintenance  treatment  for  at  least  5  years  after  last  episode,  and  if  needed,  
on  an  indefinite  basis.  
Switching  during  maintenance:  
PROBLEM   SWITCH  TO  
EPSEs  (acute  EPSEs  such  as  dystonia,  parkinsonism   Atypicals;  avoid  a  higher  dose  of  any  atypical,  especially  
are  measured  using  Simpson-­‐‑Angus  scale;  tardive   risperidone.    
dyskinesia  can  be  measured  using  AIMS  scale)  

Metabolic  syndrome  (weight  gain,  diabetes,  high   Avoid  clozapine  and  olanzapine;  Amisulpride  and  
lipids,  high  BP)   aripiprazole  may  be  better  
High  prolactin   Rule  out  other  causes;  Aripiprazole,  olanzapine  and  
quetiapine  relatively  safe.  Avoid  amisulpride  

QT  prolongation   No  clear  recommendations;  olanzapine  and  aripiprazole  

may  be  useful  
Sedation   Haloperidol,  aripiprazole  and  amisulpride  preferred  
Tardive  dyskinesia   Lesser  with  clozapine  and  other  atypicals.  
Sexual  dysfunction   No  specific  relief  but  aripiprazole  and  quetiapine  may  
have  a  better  profile.  

Adapted  from  Maudsley  prescribing  Guidelines  

Depot  medication:  
A  meta-­‐‑analysis  (Adams  et  al.)  found  greater  global  improvement  among  patients  given  depot  
antipsychotics  than  among  those  given  oral  antipsychotics  and  found  similar  rates  of  side  effects  in  the  
two  groups.  
In  a  survey  of  outpatients  by  Pereira  &  Pinto  (1997),  87%  of  those  receiving  depot  antipsychotics,  given  a  
free  choice,  elected  to  continue  with  their  present  dose  form  (depots).  More  than  60%  of  patients  converted  
to  depot  medication  preferred  the  injection  to  their  previous  tablet  treatment  and  said  that  they  felt  better  

©  SPMM  Course   34  
during  the  injection  regimen.  In  a  qualitative  survey,  patients  on  depot  felt  that  ‘more  normal  lives’  are  
possible  and  that  depots  were  a  safety  net  protecting  them  from  relapses  and  rehospitalisations  
Depot   Characteristic  features  
Zuclopenthixol   ?  More  effective  in  aggressive  patients.  May  be  better  than  other  depots  in  
relapse  prevention.  EPSE  burden  high.  
Flupentixol   May  have  an  antidepressant  effect;  can  be  given  at  a  higher  
chlorpromazine  equivalent  dose  but  still  within  BNF  limits  
Haloperidol   Useful  in  the  prevention  of  manic  relapses  too.  May  need  3-­‐‑6  months  to  
reach  steady  state  
Pipotiazine   Fewer  incidences  of  EPSEs.  
Fluphenazine   May  induce  depressed  mood  
Risperidone  depot   Need  aqueous  suspension  immediately  before  injection;  needs  to  be  stored  
in  fridge  and  test  dose  is  not  required.  
Flupenthixol  decanoate  40mg/2wks  =  Fluphenazine  decanoate  25mg/2wks  =  Haloperidol  decanoate  
100mg/4wks  =  Pipothiazine  palmitate  50mg/4wks  =  Zuclopenthixol  decanoate  200mg/2wks  
Risperidone  25mg/2wks  depot  is  equivalent  to  approx.  4mg/d  tablets  
Adapted  from  Maudsley  prescribing  Guidelines  
Tackling  myths  about  depot  drugs  (from  Patel  &  David,    2005;  Carpenter  &  Buchanan  2015)  
• The  risk  of  neuroleptic  malignant  syndrome  is  not  higher  for  depot  than  oral  drugs  
• There  is  no  evidence  to  suggest  that  neuroleptic  malignant  syndrome  is  a  contraindication  for  
subsequent  depot  use  
• For  the  same  drug,  the  risk  of  tardive  dyskinesia  is  not  higher  for  depot  than  oral  formulations  
• Patients  already  on  depot  like  this  formulation  and  many  prefer  depot  to  oral  drugs  
• Although  depots  are  sometimes  associated  with  coercion  and  reduced  patient  autonomy,  coercion  is  
not  very  common  
• Clinicians  perceive  a  higher  level  of  stigma  being  associated  with  depots,  but  this  may  be  based  on  
the  worst  characteristics  of  typical  drugs  (e.g.  unacceptable  side-­‐‑effects)  rather  than  on  intramuscular  
long-­‐‑acting  injections  per  se  
• Most  nursing  staff  are  aware  of  the  benefits  of  depots,  but  their  training  experiences  and  pressure  of  
time  may  adversely  affect  systematic  monitoring  of  potential  side-­‐‑effects  
• Depot  clinics  are  relatively  cheap  to  run,  and  the  financial  benefits  of  avoiding  rehospitalisation  are  
clear-­‐‑cut,  but  acute  services  currently  have  preference  in  terms  of  service  planning  and  budgeting  
 
Royal  College  of  Psychiatrists  guidelines  for  high-­‐‑dose  prescribing:  
• High-­‐‑dose  antipsychotic  prescribing  (>1  g  chlorpromazine  or  equivalent)  should  be  avoided  wherever  
possible.  There  is  no  evidence  that  such  high  dose  prescribing  provides  symptom  relief  in  those  who  
have  not  responded  to  monotherapies  or  combinations  of  low  doses.  
• Consider  alternative  approaches  including  adjuvant  therapy  and  newer  or  atypical  antipsychotics  
such  as  clozapine  when  considering  high-­‐‑dose  prescription.  
• Risk  factors  including  metabolic  effects  may  be  more  pronounced  in  those  greater  than  70.  
• Consider  the  potential  for  drug  interactions  at  high  doses  and  combinations.  

©  SPMM  Course   35  
• Carry  out  ECG  to  exclude  abnormalities  such  as  prolonged  QT  interval;  repeat  ECG  periodically  and  
reduce  dose  if  prolonged  QT  interval  or  another  adverse  abnormality  develops.  
• Increase  dose  slowly  and  not  more  often  than  weekly.  
• Regular  physical  examination  including  vital  signs  and  hydration  status  must  be  monitored.  
• Consider  high-­‐‑dose  therapy  for  a  limited  period  only;  there  is  no  use  continuing  after  3  months  if  no  
response  has  occurred.  
9.  Treatment-­‐‑resistant  schizophrenia:  
• Pivotal  evidence  for  the  use  of  clozapine  in  treatment-­‐‑resistant  schizophrenia  comes  from    Kane  et  al.,  
(1988)  and  a  meta-­‐‑analysis  of  randomised  controlled  trials  of  clozapine  (Wahlbeck  et  al.,  1999).  
• Kane  et  al.  reported  a  multicenter  clinical  where  schizophrenia  patients  who  had  failed  to  respond  to  
at  least  three  different  neuroleptics  underwent  a  prospective,  single-­‐‑blind  trial  of  rather  a  high  dose  of  
haloperidol  for  six  weeks.  Patients  whose  condition  remained  unimproved  in  spite  of  haloperidol  
were  then  randomly  assigned,  in  a  double-­‐‑blind  manner,  to  clozapine  (up  to  900  mg/d)  or  
chlorpromazine  (up  to  1800  mg/d)  for  six  weeks.  Out  of  268  patients,  30%  of  the  clozapine-­‐‑treated  
patients  were  categorized  as  responders  compared  with  4%  of  chlorpromazine-­‐‑treated  patients.  This  
improvement  included  "ʺnegative"ʺ  as  well  as  positive  symptoms.    
• Meltzer  concluded  that  30%  of  clozapine  receivers  would  respond  by  6  weeks,  a  further  20%  by  3  
months  and  an  additional  10–20%  by  6  months.  The  improvement  rates  may  continue  up  to  1  year.  
Therefore,  it  seems  reasonable  to  try  clozapine  monotherapy  at  least  for  6  months.  
• There  is  no  meaningful  relationship  between  clozapine  plasma  levels  and  clinical  response.  However,  
there  is  a  consensus  in  the  literature  that  a  plasma  level  of  about  350–450  ng/ml  has  to  be  attained  
before  the  patient  is  considered  to  be  non-­‐‑respondent  to  clozapine  (Kerwin  &  Bolonna  2005).  
• Psychopathology  cannot  predict  treatment  response  to  clozapine.  Presence  or  absence  of  first  rank  
symptoms  does  not  identify  clozapine  responders.  
• Conley  et  al.  (1998)  reproduced  the  methodology  of  the  pivotal  Kane  et  al.(1988)  study  of  clozapine  but  
concluded  that  olanzapine  was  no  better  than  chlorpromazine  in  treatment  resistance.  
• NICE  recommends  using  clozapine  at  the  earliest  in  treatment  resistance:  defined  arbitrarily  as  lack  of  
satisfactory  clinical  response  to  sequential  use  of  at  least  two  antipsychotics  for  a  period  of  6  to  8  
weeks:  at  least  one  of  the  agents  must  be  from  atypical  (non-­‐‑clozapine)  group.  Please  note  that  other  
groups  may  define  Treatment  Resistance  differently.  
 
Clozapine  resistance  could  be  a  potential  problem.    
o Augmentation  with  risperidone,  fluoxetine  (possibly  pharmacokinetic  via  CYP  inhibition)  and  
anticonvulsants  have  been  studied.  
o Augmentation  strategies  incorporating  sulpiride  and  amisulpride  are  also  useful  as  a  high  potency  D2  
blockade  is  possible  with  these  drugs.  This  is  not  a  pharmacokinetic  effect  as  clozapine  levels  remain  
unaffected.    
o The  therapeutic  effects  of  lamotrigine  augmentation  were  assessed  in  34  clozapine-­‐‑resistant  patients  
over  14  weeks  in  an  RCT  cross-­‐‑over  study(Tiihonen  et  al.,  2003).  Lamotrigine  treatment  significantly  

©  SPMM  Course   36  
 improved  positive  symptoms  and  general  psychopathological  symptoms,  but  had  no  effect  on  
negative  symptoms.  
o A  review  of  risperidone  augmentation  provides  some  evidence  when  mean  clozapine  dose  is  around  
475mg/day  and  mean  risperidone  dose  is  around  4.5mg/day.  A  lower  risperidone    dosage  and  a  longer  
duration  of  the  trial  seemed  to  be  associated  with  a  better  outcome  (Kontaxakis,  2005)  
o There  is  some  evidence  that  ethyl-­‐‑eicosapentanoate  (fish  omega  oil)  may  serve  as  an  adjunct  to  
clozapine.  
 
CATIE  summary  
 
§ CATIE  stands  for  Clinical  Antipsychotic  Trials  of  Intervention  Effectiveness.  
§ The  study  design  was  double-­‐‑blind  pragmatic  RCT.  
§ 1493  patients  with  chronic  schizophrenia  (mean  duration  of  illness  =  14  years),  57  sites,  2001  to  2004  
§ Olanzapine,  quetiapine,  Risperidone,  ziprasidone  (added  later  in  the  trial),  perphenazine  
§ Primary  outcome  is  a  ‘real-­‐‑world’  measure  –  discontinuation  for  any  reason,  either  patient  initiated  or  
physician  initiated  
§ 76%  power  to  detect  12%  difference  in  primary  outcome  
§ Irrespective  of  the  prescribed  drug  –  74%  discontinued  treatment  in  18  months  (surprisingly  high  
despite  naturalistic  design).  Median  time  to  discontinue  was  4.6  months.    
§ Olanzapine  had  lowest  discontinuation  rate  (still  64%)  –  but  highest  side  effect  burden.  64%  
discontinued  olanzapine;  75%,  perphenazine;  82%,  quetiapine;  74%,  risperidone;  and  79%,  ziprasidone.  
§ Olanzapine  caused  most  weight  gain  while  quetiapine  caused  most  anticholinergic  symptoms,  
perphenazine  had  highest  EPSE  related  discontinuation.  
§ Those  who  did  not  respond  after  18  months  (those  who  discontinued  for  the  ineffectiveness  of  therapy)  
were  re-­‐‑randomised  in  phase  2  trial  (n=99),  and  Clozapine  was  compared  against  other  atypical  agents  
(efficacy  pathway).  Clozapine  had  lowest  discontinuation  rate  –  median  at  10  months.  This  time-­‐‑to-­‐‑
discontinuation  was  nearly  3  times  longer  than  time-­‐‑to-­‐‑discontinuation  with  the  other  SGAs.  
As  a  part  of  the  phase  2  CATIE  study  (tolerance  pathway)  those  who  terminated  phase  1  for  ‘‘intolerable  
side  effects’’  (444  volunteers)  were  tested  with  olanzapine,  risperidone,  quetiapine,  or  ziprasidone.  Of  
these  treatments,  olanzapine  and  risperidone  had  equivalent  effectiveness,  and  both  were  better  than  
quetiapine  or  ziprasidone  by  significant  but  modest  margins.    
CATIE  Controversies    
o Quiet  complicated  study  design  and  many  outcomes  were  analysed  from  the  dataset.  
o Decisions  to  add  ziprasidone  to  the  protocol  was  made  after  recruitment  began    
o Perphenazine  was  used  only  in  one  randomized  phase  (phase  1)  of  the  study  generating  
controversy.    
o The  decision  to  use  double-­‐‑blinded  treatments  decreased  the  resemblance  of  the  study  procedures  
to  those  of  routine  clinical  care  
o  The  mean  doses  used  remain  controversial  though  it  is  claimed  that  the  study  was  designed  to  be  
pragmatic  and  not  purely  experimental.    

