Daoist Encounters

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Daoist Encounters
with
Phenomenology
36138.indb 1 03/09/2019 11:16

ALSO AVAIL ABLE FROM BLOOMSBURY
Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early Twentieth-Century

German Thought, by Eric S. Nelson
Comparative Philosophy without Borders, edited by Arindam
Chakrabarti and Ralph Weber
Confucian Ethics in Western Discourse, by Wai-ying Wong
Faith and Reason in Continental and Japanese Philosophy,
by Takeshi Morisato
Imagination: Cross-Cultural Philosophical Analyses,
edited by Hans-Georg Moeller and Andrew Whitehead
36138.indb 2 03/09/2019 11:16

Daoist Encounters
with
Phenomenology
Thinking Interculturally
about Human Existence
Edited by
David Chai
36138.indb 3 03/09/2019 11:16

Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
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of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
First published in Great Britain 2020
Copyright © David Chai and Contributors, 2020
David Chai has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988,
to be identified as Editor of this work.
For legal purposes the Acknowledgements on p. xii constitute an extension of this

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In Memory of our Teachers
Herbert Fingarette (1921–2018)

Henry Rosemont, Jr. (1934–2017)
Vincent Shen (1949–2018)
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36138.indb 6 03/09/2019 11:16
CONTENTS
List of Contributors ix
Acknowledgments xii
Editor’s Introduction 1
Part One: Precursory Encounters: Unearthing

Fertile Seeds
1 Daoism and Hegel on Painting the Invisible Spirit:

To Color or Not? 9
David Chai
2 Two Portrayals of Death in Light of the Views of

Brentano and Early Daoism 31
Mary I. Bockover
3 In the Light of Heaven before Sunrise: Zhuangzi and

Nietzsche on Transperspectival Experience 61
Graham Parkes
Part Two: Early Encounters: Nourishing the Sprouts

of Possibility
4 The Pre-objective and the Primordial: Elements of a

Phenomenological Reading of Zhuangzi 87
Kwok-Ying Lau
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viii CONTENTS
5 Martin Buber’s Phenomenological Interpretation

of Laozi’s Daodejing 105
Eric S. Nelson
6 Martin Buber’s Dao 121

Jason M. Wirth
7 The Dao of Existence: Jaspers and Laozi 135

Mario Wenning
Part Three: Mature Encounters: A Forest of Ideas
8 Heidegger and Daoism: A Dialogue on the Useless

Way of Unnecessary Being 161
Bret W. Davis
9 Heidegger and Zhuangzi: The Transformative Art

of the Phenomenological Reduction 197
Patricia Huntington
10 The Reader’s Chopper: Finding Affinities from

Gadamer to Zhuangzi on Reading 219
Sarah A. Mattice
11 Unknowing Silence in Laozi’s Daodejing and

Merleau-Ponty 247
Katrin Froese
Part Four: A Most Urgent Encounter: Re-Rooting

Our Futural Selves
12 Grounding Phenomenology in Laozi’s Daodejing:

The Anthropocene, the Fourfold, and the Sage 275
Martin Schönfeld
Index 309
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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Mary I. Bockover is Professor of Philosophy at Humboldt State University,

where she has taught since 1989. She created the HSU Philosophy Forum, a
community-wide forum for discussing issues of social and moral significance,
which she now cooperatively runs with the University’s Associated Students
organization. Professor Bockover serves on a number of ethics committees
in her community. She also likes to travel, especially to China, and to the
Czech Republic where she and her family spent a Fulbright year in 2004–5.
Her publications are mainly in the areas of comparative philosophy, ancient
Chinese philosophy, ethics, and identity theory.
David Chai is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at the Chinese University of

Hong Kong. He is the author of Zhuangzi and the Becoming of Nothingness
(2019) and Early Zhuangzi Commentaries: On the Sounds and Meanings of
the Inner Chapters (2008), and editor of Dao Companion to Neo-Daoism
(2020). His work has appeared in a wide variety of journals and edited
anthologies. Professor Chai’s research covers the fields of Chinese philosophy,
metaphysics, phenomenology, hermeneutics, and comparative philosophy.
Bret W. Davis is Thomas J. Higgins, S.J. Professor of Philosophy at Loyola

University Maryland. In addition to attaining a Ph.D. in philosophy from
Vanderbilt University, he has spent more than a dozen years studying and
teaching in Japan. He is author of Heidegger and the Will: On the Way to
Gelassenheit (2007) and of more than sixty articles in English and Japanese
on Continental, East Asian, and comparative philosophy. He is translator of
Heidegger’s Country Path Conversations (2010) and the editor or co-editor
of Japanese Philosophy in the World (in Japanese, 2005), Martin Heidegger:
Key Concepts (2010), Japanese and Continental Philosophy: Conversations
with the Kyoto School (2011), Engaging Dōgen’s Zen: The Philosophy of
Practice as Awakening (2017), and The Oxford Handbook of Japanese
Philosophy (2019).
Katrin Froese is Professor of Philosophy and Religious Studies at the University

of Calgary. She is the author of Rousseau and Nietzsche: Toward an Aesthetic
Morality (2001), Nietzsche, Heidegger and Daoist Thought: Crossing Paths
In-Between (2006), Ethics Unbound: Some Chinese and Western Perspectives
of Morality (2013), and Why Can’t Philosophers Laugh? (2017).
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x LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Patricia Huntington is Professor of Philosophy and Religious Studies at

