CH6605 Process Instrumentation, Dynamics and

Control
First Order Systems

Dr. M. Subramanian

Department of Chemical Engineering

SSN College of Engineering
subramanianm@ssn.edu.in

February 8, 2021

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Liquid Level Variation for Changes in In-flow

q(t)

h(t)

R
qo (t)

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Liquid Level Variation for Changes in In-flow (contd..)
Mass balance:
! ! !
Rate of Rate of Rate of accumulation
− =
mass flow in mass flow out of mass in tank
d(ρAh)
ρq(t) − ρqo (t) =
dt
Taking ρ and A as constant,
dh
q(t) − qo (t) = A
dt
dh
q − qo = A
dt
The flow rate qo depends on the liquid level h and resistance R, as
below:
h
qo =
R
Therefore,
h dh
q− =A
R dt
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Liquid Level Variation for Changes in In-flow (contd..)
Flow Resistance

Flow through the outlet line (qo ) depends the head (h) and the
total resistance (R) due to friction in the outlet pipeline and valve.
It is related as
2fLρvo2 qo
∆P = ρgh = and vo =
D Ao
From the above it can be noted, that
qo ∝ hn
hn
qo =
R
where R is resistance to fluid-flow.
For simplifying the derivations, we shall consider the above as

h
qo =
R

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Liquid Level Variation for Changes in In-flow (contd..)

h dh
q− =A (1)
R dt
Initially the process is operating at steady state, which means that
dh/dt = 0, and with q = qs , h = hs . i.e.,
hs
qs − =0 (2)
R
Eqn.(1) − Eqn.(2) =⇒

1 d(h − hs )
(q − qs ) = (h − hs ) + A (3)
R dt
Let us define the deviation variables as:

Q = q − qs
H = h − hs

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Liquid Level Variation for Changes in In-flow (contd..)

Using the deviation variables in Eqn.(3), we get

H dH
Q= +A (4)
R dt
Taking Laplace transform for the above, we get
H(s)
Q(s) = + AsH(s) (5)
R
Note: L[dH/dt] is simply sH(s), because H(0) = 0. Rewriting the
Eqn.(5) as,
H(s) R
= (6)
Q(s) τs + 1
where τ = AR = time constant of the system.
H(s)
The term = G(s) is called as the transfer function of the
Q(s)
system.

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Liquid Level Variation for Changes in In-flow (contd..)
The term R is simply the conversion factor that relates h(t) to
q(t) when the system is at steady state. This is called as the
steady state gain (K ) of the system. Reason for this terminology
(’steady state gain’) is as follows:
Let the inflow Q(t) changes according to a unit-step change (i.e.,
Q(t) changes from its initial value of 0 to 1).
1
Q(s) =
s
Using this in Eqn.(6), we get
1 R
H(s) =
s τs + 1
Applying final value theorem to H(s), we get
 R
H(t)t→∞ = lim [sH(s)] = lim =R
s→0 s→0 τ s + 1
This shows that the ultimate change in H(t) for a unit change in
Q(t) is simply R.
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Liquid Level Variation for Changes in In-flow (contd..)

From the relation between qo and h we can write,

H Qo (s) 1
Qo = =⇒ = (7)
R H(s) R

From Eqns.(6) and (7) we get,

Qo (s) 1
=
Q(s) τs + 1

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Response of Thermometer

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Response of Thermometer
Heat balance:
dT
hA(T∞ − T ) − 0 = mCP
dt
Rearranging the above,
mCP dT
+ T = T∞
hA dt
dT
τ + T = T∞
dt
At steady state, i.e., for t < 0
0 + Ts = T∞s
Using deviation variables, θ = T − Ts ; θ∞ = T∞ − T∞s , we get
dθ
τ + θ = θ∞
dt
Taking Laplace transform, and rearranging
θ(s) 1
=
θ∞ (s) τs + 1
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First Order System (Generalization)

From mass or energy balances, we get for the output variable y (t),

dy
a1 + a0 y (t) = bx (t)
dt
dy
a1 + a0 y = bx
dt
where x (t) is the input. If a0 6= 0, then
a1 dy b
+ y = x (t)
a0 dt a0
dy
τp + y = Kp x (t) (1)
dt
where τp is known as time constant of the process, and Kp is
called the steady-state gain or static gain or simply the gain of the
process.