©  SPMM  Course   37  
 Drug   Median  dose  used  

Olanzapine   20.1  mg  

Quetiapine   543.4  mg  
Risperidone   3.9  mg  
Ziprasidone     112.8  mg  
Clozapine  (phase2efficacy)   332.1  mg  
Quetiapine  (phase2efficacy)   642.9  mg  
Risperidone  (phase2efficacy)   4.8  mg  
Olanzapine  (phase2efficacy)   23.4  mg  
 
CUtLASS  summary:  
• CUtLASS  stands  for  Cost  Utility  of  the  Latest  Antipsychotic  Drugs  in  Schizophrenia  Study    
• It  is  an  unblinded  randomised  controlled  trial  comparing  first-­‐‑generation  v.  second-­‐‑generation  
antipsychotics    
• The  primary  outcome  was  the  quality  of  life  at  1  year  and  symptom  measures  were  the  main  
secondary  outcome.    
• 1,  227  people  with  schizophrenia  who  were  being  assessed  by  their  clinical  team  for  medication  review  
because  of  poor  response  or  adverse  effects  were  randomised.  
• The  second-­‐‑generation  drugs  were  amisulpride,  olanzapine,  quetiapine  or  risperidone.  
• The  rate  of  follow-­‐‑up  interview  was  81%  at  1  year.    
• The  results  showed  no  advantage  of  second-­‐‑generation  drugs  in  terms  of  quality  of  life  or  symptom  
burden  over  1  year  with  those  on  first-­‐‑generation  antipsychotic  doing  relatively  better.    
• Participants  reported  no  clear  preference  for  either  class  of  drug.    
• The  second  phase  -­‐‑  CUtLASS  2  trial  was  of  similar  design  and  compared  clozapine  with  other  second-­‐‑
generation  drugs  in  136  patients  who  had  not  responded  well  to  two  or  more  previous  drugs.  Results  
showed  that  there  was  a  significant  advantage  for  clozapine  in  symptom  improvements  over  1  year;  
moreover,  patients  significantly  preferred  it.  
Treatment  of  other  schizophrenia-­‐‑like  psychotic  disorders:  
Delusional  disorders:  
• In  a  triple  blinded  RCT  comparing  efficacy  of  fluoxetine  in  body  dysmorphic  disorder  (40%  patients  
had  delusional  BDD),  fluoxetine  was  increased  by  20  mg/day  every  10  days  to  a  maximum  of  80  
mg/day.  A  significant  response  started  occurring  at  8  weeks  until  12  weeks  when  the  observation  was  
made.  Patients  who  were  delusional  at  baseline  were  as  likely  as  non-­‐‑delusional  patients  to  respond  to  
fluoxetine.    
Outcome   Fluoxetine   Placebo   NNT  (CI)  
30%  decrease  on  BDD-­‐‑YBOCS  score   53%   18%;   3  (2  to  9)  
 
• A  systematic  review  failed  to  identify  any  RCTs  in  treating  primary  delusional  parasitosis.  Various  
heterogeneous  case  reports  have  used  both  atypicals  and  typicals,  and  no  recommendation  could  be  
made  on  the  basis  of  available  evidence.  

©  SPMM  Course   38  
Post  schizophrenic  depression:  
• Levinson  conducted  a  systematic  review  and  concluded  that  antidepressants  are  beneficial  for  
treatment  of  depression  in  people  with  schizophrenia  who  are  stable  with  respect  to  psychotic  
symptoms,  whereas  antipsychotics  were  more  effective  in  people  with  acute  psychosis.    
• The  occurrence  of  depression  in  chronic  phase  may  respond  to  atypical  antipsychotics  themselves;  any  
associated  depressive  symptoms  during  the  acute  phase  of  psychosis  respond  well  to  
neuroleptics/atypicals.    
• Note  that  both  clozapine  (vs.  olanzapine)  and  olanzapine  (vs.  haloperidol)  have  antisuicidal  effects  in  
schizophrenia.    
• The  role  of  antidepressants  is  not  clearly  proven  though  many  clinicians  use  antidepressants  as  
adjuvants  in  schizophrenia  with  depression.  
 
Schizoaffective  disorder:  
• Mood  stabilizers  are  a  mainstay  of  treatment  for  patients  with  schizoaffective  disorder.    
• Carbamazepine  is  superior  for  schizoaffective  disorder,  depressive  type;  lithium  and  carbamazepine  
have  no  differences  in  efficacy  for  the  manic  schizoaffective  (bipolar  like)  disorder.    
• Antipsychotics  are  often  used  as  combination  medications  with  mood  stabilisers  or  primarily  for  mood  
stabilising  effect  itself.  
• Treatment  with  antidepressants  is  similar  to  the  treatment  of  bipolar  depression.    
 
Psychotic  depression:  
• A  metaanalysis  of  10  eligible  RCTs  by  Wijkstra  et  al.  showed  that  the  combination  of  antidepressant  
and  antipsychotic  is  no  better  than  antidepressant  monotherapy.  However,  the  combination  was  better  
than  placebo;  antidepressants  or  antipsychotic  monotherapies  compared  equivalently  with  neither  
being  superior.      
Intervention   Comparison   Result  
Antidepressant  alone   Antipsychotic  alone   No  difference  
Antidepressant  +  Antipsychotic   Antidepressant  alone   No  difference  
Antidepressant  +  Antipsychotic   Antipsychotic  alone   Combination  superior  
Antidepressant  +  Antipsychotic   Placebo   Combination  superior  
 
• In  spite  of  overall  high  withdrawals,  there  were  no  significant  differences  in  withdrawal  rates  between  
any  of  the  treatments.    American  Psychiatric  Association  and  NICE  guidelines  recommend  a  
combination  strategy  as  first-­‐‑line  treatment  in  people  with  psychotic  depression.  
 
 
 
 
 

©  SPMM  Course   39  
DISCLAIMER:  This  material  is  developed  from  various  revision  notes  assembled  while  preparing  for  
MRCPsych  exams.  The  content  is  periodically  updated  with  excerpts  from  various  published  sources  
including  peer-­‐‑reviewed  journals,  websites,  patient  information  leaflets  and  books.  These  sources  are  cited  
and  acknowledged  wherever  possible;  due  to  the  structure  of  this  material,  acknowledgements  have  not  
been  possible  for  every  passage/fact  that  is  common  knowledge  in  psychiatry.  We  do  not  check  the  
accuracy  of  drug-­‐‑related  information  using  external  sources;  no  part  of  these  notes  should  be  used  as  
prescribing  information  

Notes  prepared  using  excerpts  from  

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! American  Psychiatric  Association.  Practice  guideline  for  the  treatment  of  patients  with  major  depressive  disorder  (revision).  
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! Angst,  J.  (2007)  The  bipolar  spectrum.  British  Journal  of  Psychiatry  190,  189-­‐‑19  
! Barbui  et  al,  Evidence-­‐‑Based  Mental  Health  2008;11:34-­‐‑35;  doi:10.1136/ebmh.11.2.3    
! Bowden  CL.  A  different  depression:  clinical  distinctions  between  bipolar  and  unipolar  depression.  J  Affect  Disord  2005;  84:  117  –2  
! Caddy,  C.,  Giaroli,  G.,  White,  T.  P.,  Shergill,  S.  S.,  &  Tracy,  D.  K.  (2013).  Ketamine  as  the  prototype  glutamatergic  antidepressant:  
pharmacodynamics  actions,  and  a  systematic  review  and  meta-­‐‑analysis  of  efficacy.  Therapeutic  advances  in  psychopharmacology,  
2045125313507739.  
! Carpenter  WT,  Jr,  Buchanan  RW.  Expanding  Therapy  With  Long-­‐‑Acting  Antipsychotic  Medication  in  Patients  With  Schizophrenia.  
JAMA  Psychiatry.  Published  online  June  24,  2015.  doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0485.  
! Committee  on  safety  of  Medicines.  Report  of  the  CSM  expert  working  group  on  the  safety  of  selective  serotonin  reuptake  inhibitor  
antidepressants,  2004.      
! Correll,  CU  et  al  (2007).  Differentiation  in  the  Preonset  Phases  of  Schizophrenia  and  Mood  Disorders:  Evidence  in  Support  of  a  Bipolar  
Mania  Prodrome  Schizophrenia  Bulletin  33;  703–714  
! Davis  JM,  Chen  N.  Dose  response  and  dose  equivalence  of  antipsychotics.  J  Clin  Psychopharmacol  2004;24:192–208  
! Davis,  J  et  al  (2006)  Switch  or  stay?  Am  J  Psychiatry  163:2032-­‐‑2033  
! Eaton,  WW  et  al.  Population-­‐‑Based  Study  of  First  Onset  and  Chronicity  in  Major  Depressive  Disorder.  Arch  Gen  Psychiatry.  
2008;65(5):513-­‐‑52  
! El-­‐‑Mallakh,  RS  &  Karripot,  A.  Chronic  depression  in  bipolar  disorder.  Am  J  Psychiatry  2006,  163:1337-­‐‑1341.  
! Erhart,  SM  et  al  (2006)  Treatment  of  Schizophrenia  negative  symptoms:  future  prospects.  Schizophrenia  Bulletin  32;2  :234–237.  
! Fenton,  W.  S.  &  McGlashan,  T.  H.  (1991)  Natural  History  of  Schizophrenia  Subtypes:  I.  Longitudinal  Study  of  Paranoid,  Hebephrenic,  
and  Undifferentiated  Schizophrenia.  Arch  Gen  Psychiatry,  48,  969-­‐‑977  
! Geddes  JR,  Rendell  JM,  Goodwin  GM.  BALANCE:  a  large  simple  trial  of  maintenance  treatment  for  bipolar  disorder.  World  Psychiatry  
2002;  1:  48-­‐‑5  
! Ghaemi,  N.  Am  J  Psychiatry  2008  165:  300-­‐‑302  
! Gibbons  RD  et  al.  Early  evidence  on  the  effects  of  regulators’  suicidality  warnings  on  SSRI  prescriptions  and  suicide  in  children  and  
adolescents.  Am  J  Psychiatry  2007;164:1356-­‐‑63  
! Gijsman  HJ  et  al.  Antidepressants  for  bipolar  depression:  a  systematic  review  of  randomized,  controlled  trials.  Am  J  Psychiatry  2004;  
161:1537–154  
! Goodwin,  GM.  Evidence-­‐‑based  guidelines  for  treating  bipolar  disorder:  recommendations  from  the  British  Association  for  
Psychopharmacology.  Journal  of  Psychopharmacology  17(2)  (2003)  149–17  
! Harrison  (2015)  Journal  of  Psychopharmacology  2015,  Vol.  29(2)  85–  
! Hawton  et  al.  Toxicity  of  antidepressants:  rates  of  suicide  relative  to  prescribing  and  non-­‐‑fatal  overdose  (2010)  Br  J  Psychiatry  
196(5):354-­‐‑  
! Healy,  D.  The  antidepressant  tale:  figures  signify  nothing?  Advances  in  Psychiatric  Treatment  (2006)  12:  320-­‐‑32  
! Henry  C,  Sorbara  F,  Lacoste  J,  Gindre  C,  Leboyer  M.  Antidepressant-­‐‑induced  mania  in  bipolar  patients:  identification  of  risk  factors.  J  
Clin  Psychiatry  2001  Apr;62(4):249-­‐‑55  
! http://www.cnsspectrums.com/aspx/articledetail.aspx?articleid=135  
! Jane-­‐‑Llopis  E,  Hosman  C,  Jenkins  R,  et  al.  Predictors  of  efficacy  in  depression  prevention  programmes:  meta-­‐‑analysis.  Br  J  Psychiatry  
2003;183:384–9  

