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General Education
Academic Year 2021-2022,
2nd Semester

ETHICS
GE 08

Qayser D. Siblante

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Cultural Relativism
Module 7

OVERVIEW
after studying the meaning of culture, how it is learned and how it
shapes moral behavior, let us focus on cultural relativism, its meaning and its
strengths and weaknesses.

LEARNING
its strengths OUTCOMES
and weaknesses.

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

 Explain cultural relativism.

 Cite the strengths and weaknesses of cultural relativism.

LEARNING EXPERIENCES & SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA

Activity
1. Read this statement: “what is true for me is true for me, and what
is true for you is true for you.” Do you agree with this statement?
Those who say NO, they don’t agree, form one group. and those
who say YES, they agree form another group.

2. YES, group and NO group engage in a debate. Whoever is

convinced
Should transfer to the group. Example, at first you are a YES but
after listening to the NO group, you are convinced and so you join
the No group.
Analysis
Is there any danger posed by this thought: “What is true for me is true
for me, and what is true for you is true tor you”?

Abstraction
What is cultural relativism? First, relativism says “what is true or for
you is true for you, and what is true for me is true for me”. Analogously,
cultural relativism would say, "what you believe, value or practice depends on
your culture while what I believe, value and practice, depends on my culture

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while I beliefs, value, or practice, should be understood based on that based

person’s own culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of another.”
Stated in another way:
Cultural relativism is the view that moral or ethical systems, which vary from
culture to culture, are all equally valid and no one system is really “better”
than any other. This is based on the idea that there is no ultimate standard of
good and evil, so every Judgement about right and wrong is a product of
society. Therefore, any opinion on morality or ethics is subject to the cultural
perspective of each person. Ultimately, this means that no moral or ethical
system can be considered the “best” or “worst” and no particular moral or
ethical position can actually be considered “right” or “wrong”
(https:/www.allaboutphilosophy.org/cultural-relativism.htm)

In the context of cultural relativism, the manner by which the African

woman is treated in comparison to the African man should not be judged against
other culture’s standards, This should be judged in the context of African
culture, not in the context of Christian culture.

Cultural Relativism vs Cultural Perspective

However, what the cultural relativist fails to see is the difference
between cultural perspective and cultural relativism. A perspective is a
standpoint or view point of something. For instance, there are as many
perspectives of a building, a house, as there are standpoints. You try to
appreciate the design of house considering its various perspective, but you never
judge the design based on only one perspective. Trying to understand one’s
culture having perspective of one's culture, is needed to understand people. but it
does not follow that morality must be based only on said culture:
…. the problem with moving from cultural perspective to cultural
relativism is the erosion of reason at causes Rather than simply saying, "we
need to understand the morals of other cultures,” “it Says we cannot judge the
morals of other cultures,” regardless of the reasons for their actions. There is
no longer any perspective, and it becomes literally impossible to argue that
anything a culture does it right or wrong. If we hold on to strict cultural
relativism, it is not
possible to say that human sacrifice is “wrong” Or that respect for the elderly
is "right.”. After all, those are products of the culture. This takes any talk of
morality right over the cliff, and into meaningless gibberish. (Mckinno1, et al.,
2015)

Likewise, logical analysis or cultural relativism yields contradictory

implications:
Relativism in general breaks down when examined from a purely

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logical perspective. The basic premise is that "truth is relative.” If every truth
statement is valid, then the statement "some truths are absolute must be valid.
The statement "there are no absolute truths" is accurate, according to
relativism--but it is an absolute truth itself.
These contradict the very concept of relativism, meaning that absolute relativism
meaning that absolute relativism is self-contradictory and impossible.

Stated in another way:

Tolerance is certainly a virtue... If morality is simply relative to each
culture then if the culture does not have a principle of tolerance, its members
have no obligation to be tolerant... from a relativistic point of view, There is no
more reason to be tolerant than to be intolerant and neither stance is objectively
morally better than the other.
If valid criticism supposes an objective or impartial standard,
relativists cannot morally criticize anyone outside their own culture. Adolf
Hitler’s genocidal actions, so long as they are culturally accepted, are as
morally legitimate as Mother Teresa’s works of mercy. If Conventional
Relativism is accepted, racism, genocide of unpopular minorities, oppression of
the poor slavery and even the advocacy of war for its own sake are as equally
moral as their opposites. And if a subculture decided that starting a nuclear war
was somehow morally acceptable, we could not morally criticize these people.
(Mackinnon, et al., 2015)
Application
1. Is cultural perspective the same as cultural relativism?
2. Illustrate with an example cultural perspective and cultural relativism.

KEY POINTS
 Cultural relativism is "the idea that a person's beliefs, values and
practices e understood based on that person’s own culture, rather than
be judged against the criteria of another.”
 Morality is relative to the norms of one's culture. That is, whether an
action is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in
which it practiced. what is good depends on what society's culture
considers as good. What is bad likewise depends on what society's
culture considers as bad.
 Absolute relativism is self contradictory and impossible.
Absolute relativism states "there are no absolute truths: which is
an absolute truth itself, so absolute relativism contradicis itself.

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 There is a diference between cultural perspective and cultural

relativism. To have a cultural perspective is to understand
people's beliefs, values and practices in the context of their
culture. Having a perspective of one's culture, is needed to
understand people. But it does not follow that morality must be
based on said culture.

END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts
outlined above, it is now time for an assessment to see how far you have
improved. On every module’s “End of Module Assessment” (this part),
write your answer/s on a one whole sheet of yellow pad paper.

LOOKING AHEAD
Congratulations for making it till the end of this module! The next
topic will deal on The Filipino Character! Happy learning!

REFERENCES
Etgics by: Ruben A. Copuz, AB English-Philo, Lib, PhD, Brenda B. Corpuz,
BSE, MAEd, PhD and Lorimar Publishing, INC 10-B Boston Street, Brgy.
Kaunlaran, Cubao, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines.

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END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT (Answer Sheet)

(Please do not forget to provide information on this part)

Name: _______________________ Course& Year: _____________

Module Number and Title: ________ Date accomplished: _________

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined above, it
is now time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. Write your
answers on a one whole sheet of yellow pad paper.

Task 1. Check your Understanding

1. Explain cultural relativism.

2. How does cultural relativism differ from cultural perspective?
3. What is a strength of cultural relativism? What is a weakness
of cultural relativism?

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The Filipino Character

Module 8

OVERVIEW

After having learned that culture influences the human person as a

moral agent of and after having understood the meaning of Culture Relativism
let us now examine the Filipino character to determine which one does not help
him/her grow in moral character.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

 analyze crucial qualities of the Filipino moral identify.

 Evaluate elements of the Filipino character.

LEARNING EXPERIENCES & SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA

Activity
Identify at least 3 strengths of the Filipino character.
Analysis
These strengths sometimes also become weaknesses. Do you
agree?
Explain your answer and illustrate with an example.
Abstraction
The Filipino Character: Strengths and Weaknesses
Below is an excerpt of the Report "A Moral Recovery Program:
Building a People, Building a Nation” submitted on April 27, 1988 by the Task
Force to President Corazon Aquino, the Senate and the members of the press by
then Senator Leticia Shahani, the moving spirit behind the program.