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First Order System (contd..)

If Y (t) = y (t) − ys and X (t) = x (t) − xs are in terms of deviation

variables around a steady state, then the initial conditions are:

Y (0) = y (0) − ys = ys − ys = 0 and X (0) = x (0) − xs = 0

Using the above conditions, and taking the Laplace transform for
Eqn.(1), we get
Y (s) Kp
G(s) = =
X (s) τp s + 1
Because of the usage of deviation variables, the Laplace transform
of the differential equation results in an equation that is free of
initial conditions, because the initial values of X and Y are zero.

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Transfer Function

Y (s) Kp Laplace transform of output deviation

= = = G(s)
X (s) τp s + 1 Laplace transform of output deviation
The above ratio is called the transfer function, G(s), of the
system. In examining physical systems, we usually attempt to
obtain a transfer function.

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Transfer Function (contd..)

Procedure for obtaining the transfer function for a process:

Step. 1 Write the appropriate balance equations (usually mass or
energy balances for a chemical process).
Step. 2 Linearize terms if necessary.
Step. 3 Write the balance equations in deviation variable form.
Step. 4 Take Laplace transform for the linear balance equations.
Step. 5 Rearrange the resulting transformed equation into the transfer
function form (i.e., the output divided by the input).

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Idealized Input Functions

System
input A
t
0

t=0 Time
(a) step input (b) sinusoidal input

t t
0
(c) ramp input (d) impulse input

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Idealized Input Functions

System
input

1/A

A Time

(e) Unit pulse input, δA (t)

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Idealized Input Functions (contd..)

Function x(t) X(s)

(
A t>0 A
Step x (t) =
0 t<0 s

a
Ramp at
s2
ω
Sinusoidal sin(ωt)
s 2 + ω2

Impulse δ(t) 1

 0
t<0

A 
Rectangular pulse x (t) = A 0<t<T 1 − e −sT

 0 t>T s

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First Order System - Response to Step Input
The transfer function of first order system is given by
Y (s) Kp
G(s) = =
X (s) τp s + 1
Let us examine how it responds to a unit step change in input,
x (t).
1
For unit step input, X (s) = . Therefore,
s
Kp Kp Kp τp
Y (s) = = −
s(τp s + 1) s τp s + 1
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get
y (t) = Kp (1 − e −t/τp )
For step input of magnitude A,
y (t) = AKp (1 − e −t/τp )
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First Order System - Response to Step Input (contd..)

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Solved Problems

Example 1: Tank Dynamics for Step Change in In-flow

A tank of volume 0.25 m3 and height 1 m has water flowing in at
0.05 m3 /min. The outlet flow rate is governed by the relation
Fout = 0.1 h where h is the height of the water in the tank in m
and Fout is the outlet flow rate in m3 /min. The inlet flow rate
changes suddenly from its nominal value of 0.05 m3 /min to 0.15
m3 /min and remains there. The time (in minutes) at which the
tank will begin to overflow is given by (G-2008-62)

(a) 0.28 (b) 1.01 (c) 1.73 (d) ∞

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Solved Problems (contd..)

Solution:
From balance on volumetric flow rate,
d(Ah) dh
Fi − Fo = =A
dt dt
i.e.,
dh
A + F o = Fi
dt
Given: Fo = Fout = 0.1h m3 /min. And,
A = Vtotal /htotal = 0.25/1 = 0.25 m2 . Therefore, the above
equation becomes
dh
0.25 + 0.1 h = Fi (1)
dt

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Solved Problems (contd..)

At initial steady state, dh/dt = 0 and, Fi = Fo = 0.1 ho .

Given: Fi = 0.05 m3 /min; Therefore, ho = 0.05/0.1 = 0.5 m.
Rewriting the Eqn.(1) as below:

dh
2.5 + h = 10 Fi (2)
dt
At the initial steady state, the above equation becomes,

0 + ho = 10 × Fio

i.e.,
0 + 0.5 = 10 × 0.05 (3)

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Solved Problems (contd..)