©  SPMM  Course   40  
 ! Johnstone  EC,  et  al.    Predicting  schizophrenia—findings  from  the  Edinburgh  High-­‐‑Risk  Study.  Br  J  Psychiatry.  2005;186:18-­‐‑25  
! Keck,  PE.  Bipolar  depression:  best  practices  for  the  outpatient.  CNS  Spectr.  2007;  12:  12(Suppl  20):  1-­‐‑1  
! Kendall,  T.,  Morriss,  R.,  Mayo-­‐‑Wilson,  E.,  &  Marcus,  E.  (2014).  Assessment  and  management  of  bipolar  disorder:  summary  of  updated  
NICE  guidance.  BMJ,  349,  g5673.  
! Kerwin,  R  &  Bolonna,  A.  Management  of  clozapine  resistant  schizophrenia.  Advances  in  Psychiatric  Treatment  (2005)  11:  101-­‐‑106  
! Kessing,  LV.  Diagnostic  stability  in  depressive  disorder  as  according  to  ICD-­‐‑10  in  clinical  practice.  Psychopathology,  2005.  38,  32-­‐‑37  
! Kirsch,  I  et  al.  (2008)  Initial  Severity  and  Antidepressant  Benefits:  A  Meta-­‐‑Analysis  of  Data  Submitted  to  the  Food  and  Drug  
Administration.  PLoS  Med  5(2):  e4  
! Klosterkötter  J,  et  al.  Diagnosing  schizophrenia  in  the  initial  prodromal  phase.  Arch  Gen  Psychiatry.  2001;58(2):158-­‐‑164  
! Kontaxakis  et  al.    Risperidone  augmentation  of  clozapine:  A  critical  review.  Eur  Arch  Psychiatry  Clin  Neurosci.  2006  Sep;256(6):350-­‐‑5.  
! Kooyman,  I  &  Harvey,  S.  Outcomes  of  public  concern  in  schizophrenia  British  Journal  of  Psychiatry  (2007)  191:  s29-­‐‑s36  
! Krakowski  MI,  et  al.  Atypical  antipsychotic  agents  in  the  treatment  of  violent  patients  with  schizophrenia  and  schizoaffective  disorder.  
Arch  Gen  Psychiatry.  2006;63:622–629.  
! Kupfer,  D.J.  Long-­‐‑term  treatment  of  depression.  J.  Clin.  Psych.  51,  S28–3  
! Kupka  RW,  Luckenbaugh  DA,  Post  RM,  et  al.  Rapid  and  non-­‐‑rapid  cycling  bipolar  disorder:  A  meta-­‐‑analysis  of  clinical  studies.  J  Clin  
Psychiatry  2003;64:1483–94  
! Lecubrier  Y  et  al.  The  treatment  of  negative  symptoms  and  deficit  states  of  chronic  schizophrenia:  olanzapine  compared  to  amislpiride  
and  placebo  in  a  6-­‐‑month  double-­‐‑blind  controlled  clinical  trial.    Acta  Psychiatr  Scand  2006;  114:319-­‐‑327  
! Lepine  et  al,  International  clinical  psychopharmacology  1997  Jan;12(1):19-­‐‑29  
! Lepping  P  et  al.  Antipsychotic  treatment  of  primary  delusional  parasitosis.    The  British  Journal  of  Psychiatry  (2007)  191:  198-­‐‑205  
! Levinson  DF,  Umapathy  C,  Musthaq  M.  Treatment  of  schizoaffective  disorder  and  schizophrenia  with  mood  symptoms.  Am  J  Psychiatry  
1999;  156:  1138–48  
! Lieberman  JA,  Stroup  TS,  McEvoy  JP,  et  al.  New  Engl  J  Med  2005;353:1209–23  
! Mantere  O  et  al.  Differences  in  outcome  of  DSM-­‐‑IV  bipolar  I  and  II  disorders.  Bipolar  Disord  2008:  10:  413–42  
! Marcus,  S.  et  al  (2005)  Issues  Gender  differences  in  depression:  Findings  from  the  STAR*D  study.  Journal  of  Affective  Disorders.  87;  2:  
141-­‐‑150.  
! McGrath,  J  et  al.  The  Epidemiology  of  Schizophrenia:  A  Concise  Overview  of  Incidence,  Prevalence,  and  Mortality.  Epidemiologic  
Reviews  Advance  Access  published  on  May  14,  2008,  DOI  10.1093/epirev/mxn001  
! Meltzer  HY,  et  al.  Clozapine  treatment  for  suicidality  in  schizophrenia:  International  Suicide  Prevention  Trial  (InterSePT).  Arch  Gen  
Psychiatry.  2003;  60:82–91.  
! Mitchell,  PB  et  al  (2004)  Major  advances  in  bipolar  disorder.  MJA  2004;  181  (4):  207-­‐‑21  
! National  Institute  for  Health  and  Clinical  Excellence.  Clinical  Guideline  23.  Depression.  Management  of  depression  in  primary  and  
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! Palaniyappan,  L  &  McAllister-­‐‑Williams,  RH.  Antidepressants:  will  new  mechanisms  of  action  improve  poor  outcomes?  Br  J  Hosp  Med.  
2008  Feb;69(2):88-­‐‑9  
! Palmer  BA,  Pankratz  VS,  Bostwick  JM.  The  lifetime  risk  of  suicide  in  schizophrenia—a  reexamination.  Arch  Gen  Psychiatry  (2005)  
62:247–53.  
! Patel,  MX.,  David,  AS.  Why  aren'ʹt  depot  antipsychotics  prescribed  more  often  and  what  can  be  done  about  it?  Adv  Psychiatr  Treat  2005  
11:  203-­‐‑211    
! Perlis  RH  et  al.  Predictors  of  recurrence  in  bipolar  disorder:  primary  outcomes  from  the  Systematic  Treatment  Enhancement  Program  for  
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! Phillips  KA,  Albertini  RS,  Rasmussen  SA.A  randomized  placebo-­‐‑controlled  trial  of  fluoxetine  in  body  dysmorphic  disorder.Arch  Gen  
Psychiatry  2002  Apr;59:381–8  
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©  SPMM  Course   41  
  

! Wheeler  BW,  et  al.  The  population  impact  on  incidence  of  suicide  and  non-­‐‑fatal  self  harm  of  regulatory  action  against  the  use  of  
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©  SPMM  Course   42  
  

   

Adult  Psychiatry  II    

Paper  B   Syllabic  content  7.1x  
 
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 1. Anxiety Disorders - Overview
15%   of   adults   in   the   UK   at   any   time   have   broadly   defined   neurosis   according   to   National   Psychiatric  
Morbidity   Survey   (NPMS,   1995).   In   this   study,   the   UK   prevalence   of   anxiety   disorder   was   higher   than  
depression   (consistent   with   ECA   and   NCS   studies   from   the   USA).   Phobic   disorder   the   most   common   in  
ECA  &  NCS  but  in  NPMS  –    the  most  common  anxiety  disorder  was  mixed  anxiety-­‐‑depression  followed  
by  GAD.  25%  of  all  GP  consultations  are  for  anxiety  related  symptoms.  

Considering  the  mean  age  of  onset  for  various  anxiety  disorders,  the  following  pattern  is  noted;  GAD  –  30  
years,  Panic  disorder  –  22  to  25  years,  OCD  –  20  years,  social  phobia  –  15  years,  specific  phobia  –  varies  
with   individual   categories   –   blood   injury   injection   or   environmental   types   start   around   age   5   to   9   years  
while  situational  phobia  starts  around  20  years  of  age.    

It   is   noted   that   with   each   generation,  

anxiety   disorders   are   diagnosed   at   a  
younger  age  than  the  previous  cohort.  

The   estimated   lifetime   prevalence   of  

blood-­‐‑injection-­‐‑injury   phobia   is  
around  3.5%.  The  median  age  of  onset  is  
around  5  to  6  years.  Subjects  with  blood-­‐‑
injection-­‐‑injury   phobia   have   higher  
lifetime   histories   of   fainting   and  
seizures.   Prevalence   was   lower   in   the  
elderly  and  higher  in  females  and  persons  with  less  education.    

Sex  distribution  of  anxiety  disorders  is  an  important  topic  often  tested  in  the  exams.  As  a  general  rule,  all  
anxiety  disorders  are  common  in  women  than  men.  Notable  exceptions  are  OCD,  which  is  more  in  boys  
than   girls,   but   equally   common   in   adult   men   and   women.   Also,   men   outnumber   women   in   attending  
health  care  centres  for  social  phobia.    

Summary  of  NICE  guidance:  treatment  for  generalized  anxiety  disorder,  panic  disorder  and  OCD  

Ø A  ‘stepped  care’  approach  to  help  in  choosing  the  most  effective  intervention  
Ø A  comprehensive  assessment  that  considers  the  degree  of  distress  and  functional  impairment;  
the  effect  of  any  co-­‐‑morbid  mental  illness,  substance  misuse  or  medical  condition;  and  past  
response  to  treatment  
Ø Treat  the  primary  disorder  first  
Ø Psychological  therapy  is  more  effective  than  pharmacological  therapy  and  should  be  used  as  
first  line  where  possible.    
Ø Pharmacological  therapy  is  also  effective.    Most  evidence  supports  the  use  of  SSRIs  
Ø Consider  combination  therapy  for  complex  anxiety  disorders  that  are  refractory  to  treatment  

©  SPMM  Course   2  
 2. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder:
Epidemiology:  The  point  prevalence  of  OCD  is  as  high  as  1-­‐‑3%  of  adults  and  1-­‐‑2%  of  children  and  
adolescents  (community  samples).  The  lifetime  prevalence  of  OCD  is  fairly  constant  –  around  2-­‐‑3%.  It  is  
the  fourth  most  commonly  prevalent  psychiatric  disorder  in  epidemiological  studies  (after  phobias,  
alcohol  use,  and  depression).  The  gender  ratio  of  OCD  in  clinical  samples  is  roughly  equal,  but  females  
predominate  in  community  populations  (~1.5:1),  this  may  be  because  men  have  more  severe  
psychopathology.    Males  with  OCD  showed  an  earlier  onset  and  a  trend  toward  more  tics  and  poorer  
outcome  than  females.  (Heyman  et  al.,  2006)  

Presentation:  Recent  factor  analytic  studies  of  obsessions  and  compulsions  in  OCD  tend  to  show  a  four-­‐‑
factor  model  (Castle  &  Phillips,  2006):    

• Aggressive,  sexual,  and  religious  obsessions,  and  checking  compulsions;    

• Symmetry  and  ordering  obsessions  and  compulsions;  (often  chronic  and  treatment  resistant)  
• Contamination  obsessions  and  cleaning  compulsions;    
• Hoarding  obsessions  and  compulsions  (may  be  neurobiologically  distinct  and  often  treatment  
resistant)  
Aetiology:  The  aetiology  of  OCD  is  unknown.  Hypermetabolism  of  basal  ganglia  structures  (caudate)  has  
been  reported  in  several  neuroimaging  studies.  D2  antagonists  such  as  clozapine  and  other  antipsychotics  
can  cause  secondary  OCD-­‐‑like  symptoms  in  some  patients.  Children  with  autoimmune  reactions  (e.g.  
PANDAS  -­‐‑see  below)  have  a  higher  prevalence  of  OCD.    OCD  also  overlaps  with  a  spectrum  of  other  
disorders.  OCD  spectrum  disorders  can  be  classified  as:    

• 1.  Those  associated  with  somatic  preoccupation  e.g.body  dysmorphic  disorder,  hypochondriasis  or  
anorexia  nervosa.  
• 2.  Those  associated  with  neurological  disorders  (repetitive  behaviours)  e.g.  Tourette  syndrome,  
Sydenham'ʹs  chorea  and  autistic  spectrum.  
• 3.  Those  associated  with  impulse  control  disorders  or  with  rousing  or  pleasurable  repetitive  
behaviours  e.g.  paraphilias,  kleptomania,  trichotillomania,  and  pathological  gambling.  (Castle  &  
Phillips,  2006)  
• Anankastic  personality  can  also  be  considered  a  part  of  OCD  spectrum.    

PANDAS:  Paediatric  autoimmune  neuropsychiatric  disorders  associated  with  streptococcal  infection—

PANDAS  is  thought  to  be  secondary  to  streptococcal  infection  and  mediated  by  autoantibodies  binding  to  
basal  ganglia.  This  produces  tics,  fluctuating  obsessive-­‐‑compulsive  symptoms  and  anxiety.    

National  Institute  of  Mental  Health  Clinical  Diagnostic  Criteria  for  PANDAS  
1.  The  presence  of  OCD  or  a  tic  disorder.  
2.  Onset  between  3  years  of  age  and  the  beginning  of  puberty.  
3.  Abrupt  onset  of  symptoms  or  a  course  characterized  by  dramatic  exacerbations  of  symptoms.  
4.  The  onset  or  the  exacerbations  of  symptoms  is  temporally  related  to  infection  with  GABHS.  
5.  Abnormal  results  of  the  neurologic  examination  (hyperactivity,  choreiform  movements,  and/or  tics)  during  an  
 
exacerbation.  

©  SPMM  Course   3  
Note  that  the  neuropsychiatric  symptoms  need  not  have  onset  during  the  streptococcal  (group  A  
beta-­‐‑hemolytic)  infection;  exacerbation  correlated  temporally  is  also  acceptable  for  a  diagnosis.  

AntiDNAseB  or  Antistreptolysin  O  titres  are  likely  to  be  elevated  in  most  with  recent  
streptococcal  infection.  A  fraction  of  these  may  have  autoantibodies  to  neurons  in  basal  ganglia  
called  anti  basal  ganglia  antibodies.    

Treatment  of  OCD  (according  to  NICE  guidelines)  

 
mild  to  moderate step  1  self-­‐‑help step  2:  CBT  with  ERP step  3:  SSRIs+/-­‐‑  CBT

assess  severity Responders:  continue  

SSRI  for  1-­‐‑2  years  +/-­‐‑    
booster  CBT
severe step  1:  SSRIs+/-­‐‑  CBT
 
Non-­‐‑responders:  
switch  to  different  
  SRI  or  clomipramine

Exposure  and  response  prevention  is  a  key  element  of  CBT  for  of  OCD.  Patients  are  trained  to  confront  
(directly  or  in  imagination)  anxiety-­‐‑provoking  situations  while  abstaining  from  compulsive  behaviours  in  
response.    Periodic  exposure  and  response  prevention  “booster”  sessions  can  reduce  the  risk  of  relapse  
and  provide  more  durable  remission  than  using  pharmacotherapy  alone.  