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The weaknesses of the Filipino character as cited in the Report

are as follows:
1. Extreme family centeredness - Excessive concern for family
means using one’s office and power to promote family interests and
thus factionalism patronage, political dynasties and the protection of
erring family members. It results in lack of concern for the
Common good, and acts as a block to national consciousness.
2. Extreme personalism -"Takes things personally cannot separate
objective task from emotional involvement. Because of this the
Filipino is uncomfortable with bureaucracy with rules and
regulations and with standard procedures. He uses personal contacts
and gives preference to family and friends in hiring services and
even voting. Extreme personalism leads to the graft and corruption
evident in Philippine society.
3. Lack of discipline - A casual attitude toward time and space,
manifested in lack of precision and compulsiveness, in poor time
management and procrastination. Aversion to following procedure
strictly results in lack of standardization and quality control.
Impatience results in short cuts, palusot, ningas cogon lack of
discipline often results in inefficient work systems, the violation of
rules and a casual work ethic lacking follow through.
4. Passivity and tack of initiative - Waiting to be told what to do,
reliance on others (leaders and government), complacence, lack of
sense of urgency. There is high tolerance for inefficiency, poor
service, and even violation of one’s basic rights. To patient and
matiisin, too easily resigned to his fate, the Filipino is easily
oppressed and expioited.
5. Colonial mentality - Lack of patriotism, or of an active awareness,
Appreciation and love of the Philippines and an actual preference
for things foreign.
6. Kanya-kanya syndrome, talangka mentality - Done by tsismis,
intriga, unconstructive criticism… it is evident in the personal
ambition that is completely insensitive to the common good, e.g. the
lack of a sense of service among people in the government
bureaucracy. This result in the dampening of cooperative and the
dampening of cooperative and community spirit and in the
trampling upon other’s rights.

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7. Lack of analysis and self-reflection - The tendency to be

superficial and somewhat flighty. In the face of serious personal and
social problems, there is lack of analysis or reflection and instead
satisfaction with superficial explanations and. solutions.
8. Emphasis on porma rather than substance – This lack of analysis
and emphasis on form is reinforced by an educational system that is
more form than substance…
These weaknesses are rooted in many factors: home, social and
economic environment; culture and language; history; religion;
educational system; mass media; leadership and role models. Change is
possible, however, and the following goals are proposed to develop in
the Filipino: (1) a sense of patriotism and national pride; (2) a sense of
the common good; (3) a sense of integrity and accountability, (4) the
values and habits of discipline and hard work; (5) the value and habits of
self-reflection and analysis; the internalization of spiritual values and the
emphasis on essence rather than on form. (Shahani, Leticia. (1988). A
Moral Recovery Program: Building a People: Building a People,
Building a Nation.
In the same report in 1988, Senator Leticia Shahani said, The
strengths of the Filipino character are: 1) pakikipagkapwa-tao, 2) Family
orientation, 3) joy and humor, 4) flexibility, adaptability and creativity,
5) hard work and industry, 6) faith and religiosity and 7) ability to
survive.
There is so much good in the Filipino but so much needs to be
changed, too. Many of our strengths as a people are also sources of our
weaknesses. Shahani's report explains that "family orientation becomes
in-group orientation that prevents us from reaching out beyond the
family to the large community and the nation." For the Filipino, charity
begins at home and at the same time ends there.
Values Education in Schools
Senator Shahani's Report was given in 1988. But its findings as
reported may still be true today. If the Department of Education has to be
true to its vision to help develop... "Filipinos who passionately love their
country and whose values and competencies enable them to realize their
full potential and contribute meaningfully to building the nation" and to
its core values - maka-Diyos, maka-tao, makakalikasan and makabansa -
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it is an uphill battle for Philippine schools to realize these considering the

weaknesses of the Filipino character: 1)extreme family centeredness, 2)
extreme personalism, 3) lack of discipline,
4) passivity and lack of initiative, 5) colonial mentality, 6) kanya-kanya
syndrome, talangka mentality, 7) lack of self-analysis and self-reflection
and 8) emphasis on porma rather than substance.
So that it will not be "more form than substance" as described in
Senator Shahani's Report, Philippine schools have to intensify values
education in the curriculum which in essence is moral education. Inm
So that it will not be "more form than substance" as described in
Senator Shahani's Report, Philippine schools have to intensify values
education in the curriculum which in essence is moral education. In fact,
in response, to this Report, Values Education now Edukasyon sa
Pagpapakatao in the K to 12 Curriculum was introduced as a separate
subject in the basic education curriculum under the Values Education
Framework program of Dr. Lourdes Quisumbing, then Department of
Education, Culture and Sports Secretary in 1988-1990. The Values
Education Framework was conceptualized in 1987. In 2002, the Basic
Education Curriculum (Grade 1-6, and First-Fourth Year High School)
integrated values in the major learning areas or subjects. Beginning with
the K to 12 Curriculum in 2013, Values Education was renamed
Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao (EsP) for Grades 1-10. In the Senior High
Curriculum (Grades 11-12), there is no course with the title, Values
Education or Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao but core courses such as
Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person and Personal
Development, are in essence Values Education subjects and Moral
Education subjects themselves.
To help every Filipino child grow morally and ethically, he/she
must be helped acquire the strengths of the Filipino character at the same
time, he/she must be made to realize that his/her strengths also become
his/her source of weaknesses.
Other Studies on Filipino Moral Character
There had been studies of the Filipino moral life, the more
popular of which were those Fr. Jaime Bulatao, Fr. Leonardo Mercado,
Fr. Francis Senden, and Fr. Vitaliano Gorospe. Fr. Bulatao's research

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identified the "kami" mentality of Filipinos. In "kami" (a Filipino term