Eqn.(2)− Eqn.(3) =⇒

dh
2.5 + (h − 0.5) = 10(Fi − 0.05)
dt

Writing (h − 0.5) as h̄, and (Fi − 0.05) as F̄i we have

!
d h̄ dh d h̄
2.5 + h̄ = 10F̄i Note: = as (h − 10) = h̄
dt dt dt

Taking Laplace transform for the above equation,

2.5 s h̄(s) + h̄(s) = 10F̄i (s)

i.e.,
h̄(s) 10 Kp
= =
F̄i (s) 2.5s + 1 τp +1
s
Here, Kp = 10 and τp = 2.5.
Dr. M. Subramanian CTRL
Solved Problems (contd..)

For a step change in input of magnitude A, we get the response as

h̄(t) = AKp 1 − e −t/τ

Here, A = 0.15 − 0.05 = 0.1 m3 /min. Therefore,

h̄(t) = 0.1 × 10 1 − e −t/2.5 = 1 − e −t/2.5

i.e.,
h − 0.5 = 1 − e −t/2.5
The tank gets filled when h reaches the htotal of 1 m. i.e.,

1 − 0.5 = 1 − e −t/2.5

i.e,
e −t/2.5 = 0.5

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Solved Problems (contd..)

Taking logarithms on both sides, we get

−t/2.5 = ln(0.5) =⇒ t = 1.733 min

The tank gets filled and starts to overflow, after 1.733 min from
the start of change of flow rate to 0.15 m3 /min from its initial
value of 0.05 m3 /min. (c) X

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Solved Problems

Example 2: Tank Dynamics for Step Change in In-flow (Different

Solution Methods)
Consider a cylindrical tank of cross sectional area 2 m2 . Steady
inflow of liquid to the tank is 0.015 m3 /s. Outflow (qo ) is related
to the head (h, in m) of liquid in the tank as
√
qo = 0.01 h

At time t = 0, the inflow valve is closed and so there is no inflow

for t ≥ 0. Find the time necessary to empty the tank to half the
original head. Solve by: (i) direct analytical solution of differential
equation, and by (ii) Laplace transform method with linearized h.

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Solved Problems (contd..)

Solution:
At initial steady state, q = qo . Therefore,
p
0.015 = 0.01 hs =⇒ hs = 2.25 m

From mass balance for the constant density systems (applicable for
liquids),

dh
q − qo = A
dt
For t ≥ 0, q = 0. Therefore,
dh
−qo = A
dt
Substituting for qo and A, we get
√ dh
−0.01 h = 2
dt

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Solved Problems (contd..)

Rearranging, and integrating the above we get

ˆ hs /2 ˆ t
dh
√ = −0.005 dt
hs h 0
" #hs /2
h[(−1/2)+1 ]
= 0.005t
1/2 hs
h ihs /2
2h1/2 = 0.005t
hs
Substituting for hs = 2.25 m, we get
h i
2 1.1251/2 − 2.251/2 = 0.005t
=⇒ t = 175.74 s

This result is obtained by direct solution of differential equation.

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Solved Problems (contd..)

From mass balance for the constant density systems (applicable for
liquids),

dh
q − qo = A
dt
At initial state,
p
0.015 − 0.01 hs = 0
Subtracting the above two equations,
p d(h − hs )
(q − 0.015) − (qo − 0.01 hs ) = A
dt
Using deviation variables,
dH
Q − Qo = A (1)
dt √
where Q = q − qs = q − 0.015, Qo = qo − qos = qo − 0.01 hs
and, H = h − hs .

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Solved Problems (contd..)

√ √ √
In the above, Qo = qo − 0.01 hs = 0.01 h − 0.01 hs i.e.,
√ p
Qo = 0.01( h − hs ) (2)
√
Since Qo is having non-linear relation with h, i.e., Q ∝ h, we
have to linearize this function before taking Laplace transform.
From Taylor series expansion, for the variable f (x ), around xo , and
considering terms upto f 0 (xo ), we get

f (x ) = f (xo ) + f 0 (xo )(x − xo )

√ 1
Here, f (x ) = h; and, f 0 (x ) = √ . Hence,
2 h
√ p 1
h= ho + √ (h − ho )
2 ho

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Solved Problems (contd..)