OCD  shows  a  selective  response  to  serotonergic  medications  such  as  clomipramine  and  SSRIs.  Around  60  
to  70%  of  patients  experience  some  degree  of  improvement  after  SSRI  treatment  (typically  at    a  higher  
dose,  given  for  a  longer  duration  than  for  depression).  NNT  for  SSRIs  (vs.  placebo)  varies  between  6  and  
12.  Antipsychotic  augmentation  is  indicated  if  no  response  is  seen  after  a  three-­‐‑month  trial  of  a  maximal  
dose  of  SSRI.  This  is  especially  useful  when  tics  are  also  seen.  

©  SPMM  Course   4  
 3. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder:
Diagnostic  criteria  for  PTSD  have  been  altered  in  DSM-­‐‑5.  PTSD  (as  well  as  Acute  Stress  Disorder)  have  
been  moved  from  anxiety  disorders  into  a  new  class  of  "ʺtrauma  and  stressor-­‐‑related  disorders."ʺ    A  history  
of  exposure  to  a  traumatic  event  that  meets  specific  stipulations  and  symptoms  from  each  of  four  
symptom  clusters:  intrusion,  avoidance,  negative  alterations  in  cognitions  and  mood  (including  self-­‐‑blame  
or  blaming  others  persistently),  and  alterations  in  arousal  and  reactivity  (including  reckless  and  
destructive  behaviour).  A  clinical  subtype  "ʺwith  dissociative  symptoms"ʺ  has  also  been  added.    

Epidemiology:  The  incidence  varies  across  the  world.    Point  prevalence  is  1%.  The  National  Comorbidity  
Survey  Replication  (NCS-­‐‑R)  found  the  lifetime  prevalence  of  PTSD  among  adult  Americans  to  be  6.8%.    
The  lifetime  prevalence  among  men  was  3.6%,  and  among  women  was  9.7%.    It  is  unclear  whether  the  
gender  difference  is  due  to  higher  exposure  to  trauma  or  greater  vulnerability  to  develop  PTSD.    

Males   are   more   likely   than   females   to   be   exposed   to   traumatic   events   (60%   males   vs.   50%   females).   But  
females  develop  PTSD  two  times  more  frequently  (12%  vs.  6%  in  NCS)  even  after  controlling  the  type  of  
trauma.  It  is  unclear  if  this  is  due  to  higher  exposure  to  trauma  or  greater  vulnerability  to  develop  PTSD.    

Up  to  30%  of  people  exposed  to  trauma  may  develop  PTSD.  The  most  frequently  experienced  trauma  is  
witnessing  someone  being  badly  injured  or  killed,  followed  by  exposure  to  fire,  flood  or  natural  disaster,  
being   involved   in   a   life-­‐‑threatening   accident   and   combat   exposure.   Molestation   is   more   common   in  
females   than   males.   Mugging   is   more   common   in   males   than   females.   But   in   both   instances   women  
develop  more  PTSD.  The  only  trauma  where  men  develop  more  PTSD  is  rape.    

PTSD   is   more   common   in   younger   than   older   individuals;   more   common   in   those   with   higher   anxiety  
response   to   the   initial   event   and   in   those   who   perceive   external   locus   of   control   (as   opposed   to   internal  
locus).  

NICE  encourages  primary  care  diagnosis  and  screening,  as  PTSD  is  probably  underdiagnosed.  

Aetiology:  Resilience  to  trauma  is  a  dynamic  factor;  individuals  who  may  not  develop  PTSD  after  
one  trauma  may  develop  after  another.
Factors  associated  with  post-­‐‑traumatic  stress  disorder  (from  Bisson,  2007)  include  pre-­‐‑traumatic  factors  
such  as  previous  psychiatric  disorder,  females  gender,  personality  (external  locus  of  control  greater  than  
internal  locus  of  control),  lower  socioeconomic  and  educational  status,    ethnic  minority  status  and  
personality  disorders  (cluster  B);  peritraumatic  factors  include  the  higher  severity  of  trauma,  perceived  
threat  to  life  and  peritraumatic  dissociation.  Post-­‐‑traumatic  factors  include  perceived  lack  of  social  
support,  subsequent  life  stress  or  physical  illness  (especially  chronic  pain).  Protective  factors  include  high  
IQ,  higher  social  class,    and  getting  an  opportunity  to  grieve  for  the  loss  (e.g.  viewing  the  dead  body  of  
friend/relative  after  trauma).  

Hippocampus  and  amygdala  show  neuroimaging  abnormalities.  Hypocortisolaemia  is  reported  in  PTSD.  
Strong  avoidance  features  may  predict  chronicity  in  PTSD.  

©  SPMM  Course   5  
Prevention  of  PTSD:  

What  are  the  effects  of  interventions  to  prevent  post-­‐‑traumatic  stress  disorder  (Bisson,  Clinical  evidence  
2004)?  

Likely  to  be  beneficial   Multiple-­‐‑session  CBT  to  prevent  PTSD  in  people  with  acute  
stress  disorder  (reduced  PTSD  compared  with  supportive  
counselling)    

Unknown  effectiveness   Multiple-­‐‑session  CBT  to  prevent  PTSD  in  all  people  exposed  to  
a  traumatic  event    
Propranolol  to  prevent  PTSD    
Single-­‐‑session  group  debriefing  to  prevent  PTSD    
Temazepam  to  prevent  PTSD    

Unlikely  to  be  beneficial   Single-­‐‑session  individual  debriefing  to  prevent  PTSD    
Supportive  counselling  to  prevent  PTSD  
(Prescriber  2005;  15(8):40-­‐‑48,  Ballanger  et  al.,  J  Clin  Psychiatry  2000;  61  (Suppl  5):60-­‐‑66)  

Treatment  of  PTSD:    

NICE  suggests  the  following:  

Initial  Management  in  Primary  Care  

• Watchful  waiting  where  symptoms  are  mild  and  have  been  present  for  less  than  4  weeks  after  the  
trauma  
• The  prescription  of  a  non-­‐‑benzodiazepine  sleeping  tablet  after  four  consecutive  nights’  sleep  
disturbance  is  recommended  

Further  Specialist  Management:  

• Psychological  treatment  should  be  done  in  a  regular  and  continuous  (usually  at  least  once  a  week)  
manner  and  should  be  delivered  by  the  same  person  
• Non-­‐‑trauma-­‐‑focused  interventions  such  as  relaxation  or  non-­‐‑directive  therapy  should  not  be  used  
routinely  since  these  do  not  address  traumatic  memories    
• Interventions  used  when  symptoms  are  present  within  3  months  of  a  trauma  
o trauma-­‐‑focused  cognitive  behavioural  therapy  which  includes  a  combination  of  exposure  
therapy,  cognitive  therapy  and  stress  management    
o Should  be  offered  to  those  with  severe  post-­‐‑traumatic  symptoms  or  with  severe  PTSD  in  
the  first  month  after  the  traumatic  event  and  people  who  present  with  PTSD  within  3  
months  of  the  event  
o Normally  provided  on  an  individual  outpatient  basis;  around  8–12  sessions  are  usually  
offered  (five  sessions  if  the  treatment  starts  within  1  month  of  the  event)  

©  SPMM  Course   6  
 o The  prescription  of  a  nonbenzodiazepine  medication  after  four  consecutive  nights  of  sleep  
disturbance  is  recommended.  For  short-­‐‑term  use  -­‐‑  hypnotic  medication;  For  longer-­‐‑term  
use  –  an  early  introduction  of  a  suitable  antidepressant  should  be  done  to  avoid  
dependence.  
• Interventions  used  when  symptoms  are  present  for  more  than  3  months  after  a  trauma  
o trauma-­‐‑focused  CBT  or  eye  movement  desensitisation  and  reprocessing  (EMDR)  
o Up  to  12  sessions  can  be  offered.  In  case  of  treatment  failure  or  limited  improvement  with  a  
specific  trauma-­‐‑focused  psychological  treatment,  consider  an  alternative  form  of  trauma-­‐‑
focused  psychological  treatment;  if  no  improvement  considers  pharmacological  treatment.  
o Paroxetine,  mirtazapine  for  general  use;  amitriptyline  or  phenelzine  for  specialist  use.  

Drug   Evidence  &  practice  in  the  UK  

Paroxetine   Good  RCT  evidence.  NICE  second  line.  Licensed  for  PTSD    

Sertraline   RCT  evidence;  but  NICE  appraisal  did  not  show  significance.  Licensed  for  females  
not  males  with  PTSD  in  the  UK.  

Fluoxetine   1  RCT  but  not  significant  

Imipramine  &   Poor  quality  of  evidence;  but  a  statistically  significant  result  for  Amitriptyline;  not  
Amitriptyline   so  for  imipramine.  
Phenelzine   Poor  quality  of  evidence;  but  statistically  significant  result  

Mirtazapine     One  small  strongly  positive  RCT.  NICE  second  line.  

Venlafaxine   One  large  RCT  no  benefit  

Olanzapine   Monotherapy  RCT  negative;  augmentation  of  SSRIs  positive  

Risperidone   Tested  only  as  adjunct  –  no  effect  

Considerable  research  has  been  conducted  in  particular  approaches  to  the  psychotherapy  of  PTSD.    The  
evidence  indicates  that  modalities  tested  in  Randomised  Controlled  Trials  are  far  from  100%  applicable  
and  effective.    The  RCT  model  itself  is  inadequate  for  evaluating  treatments  of  conditions  with  complex  
presentations  and  multiple  comorbidities.    Psychotherapy  studies  often  exclude  patients  with  comorbidity  
and  complexity  (Corrigan  &  Hull,  2015)  

In  a  meta-­‐‑analysis  by  Bisson  et  al.  (2007)  no  evidence  of  a  difference  in  efficacy  between  TFCBT  and  EMDR  
was  noted,  but  there  was  some  evidence  that  TFCBT  and  EMDR  were  superior  to  stress  management  and  
other  therapies,  and  that  stress  management  was  superior  to  other  therapies.  In  a  Cochrane  review  it  was  
shown  that  psychological  debriefing  after  trauma  is  either  equivalent  to,  or  worse  than,  control  or  
educational  interventions  in  preventing  or  reducing  the  severity  of  PTSD,  depression,  anxiety  and  general  

©  SPMM  Course   7  
psychological  morbidity  after  trauma.  There  is  some  suggestion  that  it  may  increase  the  risk  of  PTSD  and  
depression.  

Trauma-­‐‑focused   CBT:   May   includes   exposure   therapy   wherein   repeated   confrontation   of   traumatic  
memories   and   repeated   exposure   to   avoided   situations   take   place   together   with   relaxation   and   anxiety  
reduction.   In   trauma-­‐‑focused   cognitive   component   modification   of   misinterpretations   that   lead   to  
overestimation  of  current  threat  and  modification  of  other  beliefs  related  to  the  traumatic  experience  and  
the  individual'ʹs  behaviour  during  the  trauma  (for  example,  guilt  and  shame)  are  attempted  via  cognitive  
restructuring   process.   Trauma-­‐‑focused   psychological   treatment   should   usually   be   given   for   eight   to   12  
sessions  

Eye  movement  desensitisation  and  reprocessing:  This  was  serendipitously  discovered  by  a  psychologist  
(Shapiro)  when  she  first  applied  it  to  herself.  It  is  based  on  the  theory  that  bilateral  stimulation,  in  the  form  
of   eye   movements,   allows   the   processing   of   traumatic   memories.   While   the   patient   focuses   on   specific  
images,   negative   sensations   and   associated   cognitions,   bilateral   stimulation   is   applied   to   desensitize   the  
individual  to  these  memories  and  more  positive  sensations  and  cognitions  are  introduced.  

Outcome:  More  than  a  third  of  people  reported  having  the  disorder  six  years  after  they  first  developed  it.  
50%  chance  of  remission  at  two  years.  

Acute  stress  disorder  is  a  diagnostically  different  entity  from  PTSD.  To  diagnose  acute  stress  reaction,  
there  must  be  an  immediate  and  clear  temporal  connection  between  the  impact  of  an  exceptional  stressor  
and  the  onset  of  symptoms.  The  symptoms  usually  appear  within  minutes  of  the  impact  of  the  stressful  
stimulus  or  event  and  disappear  within  2-­‐‑3  days  (often  within  hours).  Partial  or  complete  amnesia  for  the  
episode  may  be  present.  In  addition,  the  symptoms:    
(a)  Show  a  mixed  and  usually  changing  picture;  in  addition  to  the  initial  state  of  "ʺdaze"ʺ,  depression,  
anxiety,  anger,  despair,  overactivity,  and  withdrawal  may  all  be  seen,  but  no  one  type  of  symptom  
predominates  for  long;    
(b)  Resolve  rapidly  (within  a  few  hours  at  the  most)  in  those  cases  where  removal  from  the  stressful  
environment  is  possible;  in  cases  where  the  stress  continues  or  cannot  by  its  nature  be  reversed,  the  
symptoms  usually  begin  to  diminish  after  24-­‐‑48  hours  and  are  usually  minimal  after  about  3  days.    
This  diagnosis  should  not  be  used  to  cover  sudden  exacerbations  of  symptoms  in  individuals  already  
showing  symptoms  that  fulfill  the  criteria  for  any  other  psychiatric  disorder,  except  for  those  in  F60  
(personality  disorders).  However,  a  history  of  previous  psychiatric  disorder  does  not  invalidate  the  use  of  
this  diagnosis.    

©  SPMM  Course   8  
 4. Generalised Anxiety Disorder:
The  feature  of  avoidance  seen  in  other  anxiety  disorders  is  not  needed  for  a  diagnosis  of  GAD;  it  is  often  
punctuated  by  depressive  episodes  and  co-­‐‑existent  with  a  number  of  comorbid  diseases.  