Arizona State University West. Her primary areas of study include continental
philosophy, phenomenology, comparative philosophy, feminist theory, and
women and religion. She takes a special interest in Chan/Zen, Huayan,
and Yogācāra Buddhism. She is the author of Loneliness and Lament:
A Phenomenology of Receptivity (2009), Ecstatic Subjects, Utopia, and
Recognition: Kristeva, Heidegger, Irigaray (1998), and co-editor with Nancy
Holland of Feminist Interpretations of Martin Heidegger (2001).
Kwok-Ying Lau is Professor of Philosophy at the Chinese University

of Hong Kong. His monograph Phenomenology and Intercultural
Understanding: Toward a New Cultural Flesh (2016) was awarded the 2019
Edwin Ballard Prize by the Center for Advanced Research in Phenomenology,
as well as the 2017 Research Excellence Award by the Faculty of Arts at the
Chinese University of Hong Kong. His other monographs include Traces of
French Phenomenology: From Sartre to Derrida (in Chinese, 2018), and
Persona: Figures of Contemporary European Philosophers, From Husserl to
Lyotard (in Chinese, forthcoming). He is co-editor with Chung-Chi Yu of
Border-Crossing: Phenomenology, Interculturality and Interdisciplinarity
(2014) and Phenomenology and Human Experience (2012), with Chan-Fai
Cheung and Tze-Wan Kwan of Identity and Alterity. Phenomenology and
Cultural Traditions (2010), and with John Drummond of Husserl’s Logical
Investigations in the New Century: Western and Chinese Perspectives
(2007).
Sarah A. Mattice is Associate Professor in the Department of Philosophy

and Religious Studies at the University of North Florida, specializing in
comparative and East Asian philosophy. In addition to her book Metaphor
and Metaphilosophy: Philosophy as Combat, Play, and Aesthetic Experience
(2014), recent publications related to Daoism include: “A Metaphorical
Conversation: Gadamer and Zhuangzi on Textual Unity” (2015), “The De
of Levinas: Cultivating the Heart-Mind of Radical Passivity” co-authored
with Leah Kalmanson (2015), and “Daoist Aesthetics of the Everyday and
the Fantastical” in Artistic Visions and the Promise of Beauty: Cross-
Cultural Perspectives, edited by Higgins, Maira, and Sikka (2017).
Eric S. Nelson is Professor of Humanities at the Hong Kong University of

Science and Technology. He works on Chinese, German, and Jewish
philosophy. He is the author of Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early
Twentieth-Century German Thought (2017) and Levinas, Adorno, and the
Ethics of the Material Other (2019). He is editor of Interpreting Dilthey:
Critical Essays (2019). He is co-editor with François Raffoul of the
Bloomsbury Companion to Heidegger (2016) and Rethinking Facticity
(2008), with John Drabinski of Between Levinas and Heidegger (2014), and
with Antje Kapust and Kent Still of Addressing Levinas (2005).
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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xi
Graham Parkes taught Asian and comparative philosophy at the University

of Hawaii for twenty-ﬁve years, punctuated by three years as a visiting
scholar and fellow at Harvard. He is now a Professorial Research Fellow at
the Institute of Philosophy, University of Vienna. He has published
extensively in the fields of Chinese, German, Japanese, and environmental
philosophies, and has just finished a manuscript with the title Climate Crisis
and China: A Philosophical Guide to Saner Ways of Living.
Martin Schönfeld is Professor in the Department of Philosophy and in the

College of Global Sustainability at the University of South Florida. He
teaches environmental ethics, comparative philosophy, and future-oriented
philosophical courses related to the Anthropocene. He writes on climate
change, civil evolution, and pathways of wisdom for transitioning to a
stabilized Earth System. His papers have appeared in science venues such as
Earth System Dynamics, and journals in comparative philosophy and the
history of philosophy. He is the editor of Journal of Global Ethics.
Mario Wenning is Associate Professor at the University of Macau and Vice