√
For h around hs , we get
√ p 1
h = hs + √ (h − hs )
2 hs

Using this in Eqn.(2), we get

1
 
Qo = 0.01 √ (h − hs )
2 hs
We know that hs = 2.25 m. Therefore,
1 0.01 H
 
Qo = 0.01 √ (h − hs ) = (h − hs ) =
2 2.25 3 300

where H = h − hs .

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Solved Problems (contd..)

Substituting for Qo from above in Eqn.(1), we get

H dH
Q− =A
300 dt
Since, A = 2 m2 , we get
dH H
2 + =Q
dt 300
dH
600 + H = 300Q
dt
Taking Laplace transform,
H(s) 300 Kp
= = (2)
Q(s) 600s + 1 τp s + 1

where Kp = R = 300 s/m2 ; and, τp = AR = 2 × 300 = 600 s.

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Solved Problems (contd..)

For t ≥ 0, Q(t) = q(t) − qs = 0 − 0.015 m3 /s. Hence,

Q(s) = −0.015/s. Substituting this in Eqn.(2), and taking inverse
Laplace transform, we get

H(t) = −0.015 × 300 × (1 − e −t/600 )

Since H(t) = h(t) − hs = h(t) − 2.25, we get
h(t) = 2.25 − 4.5 × (1 − e −t/600 )
For h(t) = hs /2 = 2.25/2 = 1.125 m, we get
1.125 = 2.25 − 4.5 × (1 − e −t/600 )
=⇒ t = 172.61 s

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Solved Problems (contd..)

Note: The time obtained by this Laplace transform method (i.e.,

172.61 s) is slightly different from that obtained by direct solution
method (i.e., 175.74 s). This is because of the approximation
involved in Taylor series expansion.
√
The function q = 0.01 h is approximated around its initial steady
state of hs = 2.25 m, as q = 20.01
√ h, i.e., q = 0.00333h.
h s

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 √
Linearizing h
Nonlinear model:
Here the outflow is given by
√
qo = C h
From mass balance for a constant density system,
√ dh
q−C h =A
dt
Linearized model:
Here the outflow is taken as
h
qo =
R
In terms of deviation variables, i.e., Q = q − qs ; and, H = h − hs ,
H(s) R
=
Q(s) τs + 1
where √
2 hs
R= and τ = AR
C
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 √
Linearizing h (contd..)

√
qo = C h
√
f (h) = C h
df (h)
 
f (h) ≈ f (hs ) + (h − hs )
dh hs
C
≈ f (hs ) + √ (h − hs )
2 hs
C
f (h) − f (hs ) ≈ √ (h − hs )
2 hs
C
qo − qos = √ (h − hs )
2 hs
C
Qo = √ H
2 hs

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Idealized Inputs
Step input

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Idealized Inputs
Ramp input

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Idealized Inputs
Pulse input

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Idealized Inputs
Sinusoidal input

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First Order System

Original ODE:
dy
τp + y = Kp x
dt
ODE in deviation variable:
dY
τp + Y = Kp X
dt
where Y = y − ys is deviation variable of output; X = x − ss is
deviation variable of input.
Laplace transform:

Y (s) Kp
Gp (s) = =
X (s) τp s + 1

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Step Input to First Order System

Y (s) Kp
Gp (s) = =
X (s) τp s + 1
For step input of magnitude A, X (t) = A; and X (s) = A/s.

A Kp
Y (s) =
s τp s + 1

Upon partial fraction expansion, we get

!
1 1
Y (s) = AKp −
s s + 1/τp

Taking L−1 ,
Y (t) = AKp (1 − e −t/τp )

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Response of First Order System to Step Input

If the initial rate of change of Y (t) were maintained, the

response would be complete in one time constant.
The value of Y (t) reaches 63.2% of its ultimate value when
the time elapsed is equal to one time constant τp .
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Response of First Order System to Step Input

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Impulse Input to First Order System

Y (s) Kp
Gp (s) = =
X (s) τp s + 1
For impulse input of magnitude 1, X (s) = 1. i.e., unit impulse.
For impulse input of magnitude A, X (t) = Aδ(t), and X (s) = A.
This leads to
AKp AKp /τp
Y (s) = =
τp s + 1 s + 1/τp
Taking L−1 ,
AKp −t/τp
Y (t) = (e )
τp

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Impulse Input to First Order System (contd..)