Epidemiology:  the  lifetime  prevalence  of  DSM-­‐‑IV  GAD  is  estimated  to  be  about  5%;  point  prevalence  is  
about  2%  to  3%  (Weisberg,  2009)  

Aetiology:  Twin  studies  suggest  MZ  concordance  41%  vs.  DZ  4%,  though  the  rates  vary  in  different  
samples  (e.g.  Andrews  et  al.  study  -­‐‑  21.5%  concordance  in  MZ  twins,  compared  with  a  13.5%  in  DZ).    Risk  
factors  include  exposure  to  civilian  trauma,  bullying  or  peer  victimisation.  a  higher  number  of  life  events,  
being  a  first-­‐‑degree  relative  of  a  GAD  patient  and  female  gender.  

Hamilton  anxiety  scale  is  a  14-­‐‑item  instrument  that  emphasizes  somatic  symptoms.  Treatment  response  is  
generally  defined  as  a  50%  reduction  in  baseline  score.  Clinical  recovery  is  often  defined  as  a  score  of  less  
than  7  on  the  Hamilton  anxiety  scale.  
Treatment:  

Acute  treatment   SSRIs:  escitalopram,  paroxetine,  sertraline.    

TCAs:  imipramine.    
Benzos:  alprazolam  and  diazepam  (not  suited  for  long-­‐‑term  
therapy).    
Venlafaxine,  duloxetine  &  Buspirone    
CBT    
Long-­‐‑term  efficacy/relapse   Paroxetine,  escitalopram,  CBT,  venlafaxine,  pregabalin.  
prevention  
Adjuncts  for  non-­‐‑response   Antipsychotics  olanzapine/risperidone  low  doses.  
Adapted  from  Tyrer,  P  &  Baldwin,  D  (2006).  Generalised  anxiety  disorder.  368,  9553:  2156-­‐‑2166  

NICE  recommends  that  an  SSRI  should  be  used  as  a  first  line.    SNRIs  and  pregabalin  are  alternative  
choices.    Among  psychological  treatments,  both  CBT  and  anxiety  management  therapy  are  useful  though  
CBT  may  be  better  in  efficacy.    CBT  includes  education,  relaxation  training,  and  exposure  and  cognitive  
restructuring.  

Guidelines  including  NICE  suggest  that  there  is  insufficient  evidence  to  recommend  combined  
psychological  and  pharmacological  treatment  initially,  although  this  can  be  considered  if  initial  treatment  
fails.  

Outcome:  At  12-­‐‑year  follow-­‐‑up  of  adults  at  an  anxiety  clinic,  42%  of  patients  had  recovered  from  
generalised  anxiety  disorder,  but  the  disorder  was  a  marker  for  poor  outcome  in  those  patients  who  had  
another  anxiety  disorder.  

©  SPMM  Course   9  
Herbal  Treatment  of  Anxiety:  The  kava  shrub  (Piper  methysticum)  has  been  studied  in  anxiety  disorders  
and  appears  to  be  effective  in  some  trials.  Gingko  and  valerian  are  not  effective;  common  lavender,  saffron,  
German  chamomile  and  lemon  balm  appear  promising  (Ernst  13  (4):  312.  APT  (2007).  

o The  effects  of  kava  are  due  to  the  kavapyrones,  which  in  animal  models  act  as  muscle  relaxants  and  
anticonvulsants,  protect  against  strychnine  poisoning,  and  reduce  limbic  system  excitability.    
o They   may   cause   inhibition   of   voltage-­‐‑dependent   sodium   channels,   increase   GABAA   receptor  
densities,  block  norepinephrine  reuptake,  and  suppress  the  release  of  glutamate.  
o Several  double-­‐‑blind,  placebo-­‐‑controlled  trials  have  shown  kava  to  be  more  effective  than  placebo  
in   reducing   HAM-­‐‑A   scale   scores,   and   this   effect   is   detectable   even   within   1   week   of   therapy.  
Werneke  et  al.  in  found  that  kava  (Piper  methysticum)  was  the  most  researched  remedy  for  anxiety  
and  that  there  was  good  evidence  for  its  anxiolytic  effect.  A  Cochrane  review  reported  of  11  RCTs  
showed  that  kava  is  the  only  herbal  remedy  that  has  been  proven  to  be  effective  in  reducing  anxiety.  
But   kava   cannot   be   recommended   for   clinical   use   because   of   an   association   with   hepatotoxicity,  
which  has  led  to  its  withdrawal  from  the  UK  market.  
o Kava   is   associated   with   allergic,   sometimes   fatal   hepatotoxicity   and   so   not   recommended   for  
general  use.  (Beaubrun  &  Gray,  2000)  
o Cochrane  reviews  of  valerian  and  passiflora  showed  no  efficacy  in  anxiety  compared  to  diazepam.  
o Kava   can   interact   with   levodopa   and   alprazolam,   causing   extrapyramidal   symptoms   or   lethargy.  
Valerian   can   interact   with   loperamide   and   fluoxetine,   causing   delirium.   Evening   primrose   oil   can  
interact  with  phenothiazides,  causing  epileptic  seizures.  

5. Social Phobia:
Point  prevalence  is  2.8%.  Two  types  are  recognised  (Schneier,  2003):  A  generalised  subtype  where  fear  
occurs  in  most  social  situations.  This  leads  to  higher  impairment  and  patients  are  more  likely  to  seek  
treatment,  than  the  second  subtype.    A  situational  or  non  generalised  subtype  presents  as  fear  of  public  
speaking  or  performance  anxiety.      

Treatments:    The  best-­‐‑established  treatments  are  CBT  &  SSRIs.    Benzodiazepines  should  not  be  used.  

• Paroxetine,  sertraline,  fluoxetine  and  fluvoxamine,  escitalopram,  venlafaxine  have  been  evaluated  
in  RCTs  with  a  favourable  outcome.  Normal  antidepressant  doses  can  be  used  but  may  need  a  
longer  12-­‐‑week  trial  to  establish  outcome.  Drug  treatment  should  continue  for  at  least  6-­‐‑12  months  
after  the  response.      
• Phenelzine  is  the  second  line  treatment.    Moclobemide  is  also  effective.      
• Short-­‐‑term  use  of  benzodiazepines  including  clonazepam  and  novel  anticonvulsant  gabapentin  
has  been  evaluated  with  some  evidence.    
• SSRI  +  clonazepam  combination,  gabapentin  or  pregabalin  can  be  tried  as  third-­‐‑line  agents.  
•    Blockers  are  not  significantly  different  from  placebo  in  generalised  subtype,  but  they  can  be  used  
on/off  in  performance  anxiety  subtype.  
Ø Self-­‐‑help  principles  should  be  encouraged.  
 
©  SPMM  Course   10  
 6. Panic Disorder:
Panic  can  exist  in  different  forms.  Major  classificatory  systems  recognise  panic  disorder,  agoraphobia  and  
comorbid  panic  disorder  with  agoraphobia.  DSM  puts  panic  disorder  as  primary  dysfunction  while  ICD  
focuses   on   agoraphobia.   To   diagnose   panic   disorder,   there   must   be   frequent   panic   attacks   within   a  
specified  time  interval.  

Epidemiology:  It  is  increasingly  being  realised  that  panic  attacks  can  occur  without  fully  satisfying  panic  
disorder   criteria.   Patients   with   such   panic   attacks   have   a   significant   impairment,   help   seeking   and  
medication   requirement.   Point   prevalence   of   panic   disorder   is   0.9%.   The   NCS-­‐‑R   collected   data   on   four  
composite   groups:   Isolated   panic   attacks   (PA   only),   Panic   attacks   with   AG   (PA-­‐‑AG),  Panic  disorder  (PD  
only),  PD  with  AG  (PD-­‐‑AG).  Lifetime  prevalence  of  PA  only  was  28%  while  4.7%  had  lifetime  PD.  Only  
1.1%   had   PD-­‐‑AG   while   0.8%   had   lifetime   PA-­‐‑AG.   Cued   panic   attacks   are   common   in   PD   and   AG  
compared   to   isolated   PA   where   non-­‐‑cued   out   of   blue   panic   is   seen.   The   mean   age   of   onset   of   any   panic  
attack  –  irrespective  of  diagnosis  –  is  around  22  years.    All-­‐‑cause  mortality  is  increased  by  1.9  times  (SMR)  
in  those  with  panic  disorder.  

The   ICD-­‐‑10   classifies   panic   disorder   as   recurrent,   unpredictable   panic   attacks,   with   sudden   onset   of  
palpitations,   chest   pain,   choking   sensations,   dizziness,   and   feelings   of   unreality,   often   with  
associated  fear  of  dying,  losing  control,  or  going  mad,  but  without  the  requirement  for  the  symptoms  
to  have  persisted  for  1  month  or  longer.  

Aetiology:  An  estimated  heritability  of  30%-­‐‑40%  is  noted.  According  to  cognitive  theory  patients  with  
panic  disorder  have  a  heightened  sensitivity  to  internal  bodily  sensations.  A  fear  network  involving  the  
amygdala,  orbitofrontal  cortex  and  hypothalamus  has  been  implicated  in  some  neuroimaging  studies.  

Treatment:  NICE  guideline  summary  

• CBT  psychotherapy  -­‐‑  seven  to  14  hours  of  cognitive  behaviour  therapy—usually  weekly  sessions  of  
one  to  two  hours,  completed  within  four  months  is  recommended.  
• Self-­‐‑help  by  bibliotherapy  and  self-­‐‑help  groups  and  support  groups  are  useful  in  primary  care.  
• SSRIs  are  useful  first-­‐‑line  drug  treatments.  
• If  no  improvement  is  seen  after  a  12-­‐‑week  course  of  SSRIs,  imipramine  or  clomipramine  should  be  
considered.    
• Benzodiazepines  are  associated  with  a  worse  outcome  in  the  long  term  and  should  not  be  
prescribed.  
 
BAP  recommendations  for  panic  disorder:  
For  acute  management  according  to  patient  choice:  
• pharmacological:  all  SSRIs,  some  TCAs  (clomipramine,  imipramine),  some  benzodiazepines  
(alprazolam,  clonazepam,  diazepam,  lorazepam),  venlafaxine,  reboxetine  have  evidence  base  or  
psychological:  cognitive-­‐‑behaviour  therapy.  
• Both  pharmacological  and  psychological  approaches  have  broadly  similar  efficacy  in  acute  
treatment.  
©  SPMM  Course   11  
 • Consider  an  SSRI  for  first-­‐‑line  pharmacological  treatment.  
• Consider  increasing  the  dose  if  there  is  an  insufficient  response,  but  there  is  only  limited  evidence  
for  a  dose-­‐‑response  relationship  with  SSRIs.  
• Treatment  periods  of  up  to  12  weeks  are  needed  to  assess  efficacy.  
Longer-­‐‑term  treatment  
• Consider  cognitive  therapy  with  exposure  as  this  may  reduce  relapse  rates  better  than  drug  
treatment.  
• Continue  drug  treatment  for  a  further  six  months  in  patients  who  are  responding  at  12  weeks:  first  
line  drug  choice  is  an  SSRI;  imipramine  is  a  second-­‐‑line  choice  
• Routinely  combining  drug  and  psychological  approaches  is  not  recommended.  
When  initial  treatments  fail  
• Consider  switching  at  12  weeks  
• Consider  combining  evidence-­‐‑based  treatments  only  when  there  are  no  contraindications  Consider  
adding  paroxetine  or  buspirone  to  psychological  treatments  after  partial  response    
• Consider  adding  paroxetine,  whilst  continuing  with  CBT,  after  initial  non-­‐‑response.  
 

7. Other related disorders

 

A. Hypochondriasis
Classed  in  ICD-­‐‑10  as  a  preoccupation  with  the  fear  of  having  a  serious  disease  based  on  the  
misrepresentation  of  bodily  symptoms.    DSM-­‐‑V  has  removed  hypochondriasis  as  a  disorder  as  the  
name  was  perceived  as  pejorative  and  most  patients  with  a  former  diagnosis  of  hypochondriasis  
would  now  be  diagnosed  as  having  Somatic  Symptom  Disorder  or  Illness  Anxiety  Disorder  (see  
below).
Prevalence  and  Risk  Factors  
Most  information  comes  from  studies  conducted  in  primary  care.    Prevalence  has  been  reported  
between  0.8  and  4.5%.    There  is  no  conclusive  data  about  specific  risk  factors,  but  there  are  
associations  with  anxiety,  depressive  and  other  somatoform  disorders.  
Treatment  
CBT  has  been  shown  to  be  efficacious,  and  group  cognitive-­‐‑behavioural  therapy  may  also  be  useful.    
SSRIs  may  also  be  efficacious.  
 