which means "us") he says, "I identify with my family and relatives... We
are opposed to all who are not kami." Fr. Vitaliano Gorospe, SJ referred
to this way of thinking as "group-centeredness" or "group thinking
characterized as follows:
One norm of morality in the Philippines is based on "group-
centeredness" or "group-thinking." One's in-group determines for the
individual what is right or wrong. The individual who has not yet
attained moral independence and maturity will ask: “What will others
say" usually determines Filipino moral behavior; it is "conscience from
the outside. "For instance, parents tell their daughter who is being
courted: "Iha, please entertain your boyfriend at home. Do not go
outside. What will the neighbors say? Nakakahiya naman. Shame or hiya
makes the parents and the girl conform to the social expectations of the
neighbors lest they become the object of tsismis or gossip.
Application
1. According to the report, one weakness of the Filipino character is
lack of analysis and emphasis of form (porma). The report states
that this lack of analysis re and form emphasis on form is reinforced
by an educational system that is more form than substance…
 What is meant by an educational system that is more form than
that is more form than substance?
 DO you agree that the Philippine educational system that is more
form than substance? If yes, why? If not, why not
2. Teacher observes that when students submit report, the more ornate
and artistic the folder is, the less substantial the report. Which
weakness in the Filipino character is pointed to? If you were the
teacher how do you counteract such?
3. In line with the government’s austerity program, DepEd Order # 2,
s. 2019, reiterates the following policies:
a. Graduation rites should be simple but meaningful to encourage
civil rights, a sense of community, and personal responsibility.
While these rites mark a milestone in the life of the learners,
these should be conducted without excessive spending,
extravagant attire or extraordinary venue.
b. Moving Up or Completion Ceremonies should be simple,
involving only the learners, their parents and the school…
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Which of the weaknesses of the Filipino does this DepEd Order wish
to help eliminate? Explain.
4. Group A reported in class first while the other groups listened. The
other groups were asked to raise questions and comments. Group B
gave lot of not-so-good comments and many points for
improvement. Group A concluded Group B is biased against their
group. Which Filipino weakness is revealed? What should be done?
5. Cite instances where 1) extreme family centeredness, 2) lack of
discipline, 3) passivity and lack of initiative, 4) colonial mentality,
5) kanya-kanya syndrome, Talangka mentality, lack of self-analysis
and self-reflection are manifested in Philippine society. When can
we say that Filipino has developed an integrated personality?
6. What is meant by integrated personality? Or what is integrity? In
mathematics, an integer is a whole number. Does this help in
understanding the meaning of integrity? When can we say?
7. The Taoist principle states: "What I think must be the same as what
I say and what I say must be the same as what I do." What does this
mean?

KEY POINTS

 The Filipino has a number of strengths. His/her strengths when they

become extreme, however, also become his/her weaknesses.
 His/her strengths help him/her become ethical and moral but his/her
weaknesses obstruct his/her moral and ethical growth.
 Culture has a significant impact on morality.
 The Filipino group-centeredness and "kami"- mentality make it
difficult for the Filipino to stand up against the group when that is the
moral thing to There is much need for home, school and society as a
whole to help every do.
 There is much need for home, school and society as a whole to help
every Filipino to grow into the strong moral person everyone is called
to become.
 For the Filipino to become the moral and ethical person, he/she should
capitalize on his/her strengths and eliminate his/her weaknesses.

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END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT

(Please do not forget to provide information on this part)

Name: _______________________ Course& Year: _____________

Module Number and Title: ________ Date accomplished: _________

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined above, it
is now time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. On every
module’s “End of Module Assessment” (this part), write your answer/s on a one
whole sheet of yellow pad paper.

Accomplish this Table.

Filipino trait What is positive What is What should be

about it negative about done to make it
it a positive trait
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

LOOKING AHEAD
Congratulations for making it till the end of this module! The next topic will
deal on Universal Values! Happy learning!

REFERENCES
Ethics by: Ruben A. Copuz, AB English-Philo, Lib, PhD, Brenda B. Corpuz,
BSE, MAEd, PhD and Lorimar Publishing, INC 10-B Boston Street, Brgy.
Kaunlaran, Cubao, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines

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Universal Values
Module 9

OVERVIEW

After a lesson on cultural relativism and after a discussion on the

Filipino strengths and weaknesses, let us find out if there are universal
values.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

 Identify universal values.

 Explain why universal values are a necessity for human survival.

LEARNING EXPERIENCES & SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA

Activity
Read then answer the questions.
Be honest, even if others are not.
Be honest
Even if others will not
Even if others cannot
He who walks honestly, walks securely. - Abhishek Tiwari

Analysis
1. Is honesty or truth telling considered a universal value? Why or
why not?
2. What are possible consequences of dishonesty?

Abstract

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Despite the claims of cultural relativism, the concept on the reality

universal values persists. Are there universal values? Is honesty universal
value? Plato talked about the values or virtues of temperance, courage,
and wisdom. Jesus Christ preached the value of love from which springs
patience, kindness, goodwill, forgiveness, and compassion. Confucius
taught righteousness, human-heartedness, filial piety. Are not these
universal values, that is, they remain values at all times and in all places?
Yes, Plato would say, they exist apart from the concrete world. On the
other hand, Aristotle would say that they exist embodied in the concrete
individual as common or essential characteristic. St. Thomas agreed with
them, but the universals do not exist apart from the individual; they exist
as universal features individuated, instantiated in the individuals. In other
words, the universals are abstracted common features from individuals.
For example, the universal characteristics of man are that he is a
"rational, sentient living, body" are abstracted as characteristics common
to all persons. A human person differs from a stone because he/she is
alive. He/she differs from living things like plants because he/she is
sentient, and differs from sentient things like animals because he/she is
rational. This universal character of a human person exists in the mind as
idea. Universals are immaterial and immutable, beyond (transcendent)
space and time, or spatio-temporal conditions. In the words of Van
Peursen, they are termed as "logical structures" underlying the material
world and making the world possible.
The same thing is true with moral standards and values. The values
of honesty and respect for human life are characteristics individuated in
all people who respect, do not harm, injure or kill, human beings. All the
standards and values implied in the Ten Commandments can be reduced
to the value or rule of love. This is because no one can wish or will the
opposite, hatred, killing, stealing, to be universal. Values are
universalized because they can only be wished to be the values of all. For
instance, one cannot wish that killing be obligatory because it is like
wishing anyone to come and kill you.
Using Kant's criteria, can these identified "universal values" be
willed as universal. Can one will these values be the values of all?
Certainly, the answer is in the affirmative. Related to the empirical
findings on the universal values, Dr. Kent M. Keith (2003) came up with
a list of fundamental, or universal moral principles that can be found
throughout the world. These are grouped into negative and positive
statements as follows:
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DO NO HARM. Do not do to others what you would not like them

to do to you. Do not lie. Do not steal. Do not cheat. Do not falsely accuse
others. Do not commit adultery. Do not commit incest. Do not physically
or verbally abuse others. Do not murder. Do not destroy the natural
environment upon which all life depends.
DO GOOD. Do to others what you would like them to do and
friends. Be honest and fair. Be generous. Be faithful to your family and
friends. Take care of your children when they are young. Take care of
parents when they are old. Take care of those who cannot take a
themselves. Be kind to strangers. Respect all life. Protect the natural
environment upon which all life depends.

Application
Heads of State and Government, senior UN officials and
representative of civil society gathered in September 2015, as part of the
70th session of the UN General Assembly and have adopted the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These objectives form a
program of sustainable, universal and ambitious development, a program
of the people, by the people and for the people, conceived with the active
participation of UNESCO. (https://en.unesco.org/sdgs)
Here are the 17 Sustainable Development Goals for the period 2015-
2030. Study and analyze them.
1.End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
2.End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and
promote sustainable agriculture.
3.Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.
4.Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life-
long learning opportunities for all.
5.Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
6.Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and and
sanitation for all
7.Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern
energy for all.
8.Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full
and productive employment and decent work for all
9.Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable
industrialization and foster innovation.
10. Reduce inequality within and among countries.