President of the Karl Jaspers Society of North America. His work focuses
primarily on social and political philosophy as well as aesthetics from an
intercultural perspective. He has published in, among others, Comparative
Philosophy, Journal of Chinese Philosophy, Philosophy East and West,
Confluence, and Studies in Philosophy and Education, and is currently
completing a book manuscript on natural agency East and West. Apart from
his scholarship, Professor Wenning has also translated modern German
philosophers into English (including Jaspers, Tugendhat, and Sloterdijk).
Jason M. Wirth is Professor of Philosophy at Seattle University, and works

and teaches in the areas of Buddhist Philosophy, Aesthetics, Continental
Philosophy, Environmental Philosophy, and Africana Philosophy. His recent
books include Nietzsche and Other Buddhas (2019), Mountains, Rivers,
and the Great Earth: Reading Gary Snyder and Dōgen in an Age of
Ecological Crisis (2017), a monograph on Milan Kundera (Commiserating
with Devastated Things, 2015), Schelling’s Practice of the Wild (2015), and
the co-edited volume (with Bret W. Davis and Brian Schroeder) Japanese and
Continental Philosophy: Conversations with the Kyoto School (2011). He is
the associate editor and book review editor of the journal Comparative and
Continental Philosophy.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am honored to be joined by such an illustrious group of contributors,