B. Body Dysmorphic Disorder:

A  patient  with  body  dysmorphic  disorder  (BDD)  (dysmorphophobia)  is  convinced  that  part  of  their  body  
has  a  defect  or  is  flawed  in  some  way.  To  the  observer,  the  appearance  is  normal  or  of  a  minor  
abnormality.    The  patient  engages  in  repetitive  behaviours  or  mental  acts  in  response  to  preoccupations  
with  perceived  defects  or  flaws.    BDD  has  both  psychotic  and  non-­‐‑psychotic  variants,  classified  in  DSM-­‐‑
V  as  BDD  with  delusional  or  without  delusional  component,  suggesting  they  can  be  considered  as  part  of  
the  same  disorder,  characterized  by  a  spectrum  of  insight.  
©  SPMM  Course   12  
Aetiology:  Factors  that  may  predispose  persons  to  BDD  include:  
• low  self-­‐‑esteem  
• critical  parents  and  significant  others  
• early  childhood  trauma  
• unconscious  displacement  of  emotional  conflict  
Epidemiology:  Patients  with  BDD  also  had  an  earlier  onset  of  major  depression  and  higher  lifetime  rates  
of  major  depression  (26%),  social  phobia  (16%),  obsessive-­‐‑compulsive  disorder  (6%),  and  psychotic  
disorder  diagnoses  as  well  as  higher  rates  of  substance  use  disorders  in  first-­‐‑degree  relatives.    Studies  
have  reported  rates  of  BDD  of  7%  and  15%  of  patients  seeking  cosmetic  surgery  and  a  rate  of  12%  in  
patients  seeking  dermatologic  treatment.  

Treatment:  High-­‐‑dose  SSRIs  used  for  a  longer  duration  than  the  usual  antidepressant  trial  period  can  be  
effective.  Fluoxetine  has  RCT  evidence  in  this  regard.  Antipsychotics  have  also  been  studied  with  variable  
success.  Pimozide  has  anecdotal  support  though  the  risk  of  QT  prolongation  precludes  wider  use.  CBT  
has  been  shown  to  be  effective  in  a  number  of  case  series;  combination  with  fluoxetine  may  treat  resistant  
cases.  

Outcome:  The  prognosis  of  psychotic  variant  is  generally  poor  with  waxing  and  waning  course.  But  there  
is  often  a  relatively  preserved  psychosocial  functioning  in  many  patients,  in  line  with  the  outcomes  seen  in  
persistent  delusional  disorders.  

C. Medically Unexplained Symptoms and Somatisation Disorder:

Somatisation   Disorder:   Community   surveys   in   the   United   States   and   Western   Europe   have   found  
prevalence  rates  of  less  than  1  per  cent.  Primary  care  surveys  using  structured  interviews  have  found  only  
a   slightly   higher   prevalence—typically   1   to   2%.   An   analysis   of   follow-­‐‑up   data   from   the   World   Health  
Organization  multicentre  primary  care  survey,  however,  indicates  that  recall  during  structured  interviews  
may  significantly  underestimate  the  lifetime  prevalence  of  somatization  disorder  and  unexplained  somatic  
symptoms.   The   prevalence   of   somatization   disorder   and   of   less   severe   somatization   syndromes   is  
typically  twice  as  high  in  women  as  men.  The  survey  also  noted  that  approximately  20  percent  of  primary  
care   patients   suffered   from   persistent   pain   (one   or   more   pain   symptoms   present   for   most   of   the   last   6  
months).  Pain  syndromes  are  approximately  twice  as  prevalent  in  women  as  in  men.  

A   high   proportion   of   patients   with   MUS   have   undiagnosed   and,   therefore,   untreated   mental   disorder.    
Rohricht   and   Elanjithara   (2009)   reported   that   42%   of   those   with   MUS   had   a   primary   diagnosis   of  
somatoform  disorder,  36%  had  a  depressive  disorder  and  depressive  symptoms  medicated  by  the  effect  of  
somatic  symptoms.  

Presentation:  The  reliability  of  medically  unexplained  symptoms  is  limited;  they  are  a  feature  of  Somatic  
Symptom  Disorders  (DSM-­‐‑V);  Somatic  Symptom  Disorders  can  also  accompany  diagnosed  medical  
disorders.    The  emphasis  on  a  diagnosis  of  Somatic  Symptom  Disorder  is  on  the  maladaptive  thoughts,  
feelings,  and  behaviours  associated  with  the  somatic  symptoms.  

©  SPMM  Course   13  
Treatment:  A  review  of  studies  carried  out  in  primary,  secondary,  and  tertiary  care  settings  by  
Sumathipala  et  al  2007  showed  three  types  of  interventions  to  be  supported  by  evidence  for  medically  
unexplained  symptoms,  namely:  antidepressant  medication,  cognitive  behavioural  therapy  (CBT),  and  
other  nonspecific  interventions.    

• There  is  more  level  I  evidence  for  CBT  compared  to  other  approaches.    
• CBT  is  efficacious  for  the  broader  category  of  medically  unexplained  symptoms  by  reducing  
physical  symptoms,  psychological  distress,  and  disability.    
• No  studies  have  compared  pharmacological  and  psychological  treatments.    
• Most  trials  assessed  only  short-­‐‑term  outcomes.    
New   and   locally   derived   collaborative   care   models   of   active   engagement   in   primary   care   settings   are  
recommended.     Patients   with   somatoform   disorder   may   benefit   from   Body-­‐‑Oriented   Psychological  
Therapy,  mentalization-­‐‑based  CBT,  and  brief  psychodynamic  interpersonal  therapy.  
 

D. Dissociative Disorders:
Dissociative  disorders  refer  to  a  set  of  conditions  that  involve  disruptions  or  breakdowns  of  memory,  
identity,  or  perception.    ICD-­‐‑10  classifies  Conversion  Disorder  as  a  dissociative  disorder.    DSM-­‐‑V  lists:  
Dissociative  Identity  Disorder  (the  distinct  alternation  of  two  or  more  distinct  personality  states  with  
impaired  recall  among  personality  states;  and  Dissociative  Amnesia  (the  temporary  loss  of  recall  memory,  
specifically  episodic  memory,  due  to  a  traumatic  or  stressful  event.    Classed  under  this  is  Dissociative  
Fugue  (reversible  amnesia  for  personal  identity,  usually  involving  unplanned  travel  or  wandering,  
sometimes  accompanied  by  the  establishment  of  a  new  identity).    Included  in  the  Dissociative  Disorders  is  
Depersonalisation/derealisation  disorder.  
Prevalence:   Some   surveys   estimate   that   10%   of   the   adult   population   has   dissociative   disorder  
(according   to   DSM-­‐‑III   definition).     It   appears   to   be   as   common   as   anxiety,   mood   and   substance  
misuse   disorders.   It   may   be   that   more   women   present   with   the   severest   symptoms,   but   several  
studies  have  found  no  gender  differences  in  the  prevalence  of  Dissociative  Disorders.  

Aetiology:  Patients  with  Dissociative  Disorders  report  high  frequencies  of  childhood  psychological  
trauma,  in  particular  childhood  sexual  abuse  (57-­‐‑90%),  emotional  abuse  (57%),  physical  abuse  (62-­‐‑82%)  
and  neglect  (62%).  

Treatment:  The  aim  is  to  integrate  feelings,  perceptions,  thoughts  and  memories.    The  international  
Society  for  the  Study  of  Trauma  and  Dissociation  recommend  individual  psychotherapy  (especially  
structured  therapy  such  as  Acceptance  and  Commitment  Therapy  and  DBT)  and  skills  training,  
although  studies  in  this  field  are  in  their  infancy.  

©  SPMM  Course   14  
 8. Eating Disorders:
3  major  types  are  recognised  by  ICD-­‐‑10:  Anorexia  nervosa,  bulimia  nervosa  and  EDNOS  –  atypical  ED  or  
ED  not  otherwise  specified.  Binge  eating  disorder  is  the  increasingly  recognised  fourth  type,  but  falling  
under  EDNOS  currently.  But  the  stability  of  individual  ED  diagnoses  is  poor;  patients  migrate  from  one  to  
other  very  often.    Notably  at  least  1/4th  to  1/3rd  of  those  with  bulimia  have  a  past  history  of  anorexia  though  
migration  from  bulimia  to  anorexia  is  somewhat  rare.  

In  the  diagnostic  criteria  for  Anorexia  Nervosa  (AN)  the  value  of  the  amenorrhoea  criterion  is  
questionable  as  most  female  patients  who  have  BMI  around  17.5  and  body  image  disturbance  are  
amenorrhoeic;  those  who  have  intact  periods  have  same  clinical  features  and  outcome  as  those  who  satisfy  
all  3  criteria.    In  DSM-­‐‑5,  the  requirement  for  amenorrhoea  has  been  eliminated.  

In  bulimia  binge  eating  episodes  are  characteristically  seen  (may  also  occur  in  anorexia).    DSM-­‐‑V  specifies  
a  once-­‐‑weekly  frequency  for  binge  eating  and  inappropriate  compensatory  behavior  as  a  diagnostic  
criterion.  The  amount  of  food  intake  during  binges  varies  from  1000  kCals  to  2000  kCals.    Most  patients  
with  bulimia  have  an  immense  feeling  of  loss  of  control  and  so  seek  and  engage  in  treatment  better  than  
anorexia  patients.    

Epidemiology  of  bulimia  and  anorexia:  

Anorexia   Bulimia  
Onset  mostly  in  adolescents     Mostly  young  adults;  little  later  
onset  
Excess  in  higher  social  class   Even  class  distribution  
0.5-­‐‑1%  prevalence  in  teenage   1-­‐‑2%  prevalence  in  16-­‐‑35  age  
girls   group  
19/100  000  females  per  year   29/100  000  females  per  year  
      (adapted  from  Fairburn  &  Harrison,  2003)  

65%  patients  with  anorexia  have  depression;  34%  have  social  phobia  while  26%  have  OCD.  

Aetiology:  Shared  familial  liability  is  noted  among  the  three  EDs.  EDs  are  also  associated  with  certain  
personality  traits.  Substance  use  is  increased  in  families  of  bulimic  probands;  obsessional  and  perfectionist  
traits  are  increased  in  families  of  anorexic  probands.  

  Monozygotes   Dizygotes  
Anorexia  nervosa   55%   5%  
Bulimia  nervosa   35%   30%  
   

A  significant  heritability  exists  for  anorexia  nervosa  but  not  for  bulimia  nervosa.    

©  SPMM  Course   15  
Risk  factors:  (adapted  from  Fairburn  &  Harrison,  2003)  
§ Female  sex,  adolescence  and  early  adulthood  
§ Western  cultural  adaptation  
§ Family  history  of  ED,  depression,  substance  misuse,  especially  alcoholism  (for  bulimia  nervosa),  
obesity  (for  bulimia  nervosa)  
§ Adverse  parenting  (especially  low  contact,  high  expectations,  parental  discord),  childhood  sexual  
abuse,  critical  comments  about  eating,  shape,  or  weight  from  family  and  others    
§ Occupational  and  recreational  pressure  to  be  slim  
§ Low  self-­‐‑esteem,  perfectionism  (anorexia  nervosa  more  than  bulimia  nervosa)  
§ Past  history  of  being  obese  (bulimia  nervosa)  
§ Early  menarche  (bulimia  nervosa)  
 
Binge  eating  disorder  (BED)  is  characterized  by  recurrent  episodes  of  binge  eating  in  the  absence  of  
extreme  weight-­‐‑control  behaviour.  There  is  often  a  background  of  a  general  tendency  to  overeat.  An  
association  with  obesity  is  seen;  5–10%  of  those  seeking  treatment  for  obesity  have  BED.  Patients  typically  
present  in  their  40s,  with  more  males  compared  to  other  EDs,  but  only  25%  of  all  binge-­‐‑eating  population  
are  males.  A  high  degree  of  spontaneous  remission  is  seen;  stress  associated  overeating  is  a  common  
phenomenon  in  those  with  BED.  Self-­‐‑help,  behavioural  weight  loss  programmes  and  CBT/IPT  can  help.  
Physical  symptoms  of  EDs:  
• Increased  sensitivity  to  cold  
• Gastrointestinal  symptoms—e.g.,  constipation,  fullness  after  eating,  bloatedness  
• Dizziness  and  syncope  
• Amenorrhoea  (in  females  not  taking  an  oral  contraceptive),  low  sexual  appetite,  infertility  
• Poor  sleep  with  early  morning  wakening  
 
Physical  signs  of  EDs:  
• Emaciation;  stunted  growth  and  failure  of  breast  development  (if  prepubertal  onset)  
• Dry  skin;  fine  downy  hair  (lanugo)  on  the  back,  forearms,  and  side  of  the  face;  in  patients  with  
hypercarotenaemia,  orange  discolouration  of  the  skin    
• Russel’s  sign  –  calluses  in  knuckles  due  to  repeated  vomit  induction  
• Swelling  of  parotid  and  submandibular  glands  (especially  in  bulimic  patients)  
• Erosion  of  inner  surface  of  front  teeth  (perimylolysis)  in  those  who  vomit  frequently  
• Cold  hands  and  feet;  hypothermia  
• Bradycardia  (heart  rate  around  40  is  common);  orthostatic  hypotension;  cardiac  arrhythmias  
(especially  in  underweight  patients  and  those  with  electrolyte  abnormalities).  Systolic  BP  may  
drop  up  to  70  in  the  extremely  starved.  
• Dependent  oedema  (complicating  assessment  of  bodyweight)  
• Weak  proximal  muscles  (elicited  as  difficulty  rising  from  a  squatting  position)  
 
 

©  SPMM  Course   16  
Abnormalities  on  physical  investigation:  

•  Endocrine  

• Low  concentrations  of  luteinizing  hormone,  follicle  stimulating  hormone,  and  oestradiol  
• Low  T3,  T4  in  low  normal  range,  normal  concentrations  of  thyroid  stimulating  hormone  (low  T3  
syndrome)  
• Mild  increase  in  plasma  cortisol  
• Raised  growth  hormone  concentration  
• Severe  hypoglycaemia  (rare)  
• Low  leptin  (but  possibly  higher  than  would  be  expected  for  bodyweight)  
•  Cardiovascular  

• ECG  abnormalities  (especially  in  those  with  electrolyte  disturbance):  conduction  defects,  especially  
prolongation  of  the  Q-­‐‑T  interval,  of  major  concern  
• Ipecac  (emetic  substance)  contains  emetine  an  alkaloid  that  can  cause  myopathy  and  fatal  
cardiomyopathy  which  may  be  reversible  in  early  stages.  
•  Gastrointestinal  

• Delayed  gastric  emptying  

• Decreased  colonic  motility  (secondary  to  chronic  laxative  misuse)  
• Acute  gastric  dilatation  (rare,  secondary  to  binge  eating  or  excessive  re-­‐‑feeding)  
•  Haematological  

• Moderate  normocytic  normochromic  anaemia  

• Mild  leucopenia  with  relative  lymphocytosis  
• Thrombocytopenia  
•  Other  metabolic  abnormalities  

• Hypercholesterolaemia  
• Raised  serum  carotene  
• Hypophosphataemia  (exaggerated  during  refeeding)  
• Dehydration  
• Electrolyte  disturbance  (varied  in  form;  present  in  those  who  vomit  frequently  or  misuse  large  
quantities  of  laxatives  or  diuretics):  vomiting  results  in  metabolic  alkalosis  and  hypokalaemia;  
laxative  misuse  results  in  metabolic  acidosis,  hyponatraemia,  hypokalaemia  
•  Other  abnormalities  

• Osteopenia  and  osteoporosis  (with  heightened  fracture  risk)  

• Enlarged  cerebral  ventricles  and  external  cerebrospinal  fluid  spaces  (pseudoatrophy)  
 

©  SPMM  Course   17  
Effects  on  pregnancy:    

• Decreased  fertility  –  but  regained  near  normally  on  complete  recovery.  