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11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable.
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.
13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts (in
line with the United Nations Frameworks Convention on Climate
Change).
14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine
resources for sustainable development.
15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial
ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification and
halt and reverse land degradation and half biodiversity loss.
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable
development, provide access to justice for all and build effective,
accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.
17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global
partnership for sustainable development.
On what universal values are these 17 SDG 2015-2030 founded?
2. Explain why universal values are a necessity for human survival.
3. What are the 30-UN declared human rights? (Hint: Google) Are
these universal values?

KEY POINTS

 Universal values are for human survival.

 Universal values are the ultimate bases for living together and learning
how to live together. Without respect for human life by all then people
will just kill each other. If honesty or truth telling is not valued by all,
there will be endless lack of trust among people.
 In spite of cultural relativism, there are values that are universal for
human survival.

END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined
above, it is now time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. On
every module’s “End of Module Assessment” (this part), write your answer/s on
a one whole sheet of yellow pad paper.

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LOOKING AHEAD
Congratulations for making it till the end of this module! The next topic will
deal on The Three Levels of Moral Delimmas! Happy learning!

REFERENCES
Etgics by: Ruben A. Copuz, AB English-Philo, Lib, PhD, Brenda B.
Corpuz, BSE, MAEd, PhD and Lorimar Publishing, INC 10-B Boston
Street, Brgy. Kaunlaran, Cubao, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines.

END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT (Answer Sheet)

(Please do not forget to provide information on this part)

Name: _______________________ Course& Year: _____________

Module Number and Title: ________ Date accomplished: _________

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined above, it
is now time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. Write your
answers on a one whole sheet of yellow pad paper.

ESSAY
Before you begin writing, read the passage/questions carefully and plan
what you will say. Your essay will be evaluated based on the evidence it
provides of your ability to:
• Analyze and evaluate multiple perspectives on a complex issue
• State and develop your own perspective on the issue
• Explain and support your ideas with logical reasoning and detailed
examples
• Clearly and logically organize your ideas in an essay
• Effectively communicate your ideas in standard written English.
Reminders:
• Your essay must consist of three paragraphs; Introduction, Body and
Conclusion.
• An off-topic essay will not be evaluated.
• Avoid PLAGIARISM. Express your own thoughts.

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• Note that the definition copied from the abstraction and in the internet
will automatically marked as wrong.

I. The importance of Understanding and the application of Moral Values

THE MORAL AGENT

Module 10

OVERVIEW

After learning the basic concepts of morality and ethics, let us now turn
our attention to the in moral agent who is expected to develop in moral and
ethical character.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

 To explain what moral agent means.

 To discuss the meaning of fundamental option.

LEARNING EXPERIENCES & SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVI

Activity
1) Can a dog be a moral agent? Why or why not?
2) Can a robot be a moral agent? Why or why not?
Analysis
Answer the following questions:

1. Among the 3 dilemmas, which is an example of an individual

dilemma? Organizational dilemma? Structural dilemma?
2. How do the 3 dilemmas differ?

Abstraction
The Human Person as a Moral Agent

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"Moral" comes from the Latin "mores," referring to society's patterns,

standards, rules of doing things. "Agent" comes from Latin "agere," to do, act. A
moral agent is one who performs an act in accordance with moral standards. A
moral agent is the moral actor, one who acts morally.

A moral agent is "'a being who is capable of those actions that have
moral quality and which can be properly denominated good or evil in a moral
sense." (Edwards, 1754) Only a moral agent is capable of human acts. That's
why "morality is for persons." (Haring, 1971) As will be discussed later, human
acts are "those of which a man is master, which he has the power of doing or not
doing as he pleases" or "those acts which proceed from man as a rational being"
(Edwards, 1754). Only a moral agent is capable of human acts. That's why
"morality is for persons." (Haring, 1971) As will be discussed later, human acts
are "those of which a man is master, which he has the power of doing or not
doing as he pleases" or "those acts which proceed from man as a rational being"
(Edwards, 1754).

What is a sufficient condition for moral agency?

…it will suffice if the agent has the capacity to conform to some of the
external requirements of morality. So, if certain agents can obey moral laws
such as 'Murder is wrong' or 'Stealing is wrong, then they are moral agents, even
if they respond only to prudential reasons such as fear of punishment and even if
they are incapable of acting for the sake of moral considerations. According to
the strong version, the Kantian version, it is also essential that the agents should
have the capacity to rise above their feelings and passions and act for the sake of
the moral law... (Haksar, V., Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

Capacity to conform to moral standards, to act for the sake of moral

considerations, that is, for the sake of moral law, qualifies one to be a moral
agent. The absence of that capacity to conform to moral standards, as in the case
of an insane person, excludes you from moral agency. A dog is not, therefore, a
moral agent because it doesn't have the capacity" to conform to moral standards.
It cannot knowingly, freely and voluntarily act. It does not have a mind and
freewill. The same things apply to a robot that is why like the dog, it cannot be a
moral agent.

The Purpose-driven Moral Agent

Where do you go (quo vadis), moral agent?

For this old question we find an old answer from the textbook written
by Rev. Charles Collens, S.J. (1924). It is based on the principles laid down by

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St. Thomas Aquinas. "Every human act is directed toward an end". An end may
be pursued merely as a means to another end, that is, merely an instrumental
end. As Aristotle put it, that end which is sought for its own Sake, that is, it is no
longer sought for the sake of another end, is the summum bonum, the highest
good. That highest good is happiness. For St. Thomas, the highest good or end is
happiness but the absolutely final end is God.

Alfredo Panizo (1964) cites the three Thomistic principles regarding

the end or purpose of the moral agent: "First Principle: Every agent that
performs an action acts for the sake of the end or purpose to be attained. In
other words, a moral agent is purpose-driven. Second Principle: Every agent
acts for an ultimate end. Third Principle: Every agent has the power of moving
for an end which is suitable or good for him." Among the various ends or
purposes of the actions of the moral agent, there is an ultimate end, and this is
happiness. "From the Christian point of view, a human person's destiny in the
world is not only to achieve cultural and moral perfection, but to attain the
eternal happiness of the soul after death of the body. To know, to love, and to
serve God is our present duty. To see God Himself, Uncreated Splendor, face to
face, to be united to Him by an unbroken and everlasting operation of the mind,
shall be our eternal destiny." (Panizo, 1964)

Such direction of the moral development of the human person is

derived from the nature or essence of man as contemplated in the works of
Aristotle, Plato, and St. Thomas Aquinas. His moral life is evaluated or assessed
in the light of his ultimate destiny. His destiny depends on all the God-given
potentials he is born with. His act is moral if it realizes his potentials and brings
him nearer to this goal in life, immoral if it deviates from it.