The responses rises Dr.

immediately
M. Subramanian to CTRL
1 and then decays
Comparison of Responses of Unit Step and Impulse Inputs

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Tutorial-1

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Tutorial-1

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Tutorial-1

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Tutorial-1

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Tutorial-2

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Tutorial-2

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Tutorial-2

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Stirred Tank Heater

ṁ, Ti

m, T

ṁ, T

q
heating coil

Assume:
ṁ = mass flow in = mass flow out = constant.
m = mass of tank contents = constant
To find: the variation of T with t for changes in q and/or Ti .
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Stirred Tank Heater (contd..)

Energy balance: Let Tref = 0

dT
ṁCP Ti − ṁCP T + q = mCP (1)
dt
Assume CP is a constant over the temperature range considered.
At stead state, Ti = Tis ; T = Ts ; q = qs ; and, dT /dt = 0. Using
these conditions in Eqn.(1), we get

ṁCP (Tis − Ts ) + qs = 0 (2)

Eqn.(1) − Eqn.(2) =⇒

d(T − Ts )
ṁCP (Ti − Tis ) − ṁCP (T − Ts ) + (q − qs ) = mCP (3)
dt

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Stirred Tank Heater (contd..)

Rearranging, and using deviation variables Ti − Tis = Ti0 ;

T − Ts = T 0 ; q − qs = Q, we get

dT 0 Q
τ + T 0 = Ti0 + (4)
dt ṁCP

where τ = m/ṁ
Taking Laplace transform, and rearranging,

1 1/(ṁCP )
T 0 (s) = T 0 (s) + Q(s)
τs + 1 i τs + 1

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Stirred Tank Heater (contd..)

1 1/(ṁCP )
T 0 (s) = Ti0 (s) + Q(s)
τs + 1 τs + 1

Block Diagram Representation:

Ti0 (s) 1
τs + 1
+ T 0 (s)
+
Q(s) 1/(ṁCP )
τs + 1

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Response of First Order System to Ramp Input
First order system:
Y (s) Kp
=
X (s) τp s + 1
Input:
A
X (t) = At =⇒ X (s) =
s2
Therefore,
A Kp
Y (s) =
s 2 τp s + 1
Expanding by partial fractions,
C1 C2 C3 AKp
+ 2 + = 2
s s τp s + 1 s (τp s + 1)
Solving for C1 , C2 , C3 we get
!
1 τp τp
Y (s) = AKp 2
− +
s s s + 1/τp

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Response of First Order System to Ramp Input (contd..)
Taking inverse Laplace transform, and grouping the terms, we get
h  i
Y (t) = AKp t − τp 1 − e −t/τp

At
(t )=
Y (t) X Aτp
Kp ut,
Inp A

t
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Liquid Level System with Constant Outflow

Consider the case where there is a pump in the outflow line. Here
the outflow doesn’t depend on the head of liquid available, and it
is constant.

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Liquid Level System with Constant Outflow (contd..)

From mass balance,

dh
q(t) − qo = A (1)
dt
At steady state,
qs − qo = 0 (2)
Subtracting Eqn.(2) from (1), and using deviation variables, we get
dH
Q=A (3)
dt
where Q = q − qs ; and, H = h − hs . Taking Laplace transform for
Eqn.(3), we get
H(s) 1
=
Q(s) As

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Liquid Level System with Constant Outflow (contd..)

For unit step change in Q(t),

t
H(t) =
A
The step response given above is a ramp function that grows
without limit.
The transfer function for the liquid-level system with constant
outlet flow can be considered as a special case of first order system
with R → ∞.
R 1
 
lim =
R→∞ ARs + 1 As

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