• May  have  more  abortions    
• Higher  rates  of  hyperemesis  gravidarum,  anaemia,  impaired  weight  gain    
• Compromised  intrauterine  foetal  growth    
• Premature  delivery  is  more  likely    
• Rates  of  caesarean  delivery  are  high  
• Post-­‐‑natal  complications  and  post-­‐‑partum  depression  are  higher    
• Associated  with  low  birth  weight,  microcephaly,  low  APGAR  scores.  
• In  actively  anorexic  mother,  the  neonate  may  have  hypoglycaemia  
 

Evidence-­‐‑based  management  of  eating  disorders:  

Evidence     Anorexia  nervosa     Bulimia  nervosa    

     
Antidepressants  (acute  treatment)   Modest   Considerable  
Antidepressants  (relapse   Modest   Modest  
prevention)  
Cognitive  analytic  therapy  (CAT)   Modest   None  
Cognitive  behaviour  therapy     Modest   Strong  
“Dialectical  behaviour  therapy”-­‐‑ None   Modest  
based  treatment  
Family-­‐‑based  therapy  for   Moderate   None  
adolescents  
Interpersonal  psychotherapy  (IPT)   None   Moderate  
(adapted  from  Fairburn  &  Harrison,  2003)  

Managing  bulimia:  

Ø Most  effective  treatment:  Cognitive  behaviour  therapy.    

Ø Typically  involves  about  20  individual  treatment  sessions  over  5  months;    
Ø 33-­‐‑50%  make  a  complete  and  lasting  recovery.    
Ø Antidepressant  drugs  have  an  antibulimic  effect.    
Ø Produce  a  rapid  decline  in  the  frequency  of  binge  eating  and  purging,  and  an  improvement  in  
mood.  
Ø Not  as  effective  as  CBT  but.    
Ø The  effect  is  often  not  sustained.    
 

Managing  anorexia:    

Major  therapeutic  goals:  

©  SPMM  Course   18  
 1. engagement  
2. weight  restoration  
3. psychological  therapy  –  cognitive  restructuring  
4. if  needed  use  of  compulsion  
Outpatient  therapy  for  anorexia  has  best  chance  if  

a. Illness  is  present  for  less  than  6  months  

b. No  bingeing  or  vomiting  
c. Have  parents  who  cooperate  and  are  willing  to  participate  in  family  therapy  
Summary  of  NICE  guidelines  
Anorexia:  
§ Drugs  should  not  be  used  as  sole  or  primary  treatment  for  anorexia  nervosa  
§ For  anorexia  nervosa,  consider  cognitive  analytic  or  cognitive  behavioural  therapies,  
interpersonal  psychotherapy,  focal  dynamic  therapy,  or  family  interventions  focused  on  
eating  disorders.  
§ Family  interventions  that  directly  address  the  eating  disorder  are  especially  useful  for  
children  and  adolescents  with  anorexia  nervosa  
§ Dietary  counselling  should  not  be  provided  as  sole  treatment  for  anorexia  nervosa  
 
Bulimia:  
§ Evidence-­‐‑based  self-­‐‑help  programme  is  first  line  for  bulimia;  as  an  additional  option  or  
alternative  choice  antidepressants  can  be  used  in  bulimia.  
§ Antidepressant  drugs  can  reduce  frequency  of  binge  eating  and  purging,  but  long-­‐‑term  
effects  are  unknown;    
§ Any  beneficial  effects  of  antidepressants  will  be  rapidly  apparent  
§ SSRIs  (specifically  fluoxetine)  are  drugs  of  first  choice  for  bulimia  nervosa  Effective  dose  
of  fluoxetine  is  higher  than  for  depression  (60  mg  daily)  
§ Specifically  adapted  cognitive  behavioural  therapy  should  be  offered  to  adults  with  
bulimia  nervosa,  16–20  sessions  over  4–5  months  
§ Interpersonal  psychotherapy  should  be  considered  as  alternative  to  cognitive  behavioural  
therapy,  but  patients  should  be  informed  it  takes  8–12  months  to  achieve  similar  results  
Binge  eating  disorder  has  similar  lines  of  management  guidelines  to  bulimia.  

http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/18/1/34  

©  SPMM  Course   19  
 9. Personality Disorders:
Epidemiology:    Personality  disorders,  as  a  group,  are  among  the  most  frequent  disorders  treated  by  
psychiatrists  (Zimmerman  et  al.,  2005).  Epidemiological  studies  suggest  that  between  5%  and  13%  of  the  
population  has  at  least  one  personality  disorder.  

In  general,  the  prevalence  of  personality  disorders  among  psychiatric  outpatients  and  inpatients  is  high,  
with  many  studies  reporting  a  prevalence  of  greater  than  50%  of  samples.  Borderline  PD  is  generally  the  
most  prevalent  in  psychiatric  settings.    Personality  disorders  are  particularly  prevalent  among  inpatients  
with   drug,   alcohol,   and   eating   disorders.     In   these   populations,   prevalence   figures   for   personality  
disorder  have  been  reported  to  be  in  excess  of  70%.      

Dissocial  personality  is  the  most  prevalent  category  of  personality  disorder  in  prison  settings.    A  survey  
of  a  randomly  selected  sample  of  one  in  six  prisoners  in  England  and  Wales,  found  that  the  prevalence  of  
any   personality   disorder   was   78%   for   male   remand,   64%   for   male   sentenced   and   50%   for   female  
prisoners   .     Antisocial   personality   disorder   had   the   highest   prevalence   of   any   category   of   personality  
disorder,  with  63%  of  male  remand  prisoners,  49%  of  sentenced  prisoners  and  31%  of  female  prisoners.  In  
Great  Britain,  the  prevalence  of  antisocial  PD  in  general  population  is  estimated  at  0.6%  (See  Coid  et  al  –  
Tables   below),   with   the   rate   in   men   (1%)   five   times   that   in   women   (0.2%).   Surveys   conducted   in   other  
countries   report   prevalence   rates   for   ASPD   ranging   from   0.2%   to   4.1%.   Higher   prevalence   rates   for  
personality   disorders   appear   to   be   found   in   urban   populations,   and   this   may   account   for   some   of   the  
range  in  reported  prevalence.  

Personality   Median  prevalence  rate   Weighted  prevalence    per   Prevalence  in  a  

disorder   per  1000  in  community   1000  in  community  sample   psychiatric  outpatient  
(from  Oxford  Textbook   (from  Coid  2006  BJPsych  –   sample  per  1000  
of  Psychiatry,  2000)   Great  Britain  data)     (Zimmerman  et  al.  2005)  
Paranoid   6   7   42  
Schizoid   4   8   14  
Schizotypal   6   0.6   6  
Antisocial   19   6   36  
Borderline   16   7   93  
Histrionic   20   12   10  
Narcissistic   2   8   23  
Anankastic   17   19   87  
Avoidant   7   8   147  
Dependent   7   1   14  
Passive   17   -­‐‑   No  data  
aggressive    
    Cluster  A  =  1.6%   Cluster  A  =  6%  
Cluster  B  =  1.2%   Cluster  B  =  13%  
Cluster  C  =  2.6%   Cluster  C  =  22%  
Any  PD  =  4.4%   Any  PD  =  46%  
 

©  SPMM  Course   20  
Borderline  personality  disorder  is  seen  in  nearly  2%  of  general  population,  10%  outpatients,  15-­‐‑20%  
inpatients  and  30-­‐‑60%  of  all  personality  disorders  in  some  clinical  samples.  The  estimated  female:  male  
ratio  is  3:1.  It  is  5  times  more  common  in  first-­‐‑degree  relatives  of  borderline  patients.  

Diagnostic  stability:    

§ For  a  long  time  it  was  thought  that  once  diagnosed  with  personality  disorder  the  diagnosis  remains  
forever,  and  no  change  takes  place.  This  pessimism  is  now  shifting  largely  due  to  long-­‐‑term  follow-­‐‑up  
studies  in  borderline  personality.  
§ Longitudinal  course  of  Borderline  Personality:  2  important  studies  to  date  are  the  McLean  study  and  
CLPDS  study.  In  McLean  Study  of  Adult  Development,  the  prevalence  of  five  core  borderline  
symptoms  was  found  to  decline  with  particular  rapidity:  quasi-­‐‑psychotic  thought,  self-­‐‑mutilation,  
help-­‐‑seeking  suicide  efforts,  treatment  regressions,  and  countertransference  problems.  In  contrast,  
feelings  of  depression,  anger,  and  loneliness/emptiness  were  the  most  stable  symptoms.  The  10  year  
follow-­‐‑up  of  McLean  sample  further  clarified  this.  Chronic  dysphoria,  intense  anger,  nondelusional  
paranoia,  general  impulsivity  (disordered  eating,  spending  sprees,  or  reckless  driving)  remained  
relatively  common  even  after  10  years  of  prospective  follow-­‐‑up  while  other  features  largely  abated.  
In  the  Collaborative  Longitudinal  Personality  Disorders  Study,  abandonment  fears  and  physically  self-­‐‑
destructive  acts  were  found  to  be  the  least  stable  (rapidly  remitting).    
§ Results  of  epidemiological  studies  suggest  a  J-­‐‑shaped  relation  between  personality  and  age,  with  an  
initial  decrease  followed  by  an  increase  in  some  personality  disorders  in  older  people.  
§ Seivewright  &  Tyrer  reported  a  12-­‐‑year  follow-­‐‑up  where  178  out  of  202  patients  were  reassessed  for  
the  personality  status.  The  personality  traits  of  patients  with  the  cluster  B  [flamboyant  group  -­‐‑  
antisocial,  histrionic]  became  significantly  less  pronounced  over  12  years,  but  those  in  the  cluster  A  
(odd,  eccentric  group  -­‐‑  schizoid,  schizotypal,  paranoid),  and  the  cluster  C  (anxious,  fearful  group  -­‐‑  
obsessional,  avoidant)  became  more  pronounced.    
§ Evidence  from  the  McLean  Study  of  Adult  Development  suggests  that  40%  of  patients  with  borderline  
personality  disorder  remit  after  2  years,  with  88%  no  longer  meeting  criteria  after  10  years  (Silk,  KR  
Am  J  Psychiatry  165:413-­‐‑415,  April  2008).  
 

Diagnostic  features  in  a  nutshell:  

Cluster  A  (odd,  eccentric)  

             Paranoid  personality  disorder:    
§ Suspicious  of  other  people  and  their  motives.    
§ hold  longstanding  grudges  against  people,    
§ believe  others  are  not  trustworthy,  
§ emotionally  detached  
§  Feel  other  people  are  deceiving,  threatening,  or  making  plans  against  them.  
 