The Fundamental Option

The road of life may have many diversions. Hence, the decision and
choice to take one way, like Robert Frost's "one less traveled by," one that
proceeds to the end expected of men, the determination to abide by such end, is
referred to as adopting the "fundamental option," a free choice to say "yes," like
a "yes" to God, an affirmative response to God's invitation to follow His way. In
an article published in the SLU Research Journal, Fr. Emmanuel R. Fernandez
(1988) explained clearly the theological concept of responding to the call of God
"by making a fundamental option for Him and ordering one's life accordingly."
The fundamental option is "the stance or position I decide to take vis-à-vis the
Absolute Value (God) which then influences ultimately all my other individual
actions and decisions.

(Fernandez 1988) Fernandez quotes Janssens (1966):

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We understand as a consequence the essential importance of the

fundamental judgment of conscience; it determines in our actual life the
measure of knowledge that we attain concerning moral good, by pursuing, that
is, in the total meaning of existence, the ideal of me to be realized. At all events,
if this judgment conditions what we consider right to be the content of our
fundamental choice, our first obligation is to form it sincerely and to perfect it
assiduously by trying to scrutinize in a better way the objective requirements of
our destiny. Considering, moreover, that it is impossible to realize the ideal of
moral perfections only in the light of this judgment, we are compelled to follow
it faithfully.

One theologian says that if one is used to a life in accordance with the
fundamental option, at the moment of death, he/she would be asked by God
what his/her option will be, and he/she definitely will say yes to God. An insight
is provided by Troisfontaines (cited by Dy, 2001) on what happens at the
moment of death:

...at the moment of dying, the being takes measure. He chooses his
degree of intimacy with others..., or on the contrary his centering on self which
seems preferable to him. He adopts for eternity the attitude which pleases him…
The fundamental orientation of the soul towards communion or towards
isolation, will have significance. Every man, whatever his state in life, his
heredity or the conditions of his existence, has gradually adopted his orientation
for himself. The person oriented towards charity, who all his life has sought a
more profound union with God and with others, will open with full spontaneity
the moment this communion is proposed to him... Finally, it can happen that, in
spite of the entirely new condition of choice, the completed and egoistic person
remains obstinate in refusing charity, and elects to be separated for eternity in
hell. (Dy, 2001)

In other words, one's choice of his way of life, may be gradually

established and may be difficult to change it, except by God's grace, at the
moment of death.

No Pre-fixed Plan for Man

According to some 20 Century thinkers there are no pre-existing

directions. "There are no signs in the heavens." There are no pre-designed, pre-
fixed design, plan, purpose of man's being according to some 20 century
thinkers. For the existentialist, like Jean Paul Sartre, a human person is or
becomes what he/she makes of himself/herself by choice. He/she is nothing, no
"essence", until he/she starts his/her "existence" by making choices. (Sartre,
2007) In other words, one who lives a life of blindly following what others
think, say, and do, is nothing, zero; he/she lives a hollow, empty or meaningless

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life. To the process philosophers like Teilhard de Chardin (1948) and Alfred
North Whitehead, (1996) whatever a human person is or will be a result of a
creative process. In other words, for all these thinkers, a human person has to
create his/her end, purpose, or directions. He/she has to invent his/her destiny.
Since there is no goal or end designed for him/her, he/she would completely be
the author of what he/she turns out to be. He/she will be totally responsible for
what he/ she will be. The existentialists and process philosophers do not want
any other being to be co-responsible with them for what they decide to do. In
other words, the fundamental option for these thinkers is to remain open to what
they are able to create, discover, or invent which will guide them to the next
chapter of their lives, to choose whatever their self-invention leads them to,
which, of course, is difficult to imagine.

But other groups, like Martin Heidegger, Gabriel Marcel and Martin
Buber see themselves as being-with-others, inseparably related to their fellow
man. By placing their biases and prejudices between brackets, that 1s, by
suspending their obstructive effects on their vision, they realize who the other
being is in their presence. The other is another subject like them; the other is
emitting signals communicating a message calling for their creative response.
The other is saying, "let us learn to live together", to affirm each other's being.
Together we go through life, designing our end and purposes, guided by
messages unveiled in a life of dialogue with ourselves, with other selves, and
with the world. Consequently, the end, purpose, or direction of beings-with-
others, is what they discover as they learn to live together. Says Buber, (1957)
"All real living is meeting", a life of dialogue.

World to Come" Means "World to Come Out of this World"

Fr. Rene de Brabander, CICM, former professor in St. Louis

University, Baguio City, wrote an article entitled, "Christianity in the Modern
World." The modern Christian departs from the view that earthly life, the world
of flesh, is a sinful thing and has to be abandoned for the sake heavenly life. But
"(h)eaven and earth are one and the same thing, you cannot love one and despise
the other." The world to come, that is, the heavenly world that every Christian
desire to direct their life to, can only come out or emerged from this world of
flesh. A person should direct his/her life toward this end, the making of the
world to come out of this world. What does it mean making the "world to come"
out of "this world"?

It means, instead of avoiding "this world" as a sinful world of flesh, we

involve ourselves in it, improving it, refining it, constructing and developing it,
perfecting it to bring out the world to come. As Buber was saying, "if you
hallow this world, you meet the living God." The modern saint is out there
fighting for justice, building schools and hospitals, clothing the naked, and
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feeding the hungry, instead of spending most of his time in contemplation.

(Brabander 1970)

In Robert Francoeur's Perspective of Evolution, the future world

toward which a person should direct his/her life is this same material world but
spiritualized, that is, material world spiritualized, a world devoid of its material
limitations, a world liberated and freed from its spatio-temporal conditions. To
contribute to the making of this future world the human person has to participate
through his/her creative acts of unifying, ordering synthesizing things.

APPLICATION

1. Is a permanently insane person considered a moral agent? What about a

person with some psychological trauma, psychiatric illness episode, or
medical condition that rendered him insane at the time he committed the
crime. Is he a moral agent?
2. Here is a question often raised in relation to fundamental option. What if a
good person who has dedicated his life to people and God turns away from
goodness and from God at the last minute of his life. Will he go to hell? On
the contrary here is a person who has opted to live a life for himself
disconnected from others and from God but in the last minute of his life
opts for God, will he go to heaven? Are these likely to happen considering
the concept of fundamental option?
3. If you see a bad habit begin to develop, try to nip it in the bud so that it does
not become ingrained.
4. If your fundamental option is yes to goodness and God, does this mean
there will never be times when you digress or deviate from what is good?
5. God himself or a life that is good is your fundamental option but once in a
while you may deviate from what is good despite your basic choice of
goodness. Are these the venial sins referred to by Catholic Christians? What
must you do to be true to your fundamental option?