Schizoid  personality  disorder:  
§ Have  difficulties  in  expressing  emotions,  particularly  around  warmth  or  tenderness.    
§ Prefer  loneliness  
©  SPMM  Course   21  
 § aloof  or  remote,    
§ have  difficulty  in  developing  or  maintaining  social  relationships  
§ remain  unaware  of  social  trends  
§ unresponsive  to  praise  or  criticism  
 
Schizotypal  personality  disorder  (in  ICD10  –  classified  as  a  type  of  schizophrenia)  
§ appear  odd  or  eccentric;    
§ may  have  illusions,  magical  thinking    
§ obsessions  without  resistance  
§ may  be  members  of  quasi-­‐‑cultural  groups    
§ Thought  disorders  and  paranoia.    
§ may  believe  in  ESP,  clairvoyance,  etc  
§ may  have  transient  psychotic  features  
 

Cluster  B  (dramatic,  erratic)  

Antisocial  personality  disorder:  
§ Lack  of  regard  for  the  rights  and  feelings  of  other  people.    
§ Lack  of  remorse  for  actions  that  may  hurt  others.    
§ ignore  social  norms  about  acceptable  behaviour,    
§ May  disregard  rules  and  break  the  law.  
§ Make  relations  easily  but  break  them  equally  easily  
§ A  small  proportion  may  be  psychopathic  
 
Borderline  personality  disorder:  
§ poor  self-­‐‑image,    
§ unstable  personal  relationships,    
§ Impulsive  behaviour  in  areas  such  as  personal  safety  and  substance  misuse.    
§ may  self-­‐‑harm,  feel  suicidal  and  act  on  these  feelings,    
§ experience  the  instability  of  mood,    
§ Have  episodes  of  micro-­‐‑psychosis.    
§ feelings  of  chronic  emptiness    
§ fears  of  abandonment  –  rejection  sensitivity  hence  form  intense  but  short  lasting  relations  
 
Histrionic  personality  disorder:  
§ Extreme  or  over-­‐‑dramatic  behaviour.      
§ may  form  relationships  quickly,  but  be  demanding    
§ Attention-­‐‑seeking.    
§ may  appear  to  others  as  being  self-­‐‑centred,    
§ having  shallow  emotions,    
§ Being  inappropriately  sexually  provocative.  
 
Narcissistic  personality  disorder:    
§ An  exaggerated  sense  of  own  importance.    
§ frequently  self-­‐‑centred    
§ Intolerant  of  other  people.    
§ grandiose  plans  and  ideas    
§ Cravings  for  attention  and  admiration.    
 
 

©  SPMM  Course   22  
Cluster  C  (anxious,  inhibited)  
Avoidant  personality  disorder    
§ fears  being  judged  negatively  by  other  people  
§ Feelings  of  discomfort  in  a  group  or  social  settings.    
§ may  come  across  as  being  socially  withdrawn    
§ Have  low  self-­‐‑esteem.    
§ May  crave  affection  but  fears  of  rejection  overwhelming.  
 
Dependent  personality  disorder    
§ assumes  a  position  of  passivity,    
§ Allowing  others  to  assume  responsibility  for  most  areas  of  their  daily  life.    
§ lack  self-­‐‑confidence,    
§ feel  unable  to  function  independently  of  another  person,    
§ Feels  own  needs  are  of  secondary  importance.    
 
Obsessive-­‐‑compulsive  personality  disorder  (1  -­‐‑2%  prevalence)  
§ Difficulties  in  expressing  warm  or  tender  emotions  to  others.    
§ frequently  perfectionists  
§ often  lack  clarity  in  seeing  other  perspectives  or  ways  of  doing  things,    
§ Rigid  attention  to  detail  may  prevent  them  from  completing  tasks.  
§ Some  may  be  hoarders,  scrupulous  with  money  
§ May  not  be  able  to  delegate  tasks;  workaholics.  
 
 

Though  presence  of  transient  stress-­‐‑induced  paranoid  ideations  in  borderline  PD  (DSM)  qualifies  for  
‘quasi-­‐‑psychotic’  label,  the  term  ‘quasi  psychotic  episode’  is  in  fact  used  only  for  schizotypal  disorder  in  
the  contemporary  classificatory  systems.  The  ICD10  schizotypal  disorder  is  characterised  by  ‘occasional  
transient  quasipsychotic  episodes  with  intense  illusions,  hallucinations  and  delusion-­‐‑like  ideas  usually  
occurring  without  external  provocation’.  

Evidence  for  pharmacological  management:  (Adapted  from  Tyrer  &  Bateman,  2004)  

§ Amitriptyline    -­‐‑  no  effect  on  borderline  disorder  even  if  depressed;  haloperidol  compares  better.  
§ Flupentixol  –  some  efficacy  on  self-­‐‑harm  behaviour.  
§ Antipsychotics  -­‐‑  low  dosage  these  drugs  might  be  effective  in  the  treatment  of  both  schizotypal  
and  borderline  personality  disorders    
§ SSRIs  –  reduce  aggressive,  impulsive  and  angry  behaviour  in  those  with  borderline  and  aggressive  
personality  disorders.  
§ Anticonvulsants  and  lithium  –  some  effect  against  affective  dysregulation  in  borderline  disorder  
and  aggressive  outbursts  in  cluster  B.  
Note  that  according  to  NICE  Guidelines,  pharmacological  treatment  is  not  recommended  for  the  features  
of  Personality  Disorder,  but  it  is  for  co-­‐‑morbid  illness  (such  as  depression  or  OCD).  

 
©  SPMM  Course   23  
Type  of  symptom   Preferred  drug  
treatment  
Cognitive/perceptual   Antipsychotics  
       Suspiciousness,  paranoid  ideation,  ideas  of  reference,  magical  thinking,  stress-­‐‑
induced  hallucinations  

Affective  dysregulation   SSRIs  

       Lability  of  mood,  ‘rejection  sensitivity’,  mood  crashes,  temper  outbursts,  chronic  
emptiness,  and  dysphoria.  

Impulsive-­‐‑behavioural  dyscontrol   Mood  stabilisers,  

       Sensation-­‐‑seeking,  risky  or  reckless  behaviour,  low  frustration  tolerance,   SSRIs  
impulsive  aggression,  impulsive  binges,  recurrent  suicidal  behaviour.  

Psychological  therapies  are  considered  with  psychotherapy  section.  

Differentiating  bipolar  and  borderline  disorder:  

Bipolar  Disorder   Borderline  Personality  Disorder  

Onset  in  teens  or  early  20s     No  defined  onset  

Observable,  spontaneous  mood  changes,  last  for   Often  not  observable;  changes  are  precipitated  by  internal  or  
days  to  weeks   external  events,  last  for  hours  
Dysphoric,  anxious  and  elated  mood  shifts   Dysphoric,  anxious  and  angry  but  elated  mood  is  rare  

Episodic  impulsivity  and  risk-­‐‑taking     Chronic  impulsivity  and  risk-­‐‑taking  

Episodic  suicide  attempts  related  to  depressive   Recurrent  suicidal  gestures    
episodes    

Self-­‐‑mutilation  rare     Self-­‐‑mutilation  common  

Endorse  ‘depressed  mood’  as  descriptor     Endorse  ‘emptiness’  as  descriptor  

Family  history  of  bipolar  I  or  II  or  recurrent   Family  history  negative  for  bipolar  I,  II  and  recurrent  
depression     depression  
Adapted  from  Yatham  L,    et  al.  Bipolar  Disord  2005:  7  (Suppl.  3):  5–69.  

Richardson  &  Tracy  (2015)  highlight  six  core  illness-­‐‑differentiating  themes  influencing  patient  
perspectives  on  these  two  conditions:  

¬ Public  information:  for  bipolar  there  is  greater  public  awareness,  positive  celebrity  exposure,  more  
public  information  and  support  groups  
¬ Delivery  of  diagnosis:  this  is  perceived  to  be  taken  more  seriously  and  be  given  more  time  by  staff  
than  BPD  
¬ Illness  causes:  perceived  to  be  more  genetic,  and  to  do  with  brain  ‘wiring’  or  ‘chemical’  problem  in  
bipolar  than  in  BPD  
©  SPMM  Course   24  
¬ Illness  management:  more  medication-­‐‑orientated  in  bipolar  disorder,  better-­‐‑established  protocols  in  
comparison  with  BPD  
¬ Stigma  and  blame:  greater  stigma  for  BPD,  with  accompanying  feeling  of  staff  hopelessness  and  self-­‐‑
blame  
¬ Relationships  with  others:  a  diagnosis  of  bipolar  is  accompanied  with  greater  support  from  family  
and  friends;  its  infrequent  nature  makes  it  less  troublesome  and  easier  to  conceal,  whereas  BPD  is  
associated  with  insidious  destruction  and  sabotage  of  relationships,  felt  to  be  ever-­‐‑present  and  cannot  
be  concealed  from  relationships  

10. Psychosexual disorders

Sexual  dysfunctions  are  coded  in  F50  group  in  ICD10.  They  can  be  classified  as  (according  to  the  terms  
used  in  DSM)  
§ Sexual  desire  disorders  (sexual  aversion,  hypoactive  sexual  desire)  
§ Sexual  arousal  disorder  (female  sexual  arousal  disorder,  male  erectile  disorder)  
§ Orgasmic  disorders  (female  and  male  orgasmic  disorder,  premature  ejaculation)  
§ Sexual  pain  disorder  (Dyspareunia,  vaginismus)  
§ Others  (including  those  due  to  general  medical  or  substance  use  disorders)  
Hypoactive  sexual  desire  is  the  most  common  female  sexual  dysfunction.  It  is  the  most  difficult  to  treat  
too.  Testosterone  has  been  tried  as  a  treatment  in  both  males  and  females  but  with  modest  effects,  largely  
due  to  side  effects.  
 
DSM-­‐‑5  specified  paraphilic  disorders  (from  Yakeley  &  Wood,  2014)  
• Voyeurism  (spying  on  others’  sexual/  private  activities)  
• Exhibitionism  (deliberately  exposing  one’s  genitals)  
• Frotteurism  (deliberately  rubbing  against  a  non-­‐‑consenting  individual)  
• Sexual  masochism  (choosing  to  undergo  humiliation,  bondage  or  suffering  to  achieve  sexual  
arousal)  
• Sexual  sadism  (choosing  to  inflict  humiliation,  bondage  or  suffering  on  one’s  partner  to  achieve  
sexual  arousal)  
• Paedophilia  (sexual  focus  on  children)  
• Fetishism  (use  of  objects  or  focussing  on  non-­‐‑genital  body  parts  to  achieve  arousal)  
• Transvestic  disorder  (engaging  in  sexually  arousing  cross-­‐‑dressing)  
‘Other  specified  paraphilic  disorder’:  includes  zoophilia  (animals),  scatalogia  (obscene  phone  calls),  
necrophilia  (corpses),  coprophilia  (faeces),  klismaphilia  (enemas),  urophilia  (urine)  
 

©  SPMM  Course   25  
 DISCLAIMER: This material is developed from various revision notes assembled while preparing
for MRCPsych exams. The content is periodically updated with excerpts from various published
sources including peer-reviewed journals, websites, patient information leaflets and books.
These sources are cited and acknowledged wherever possible; due to the structure of this
material, acknowledgements have not been possible for every passage/fact that is common
knowledge in psychiatry. We do not check the accuracy of drug-related information using
external sources; no part of these notes should be used as prescribing information  

©  SPMM  Course   26  
 Notes  prepared  using  excerpts  from  
! Baldwin  et  al  (2005)  Evidence  based  guidelines  for  management  of  anxiety  disorders.  J  of  Psychopharmacology.  19;  567-­‐‑
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! Beaubrun,  G  &  Gray,  GE  (2000)  A  review  of  herbal  medicines  for  psychiatric  disorders.  Psychiatric  Services  51:1130–
1134,  2000  
! Bisson  JI.  Post-­‐‑traumatic  stress  disorder.  BMJ  2007;334:789-­‐‑93  
! Bisson,  J  et  al.  Psychological  treatments  for  chronic  post-­‐‑traumatic  stress  disorder:  Systematic  review  and  meta-­‐‑analysis  
The  British  Journal  of  Psychiatry  2007;  190:  97-­‐‑104  
! Castle,  DJ  &  Phillips,  KA.  Obsessive  compulsive  spectrum  of  disorders:  A  defensible  construct?  Aust  N  Z  J  Psychiatry.  
2006;  40(2):  114–120.    
! Diagnostic  and  Statistical  Manual  of  Mental  Disorders  (Fifth  text  revision  ed.).  American  Psychiatric  Association,  
Washington  DC  2014  
! Fairburn  &  Harrison  (2003)  Eating  disorders.  The  Lancet.  361,  9355;  407-­‐‑416.  
! Gale,  C  &  Davidson,  O.  Generalised  anxiety  disorder.  BMJ    2007;334:579-­‐‑581    
!  Gunderson,  JG.  “Borderline  Personality  Disorder:  Ontogeny  of  a  Diagnosis,”  Am  J  Psychiatry  166,  no.  5  (May  1,  
2009):  530-­‐‑539.      
! Gunstad  J,  Phillips  KA.  Axis  I  comorbidity  in  body  dysmorphic  disorder.  Compr  Psychiatry.  2003;44:270-­‐‑6.  
! Heyman,  I  et  al.  Obsessive  compulsive  disorder.  BMJ  2006;333(7565):424  
! http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/431268_4  
! Human  Reproduction  Update  2006  12(3):193-­‐‑207  
! Jones,  W.  R.,  Schelhase,  M.,  &  Morgan,  J.  F.  (2012).  Eating  disorders:  clinical  features  and  the  role  of  the  general  
psychiatrist.  Advances  in  psychiatric  treatment,  18(1),  34-­‐‑43.  http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/18/1/34  
! Magarinos  et  al,  Epidemiology  and  Treatment  of  Hypochondriasis,  CNS  Drugs,  2002;  16(1):  9-­‐‑22  
! Morris,  P  &  Lloyd,  C  (2004)  Vocational  rehabilitation  in  psychiatry:  a  re-­‐‑evaluation    Australian  and  New  Zealand  
Journal  of  Psychiatry  38  (7)  ,  490–494  
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