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KEY POINTS

 A moral agent is one who performs an act in accordance with moral

standards.
 A moral agent should have the capacity to rise above his/her feelings
and passions and acts in accordance with the moral law.
 A moral agent has the capacity to conform to moral standards, to act for
the sake of moral considerations, that is, for the sake of moral law.
 An insane person, who does not have the capacity to think and choose,
cannot be a moral agent.
 A dog is, therefore, not a moral agent because it doesn't have the
capacity to conform to moral standards. It cannot knowingly, freely and
voluntarily act. It does not have a mind and freewill.
 Like the dog, a robot cannot be a moral agent...
 The moral agent is purpose-driven or end-driven. That end is sought for
its own sake, an end no longer sought for the sake of another end, the
highest good which is happiness.
 From the Christian point of view, a human person's destiny in the world
is not only to achieve cultural and moral perfection, but to attain the
eternal happiness of the soul after death of the body. As a moral agent
his duty is to know, to love, and to serve God, his ultimate end.
 Fundamental option is a human person's basic choice or inner
orientation either for a good life (directed towards others and God) or
for a bad life (directed towards himself/ herself and cut off from others
and God.
 Man, as a moral agent adopts the "fundamental option," a free choice to
say "yes" to God's invitation to follow His way.
 There is no pre-fixed plan for the human person as a moral agent.
 For the existentialist, like Jean Paul Sartre, the human person, the moral
agent, becomes what he/she makes of himself/herself by choice. He/she
is nothing no "essence" until he/she starts his/her "existence" by
making choices...

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 To the process philosophers like Teilhard de Chardin and Alfred North

Whitehead, whatever a human person, the moral agent, is or will be is a
result of a creative process. The moral agent has to create his/her end,
purpose, or directions. He/she has to invent his/her destiny. Since there
is no goal or end designed for him/her, he/she would completely be the
author of what he/she turns out to be. He/she will be totally responsible
for what he/she will be.
 Other groups, like Martin Heidegger, Gabriel Marcel and Martin Buber
see the moral agent as a being-with-others, who is inseparably related
to his/her fellow man. Together with other moral agents, the human
person goes through lite, designing his/her end guided by messages
unveiled in a life of dialogue with others and with the world.
 For Brabander, the moral agent directs his/her life to improve, refine,
develops this world in order to bring out the world to come.
 R. Franceur likewise claims that the moral agent should direct his/her
life to the spiritualization of this material world.

END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined
above, it is now time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. On
every module’s “End of Module Assessment” (this part), write your answer/s on
a one whole sheet of yellow pad paper.

LOOKING AHEAD
Congratulations for making it till the end of this module! The next topic will
deal on Freedom as Foundation for Moral Acts! Happy learning!

REFERENCES
Etgics by: Ruben A. Copuz, AB English-Philo, Lib, PhD, Brenda B.
Corpuz, BSE, MAEd, PhD and Lorimar Publishing, INC 10-B Boston
Street, Brgy. Kaunlaran, Cubao, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines.

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END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT (Answer Sheet)

(Please do not forget to provide information on this part)
Name: _______________________ Course& Year: _____________
Module Number and Title: ________ Date accomplished: _________

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined above, it
is now time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. Write your
answers on a one whole sheet of yellow pad paper.

1. Why can't the lower forms of animals be considered as moral agents?

2. For a person's fundamental option either he/she chooses between two. Who
or which are these two options?

3. Study the picture in the cover of this book. Does the picture suggest
fundamental option? How?

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The Development of Moral Character of the Moral Agent

Module 11

OVERVIEW
How does the moral agent, the human person, develop his/her moral
character This is the concern of this Lesson.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

 Explain why only human being can be ethical.

LEARNING EXPERIENCES & SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA

Activity
Share an experience that shaped your values and moral formation. It
may be a conversation that determined your career, an event that changed the
course of your life or anything else that you believe has determined what you
have become.

Analysis
What you shared is called defining moment in one's life. What is
meant by defining moment?

Abstraction
Meaning of Defining Moment

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What is meant by the defining moments in one's life. Defining moment

refers to a significant life-changing event or moment that reverberates
throughout your career and personal life and so changes everything.

The following quotation explains defining moment further: You make

thousands of decisions every day.... Each choice shapes what is to come in some
small way, but occasionally, a decision has the magnitude to be life-changing.
This kind

Of moment can change who we are and what we value, with

reverberations throughout our careers and personal lives.
While it's still up for debate exactly how much of our morality comes
from personal experiences, many of us can think of at least one experience that
has defined us and our beliefs.
Lain Hensley, chief operating officer at Odyssey Teams, recalls the fear
and loneliness he felt when he was diagnosed with cancer, for example. His
illness exposed weaknesses in his leadership and as a result, he writes, he has
become "a better man, husband, father, employer, speaker and friend." Other
influential moments can come down to a single conversation...

The Defining Moments of the Saints

St. Paul's defining moment was when suddenly a light from heaven
flashed around him on his way to Damascus. When he and his men were very
near the city, they were suddenly surrounded by a light so bright that it knocked
Saul to the ground. "They heard a voice from heaven that said: 'Saul, Saul, why
do you persecute Me?" And Saul said, "Who are you, Lord? And He said, 'T am
Jesus, whom you are persecuting; but rise and enter the city, and you will be told
what you are to do.' (Acts of the Apostles, Chapter 9). From that time on, Paul
preached Jesus to all men, the one whose followers he persecuted and became
one of greatest disciples of Jesus.

St. Augustine's defining moment came while spending time in Milan in

386 A.D. Here is the story of his conversion:

While outdoors, he heard the voice of a child singing a song, the words
of which were, "Pick it up and read it. Pick it up and read it.'" He thought at
first, that the song was related to some kind of children 's game, but could not
remember ever having heard such a song before. Then realizing that this song
might be a command from God to open and read the Scriptures, he located a
Bible, picked it up, opened it and read the first passage he saw. It was from the
Letter of Paul to the Romans, Augustine read:

Not in carousing and drunkenness, not in sexual excess and lust, not in
quarreling and jealousy. Rather put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no
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provision for the desires of the flesh. (Romans 13:13-14) While he read the
scripture, Augustine felt as if his heart were flooded with light. He turned totally
from his life of sin. He was baptized by Bishop Ambrose during the Easter Vigil,
April 24, 287. Later St. Augustine wrote his famous prayer: "You have made as
for yourself, Lord, and our hearts are restless until they rest in you."

Relationship Between Moral acts and Character

The following essay serves as good explanation of the relationship

between moral acts and character:

This essay examined the question of whether moral character is

necessary for moral behavior I argued that moral character is relevant to moral
behavior in two important ways. First, given that I am already aware of what I
ought to do (i.e. of what the "moral" action is), moral character facilitates doing
that action. The person who has moral character does moral actions more
readily - more easily and more willingly than one who does not. I also argued
that moral character matters in a second, much more fundamental way: the
person who has moral character is able to recognize what is moral and
occasions for moral behavior in a way that those who lack moral character
cannot. Those who lack moral character often fail to act morally because they
simply fail, in many instances, to recognize the morally relevant aspects of the
situations they find themselves in (Knobel, 2019)

Application

1. Illustrate this with a diagram. Do you agree with this?

Watch your thoughts;
they become your words.
Watch your words;
they become your actions.
Watch your actions;
they become your habits.
Watch your habits;
they become your character.
Watch your character they become your destiny. - Laq-Tzun

2. Show the relationship of individual acts and moral character by means

of a mathematical formula. e.g. individual moral act individual moral
act + individual moral act = individual moral character Improve on the
given formula.
3. Based on the narration of St. Paul's and St. Augustine's conversation n
can we Say one's defining moment is one's moment of conversion?

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KEY POINTS
 Defining moment refers to a significant life-changing event or moment
or conversion in a person's life.
 A person who has moral character does moral actions more readily and
more willingly than one who does not. Therefore, it is good to develop
moral character.
 It is, therefore, best for all persons to develop moral character. Moral
character is formed by repeatedly doing moral acts.

END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined
above, it is now time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. On
every module’s “End of Module Assessment” (this part), write your answer/s on
a one whole sheet of yellow pad paper.

LOOKING AHEAD
Congratulations for making it till the end of this module! The next topic will
deal on Culture: How It Defines Moral Behavior! Happy learning!

REFERENCES
Etgics by: Ruben A. Copuz, AB English-Philo, Lib, PhD, Brenda B.
Corpuz, BSE, MAEd, PhD and Lorimar Publishing, INC 10-B Boston
Street, Brgy. Kaunlaran, Cubao, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines.

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END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT (Answer Sheet)

(Please do not forget to provide information on this part)
Name: _______________________ Course& Year: _____________
Module Number and Title: ________ Date accomplished: _________

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined above, it
is now time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. Write your
answers on a one whole sheet of yellow pad paper.

1. Define defining moment in a person's life.

2. Explain the relationship between moral acts and moral character.

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The Stages of Moral Development

Module 12

OVERVIEW

If a human person has developed a moral character, the facility to act

morally and ethically is in his/her hands. What are the stages of moral
development that the human person as a moral agent undergoes?

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

 Describe each stage of moral development.

 Evaluate one's personal growth against the stages of personal
development

LEARNING EXPERIENCES & SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA

Activity
1. Answer this question:
What makes you come to school every day? Check that/those which
applies /apply to you?
_________Teachers tell me so (school policy)
_________I am afraid to be dropped and fail.
_________To show to my parents and teachers that I am a good student
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_________I promised my parents never to be absent.

_________It is the right thing to do; school rules 'say so.
_________I want to become a professional.

Analysis

1. Among the reasons given, agree as partners on the best reason for
coming to school every day and why.

2. What are very adequate reasons? What are not very adequate
reasons?

Abstraction
Meaning of Defining Moment

As previously explained, the moral agent, the human person, is a being

capable of acting "with reference to right and wrong," that is, one who is capable
of being moral, having a moral character.

Social psychologists look at the moral agent as he is, where he is, in the
society where he lives. From birth, he/she is cared, nurtured and influenced by
the world around him/her. He/she grows up in a family, develops in a society,
and thus he/she is exposed to all the do's and dont's of his/her family and his/her
society. His/her moral life, his/her norms and moral standards, are shaped by the
prevalent cultural influences. In other words, as disclosed and unveiled as he/she
is, the moral agent undergoes development.

Moral development refers to the "process through which a human

person gains his/her beliefs, skills and dispositions that make him/her a morally
mature person. William A. Kay (1970) has the following to say regarding the
nature of moral development.

... Just as the pattern of intellectual growth can be simply described as

passing through stages of animal behavior, pre-logical thinking, thought
governed by empirical logic and finally by formal logic, so morality can be
described as passing through stages of behavior controlled first, by taboo; then
second, by law; third by conscience (i.e. irrational, intrajected values); fourth, by
reciprocity; fifth, by social consensus and finally by personal moral principles,
though not necessarily in that order.
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Stated differently, the five stages may be reduced to three as

follows:
 The amoral stage - egocentric, hedonist and prudential
considerations.
 The pre-moral stage authoritarian, ego-idealist, social and
reciprocal considerations.
 The moral stage-personal, autonomous, altruistic, rational,
independent and responsible considerations.

Let’s analyze your answers in the Activity phase of this lesson. If vour
reasons to go to school are "I am afraid to be dropped and fail” and to show “to
my parents that I am a good student" you are in the a-moral's ego-idealist stage.
If you go to school everyday because "I promised to my parents I will never be
absent that is William Kay's pre-moral stage (social and reciprocal
consideration.) It your reason is t is the right thing to do " you have reached
Kay's moral stage -personal, autonomous, rational, independent and rational
considerations.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Moral development refers to the process through which a human
person, gains his/her beliefs, skills and dispositions that makes him/her a
morally mature person". Kohlberg (2013) describes the stages of moral
development in 3 stages, namely: Level1- Preconventional morality, Level
2-Conventional morality, and Level 3, Post-Conventional morality. Each
level has two stages each so that there are six stages of moral development,
They are described in detail below:

Level 1 Pre-conventional morality

This is the lowest level of moral development in Kohlberg's theory. At

the pre-conventional level children don't have a personal code of morality.
Instead, their moral code is controlled by the standards of adults and the
consequences of following or breaking adults' rules. Authority is outside the
individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions.
There is no internalization of moral values.

 Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual

Does good in order to avoid being punished. If he/she is punished, he/she
must have done wrong. Children obey because adults tell them to obey. Moral
decisions are based on fear of punishment. It is a matter of obey or you get
punished. e.g. Josef does not cheat because he is afraid of a punishment, a
failing grade and "I go to school because I am afraid to be dropped and fail.

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 Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation. Right behavior is defined by

Whatever the individual believes to be in his/her best interest. "What's in it
for me?" In this stage there is limited interest in the needs of others, only to the
point where it might further the individual's own interests. It is a matter of "you
scratch my back, and I ‘ll scratch yours” mentality. An example would be when
a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks "what's in it for
me?" and the parents offer the child a reward by giving him a treat.
In this stage, right involves equal exchange. e.g. Mario sees Juan get Miguel's
pen. Soon he sees Miguel retaliate by. taking Juan's favorite pen. Mario does not
report the incident to the teacher because they involve equal exchanges.

Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child's sense of morality is tied to
personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of
authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to
ensure positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and
conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages and a rules appropriateness or
fairness is seldom questioned.

Stage 3: "Good Boy, Nice Girl" Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid
disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being nice to
others. The individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by
others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others. The individual values
caring and loyalty to others as a basis for moral judgments. e.g. if a politician is
around in times of calamities primarily because he wants to appear "good boy"
or "good girl" to electorates, he displays stage 3 moral developmental stage. To
show to my parents and teachers that I am a good student" and "I promised by
parents never to be absent fall under this stage of good boy, nice girl orientation.

Stage 4. Law and Order Orientation.

The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so
judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid
guilt. It is a matter of "I have to do this because the law says so." It is still blind
obedience to the law so morality still lacks internalization. "It is the right thing
to do; school rules say so'" as reasons for going to school are in stage 4.

Level 3 - Post-conventional Morality

This is the level of full internalization. Morality is completely
internalized and not based on external standards. Individual judgment is based
on self-chosen principles and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and

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justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as most

people get.
 Stage 5. Social contract orientation- The child/individual becomes aware
that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there
are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals.
In this level, individuals reason out that values, rights and principles
transcend the law.
 Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid orders. Those that
do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to
meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

Stage 6. Universal, ethical, principle orientation. Individuals at this

Stage nave developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not
fit the law. They have developed moral judgments that are based on universal
human rights. The principles apply to everyone.
e.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to act to
defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the
process and haying to pay the consequences of disapproval and/or
imprisonment. When faced with a dilemma between law and conscience, the
person follows his conscience.

Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage. (McLeod, 2013)

Development of conscience-based moral decision

Moral development includes development of conscience-based moral
decision. This is in the post-conventional level of Kohlberg's stages of moral
development. Panizo defines conscience as "an act of the practical Judgment of
reason deciding upon an individual action as good and to be performed and as
evil and to be avoided." It is metaphorically referred to as the "inner or little
voice of God." Panizo (1964) quotes St. Thomas regarding the obligatory force
of conscience: "Every conscience, whether right or erroneous, whether with
regard to acts which are evil in themselves or acts which are indifferent, is
obligatory, so that he who acts in opposition to his conscience, does wrong."

Rev. Thomas V. Berg, (2012) defines conscience as follows:

In the NL (natural law) tradition, conscience is understood to be a judgment

emanating from human reason about choices and actions to be made, or
accomplished, or already opted for and performed...

Aquinas held that conscience, in the strict sense, was as an act of

human reason-called a judgment-following upon, and concluding, a time of
deliberation. In this sense, conscience is the interior resounding of reason.

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Conscience is reason's awareness of a choice, or an action's harmony or

disharmony, with the kind of behavior which truly leads to our genuine well-
being, and flourishing

If our choice or action is not in accord with the judgment of a rightly formed and
active conscience, then that judgment will linger in our conscious awareness,
presenting itself as a felt disharmony between the choice, and the moral norm
(and corresponding virtue), being violated. While such felt disharmony is indeed
of an emotive nature (e.g. a healthy emotional guilt), the judgment of conscience
remains something distinct and irreducible to the negative feeling which
happens to accompany it.

The formation of conscience

Corresponding therefore to the prior discussion on moral development
is the formation of conscience. What then is meant when it is said that the
conscience must be "formed"?
…First, conscience formation begins with the deep-seated decision to seek
moral truth. One adopts, as a way of life, the habit of seeking out answers to
questions about right and wrong, persevering in that quest until one arrives at a
state of moral certainty, after having made the most reasonable effort possible to
arrive at those answers. Second, a sound conscience must stand on the firm
foundation of integrity, sincerity and forthrightness. Duplicity, personal
inconsistency and dishonesty undermine any hope of forming a properly
functioning conscience. Third, conscience formation is sustained by the habit
of consistently educating oneself by exposure to objective moral norms and
the rationale behind those norms.

Conscience needs a guide... The Church's moral teaching, while

certainly enlightened by divinely revealed law, is, at its core, the application of
what this tradition has discovered over the centuries about the kinds of behavior
that lead us to live genuinely fulfilling, human lives. You do not place yourself
at odds with such a tradition lightly.
Consequently, conscience formation requires a habit of on-going self-
formation (what we might call moral information
gathering) through study, reading, and other types of inquiry. This includes
consultation with persons whose moral judgment we know to be sound and in
accord with the Church's moral tradition. Finally, conscience, if it is to be
correct, needs the assistance of the virtue of prudence. By "prudence, “we mean
the virtue as understood within the NL (natural law) tradition. This should not be
confused with timidity, "covering one's back” or dissimulation (hiding the truth).
Berg, 2012.

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It may be added, as clarified in Fr. Vitaliano Gorospe (1974), that

getting to the highest-level, conscience-based moral decision can mean the
widening human consciousness. It is a growth or development from family
Consciousness to clan consciousness, community consciousness, town
consciousness, provincial, regional, national, and international or global
consciousness. As one's consciousness widens, the moral parameters or
standards of one’s decision making widens, one’s moral conscience widens,
one matures.

Application

1. The Heinz dilemma

A Woman was on her deathbed, There was one drug that the doctors thought
might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had
recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was
charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the
radium and charged S2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's
husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could
only get together about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist
that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later.
But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money
from it. "So, Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's laboratory to steal the
drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug
for his wife? Why or why not?
From a theoretical point of view, it is not important what the
participant thinks that Heinz should do. Kohlberg's theory holds that the
justification the participant offers is what is significant, the form of their
response. Below are some of many examples of possible arguments. Based on
the given arguments, identify the stage among Kohlberg's six stages of moral
development:
 Heinz should not steal the medicine because he will consequently
be put in prison which will mean he is a bad person.
 Heinz should steal the medicine because he will be much happier if
he saves his wife, even if he will have to serve a prison sentence.
 Heinz should not steal the medicine because prison is an awful
place, and he would more likely languish in a jail cell than over his
wife's death.
 Heinz should steal the medicine because his wife expects it; he
wants to be a good husband.
 Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is bad and he is not
a criminal; he has tried to do everything he can without breaking
the law, you cannot blame him.
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 Heinz should not steal the medicine because the law prohibits
stealing, making it illegal.
 Heinz should steal the drug for his wife but also take the prescribed
punishment for the crime as well as paying the druggist what he is
owed. Criminals cannot just run around without regard for the law;
actions have consequences.
 Heinz should steal the medicine because everyone has a right to
choose life, regardless of the law
Heinz should steal the medicine, because saving a human life
is a more fundamental value than the property rights of another
person.
 Heinz should not steal the medicine, because others may need the
medicine just as badly, and their lives are equally significant.
2. Give reasons why students cheat /don't cheat. Classify the given reasons
based on Kohlberg's six stages.
3. Longitudinal data on studies of Kohlberg's theory show a relation of
the stages to age, although a few people ever attain the two highest
stages. Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking
necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). That is to say,
most people take their moral views from those around them and only a
minority think through ethical principles for themselves. What should be
done in values education/character education classes to help students
advance in their moral development and reach the 2 highest stages?
4. Which level of Kohlberg's moral development did the Greatest Teacher,
Jesus Christ, reach? Explain your answer.
5. Acting in accordance with the dictates of your conscience is in which
developmental stage of Kohlberg.

KEY POINTS
 Defining moment refers to a significant life-changing event or moment
or conversion in a person's life.
 A person who has moral character does moral actions more readily and
more willingly than one who does not. Therefore, it is good to develop
moral character.

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 It is, therefore, best for all persons to develop moral character. Moral
character is formed by repeatedly doing moral acts.

END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined
above, it is now time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. On
every module’s “End of Module Assessment” (this part), write your answer/s on
a one whole sheet of yellow pad paper.

LOOKING AHEAD
Congratulations for making it till the end of this module! The next topic will
deal on Culture: How It Defines Moral Behavior! Happy learning!

REFERENCES
Etgics by: Ruben A. Copuz, AB English-Philo, Lib, PhD, Brenda B.
Corpuz, BSE, MAEd, PhD and Lorimar Publishing, INC 10-B Boston
Street, Brgy. Kaunlaran, Cubao, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines.

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