without whom this book would not have come to fruition. To Mary, Bret,
Katrin, Patricia, Kwok-Ying, Sarah, Eric, Graham, Martin, Mario, and
Jason, I thank you for joining me on this journey of intercultural comparative
philosophy, and for helping me amplify Daoism’s edifying voice above the
din of the modern world. My thanks also to Colleen Coalter and Becky
Holland at Bloomsbury for their support of this project and for making its
realization a smooth and enjoyable process.
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Editor’s Introduction
When Matteo Ricci arrived on the shores of China in 1583, he would open
a new chapter in Western civilization’s engagement with the East. Struck by
the wisdom of Chinese thought, the Jesuits would translate the canonical
works of China into Latin and these, in turn, would be rendered into other
European languages. As these translations made their way through Europe,
some of them found their way into the hands, or were whispered into the
ears, of the greatest thinkers of the early-modern and modern periods.1 One
would think the texts of Confucianism would have garnered the greatest
interest given their moral-political content but that was not the case. It was
the naturalistic thought of Daoism that caught people’s attention, a
naturalism that is cosmological and aesthetic, spiritual and phenomenological.
What is more, Daoism addresses both the sayable and unsayable, the visible
and invisible, as well as the knowable and unknowable. It is, in other words,
a philosophical tradition concerned with things and non-things alike and
humanity’s ability to comprehend this inseparable, binomial nature of
reality.
When it comes to the topic of this book—phenomenology—far greater
attention has been paid to its reception in Japan than China. Of the works
written to date about Chinese phenomenology in English, they have either
been limited in scope to Edmund Husserl,2 or were done at a time that their
findings are in need of refreshing.3 What is more, there has not been a single
book-length study in English devoted to Daoism and phenomenology.4 The
present work will not only remedy this neglect, it will argue that Daoism’s
inherently phenomenological nature makes it the perfect foil to question the
Western tradition’s self-assuredness and domination of the modern global
philosophical stage.
This is not to say that the West’s grip on phenomenology should be
eradicated simply to make room for that of the East: quite the contrary.
Phenomenology has and continues to demonstrate a willingness to adapt to
the challenges put before it by thinkers and traditions within and beyond the
Western realm.5 Having said as much, it should be stated that the present
work is neither an apology for, nor a history of phenomenology, but an
encounter between two historically and culturally unique understandings of
the phenomenological world. Thus while Daoism does not belong to the
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2 Daoist Encounters with Phenomenology
school of phenomenology per se, it touches upon issues found in the latter’s
philosophical system in such a way that the two traditions mutually resonate
with one another. In this way, the intercultural encounter that guides this
work has been designed to provoke questions about human existence in
such a way that the answers arrived at will be globally relevant and not
limited to either East or West. Daoism thus acts as the protagonist, poking
and prodding the West to justify its reasoning and methodologies. Such
being the case, the first objective of this book is to debunk the
mischaracterization of Daoism as nothing more than mystical gibberish; the
Daoist rendition of phenomenology is as valid as it is ancient. A second
objective is to highlight how Western phenomenology, as represented by the
figures included in this volume, is closer in spirit to Daoism than it is apart.
The book’s third and final objective is perhaps the hardest to realize in that
it not only asks us to think phenomenologically, it challenges us to make
Daoism part of our life praxis.
While the Western side of our discourse is flexible as concerns which
figures are discussed, the Daoist side is limited to either Laozi 老子 (c. sixth
century bce) or Zhuangzi 莊子 (fourth century bce). Laozi is associated
with a text entitled Daodejing 道德經 (Classic of Dao and Virtue) and
Zhuangzi with the Nanhua Zhenjing 南華真經 (True Classic of Nanhua), or
simply the Zhuangzi.6 Since an overview of phenomenology will make this
introduction unwieldy, I shall outline the major concepts of Daoism instead.7
Of primary concern to Daoism is learning how to comprehend and follow
Dao 道. Perhaps the most profound of Chinese concepts to explain in
English, Dao literally means “path” or “road” and has the extended meaning
of “Way.” The Chinese character is comprised of two parts: a head (首) and
a pair of feet (辶). The feet carry the head and, in so doing, create a path in
the world. When one lets their feet transport their head, as opposed to using
the head to determine where the feet should go, the “Way” to proceed
naturally presents itself. The second meaning bestowed to Dao is that of
primal creator or mother (mu 母). All things in the universe (i.e., the myriad
or ten thousand things, wanwu 萬物), as well as the universe itself, arise and
decline because of Dao; however, this cosmic birthing is neither a divine act
nor one of predetermination. Although the lifespan of things is fated
according to their form (xing 形), what determines whether its end is reached
or cut-short prematurely is not Dao but each thing itself. Exhaustion of the
body (ti 體 or shen 身) and (heart-) mind (xin 心), illness, natural or human
inflicted calamity, there are any number of ways a thing’s finitude can be
concluded. For Daoism, death is inevitable and since everything in the
universe must die at some point in time, there are no grounds to justify the
fear humanity harbors of what is essentially a natural occurrence.
Dao makes possible the occurrence of life (sheng 生) and death (si 死),
and the innumerable changes (hua 化 or bian 變) that take place in-between,
but it does not manipulate or interfere with them. From this we derive the
concepts of naturalism or spontaneity (ziran 自然), and non-interference or
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non-action (wuwei 無為). These, in turn, give rise to the notions of selflessness
and forgetting (wang 忘). To be in harmony with Dao is hence to be in
accordance with the collective natural world (i.e., Heaven and Earth, tiandi
天地). In order to do this, Daoism states that humans must abandon our
dependency on certain models of thinking and acting whilst experiencing
the world. If we are to return to things themselves, we cannot do so if we
continue to view ourselves as being separate or different from the collectivity
of said things. Daoism is thus a proponent of cosmic holism wherein no one
thing has priority over all others.
In order to best illustrate this life praxis, Daoism offers us the model of
the sage (shengren 聖人). The sage reveals the nature of things by allowing
them to display their phenomenological uniqueness and harmony with Dao.
Acting as the mirror of the world, the sage allows things to shine in the light
of Dao whilst remaining dark himself, allows things to sound forth whilst
remaining silent himself, and stands still so that the world may revolve
around him. In this way, the sage helps preserve the root of Dao in the world
by showing the latter the true extent of the former’s potential. Without the
sage, the “Way” of Dao will become lost to humanity and when that happens,
humanity will descend into chaos and destruction.
In sum, the Daoist worldview is a phenomenological experience not
predicated on a knowledge-based self; rather, Daoism seeks to liberate
human knowing and thinking by discarding the subjective self, dogmatic
norms, and non-inclusionary theories of reality. In this way, Daoist
phenomenology contributes to the Western notion of the term by shifting
the plane of truth from the human sphere to the onto-cosmological realm of
Dao qua ultimate reality. Daoist phenomenology is thus simultaneously
mundane and transcendental, this-worldly and non-worldly, appreciative of
things as they naturally are while also being sensitive to what said things
were and may become. It is a mode of living alongside the beings and non-
beings of the world without being affected by their attributes or propensities,
all the while appreciating said qualities as perfectly natural and in accordance
with each thing’s inborn nature.
To conclude, the chapters comprising this book can be read independent
of one another and in any particular order. Although they are organized
chronologically according to the lifetime of the Western figure and divided
into three groups indicating the approximate development of
phenomenology—in the context of this book that is—what remains
consistent throughout is the edifying voice of Daoism.
Notes
1 See the following: Eric S. Nelson, Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early
Twentieth-Century German Thought (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2017);
Graham Parkes, ed., Heidegger and Asian Thought (Honolulu: University of
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Hawaii Press, 1987); Graham Parkes, ed., Nietzsche and Asian Thought
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Lin Ma, Heidegger on East-West
Dialogue: Anticipating the Event (New York: Routledge, 2007); and Reinhard
May, Heidegger’s Hidden Sources: East-Asian Influences on His Work, trans.
Graham Parkes (New York: Routledge, 1996).
2 See Kwok-Ying Lau and John Drummond, eds., Husserl’s Logical Investigations in
the New Century: Western and Chinese Perspectives (Dordrecht: Springer, 2007).
3 See Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, ed., Phenomenology of Life in a Dialogue
Between Chinese and Occidental Philosophy (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1984). Although the publication of this book was ground-breaking
at the time for introducing to the world the field of Chinese phenomenology,
only two of its twenty-five chapters dealt with Daoism. What is more, in the
time that has since passed, not a single work on phenomenology has appeared
in which Daoism has been given more than the briefest of analysis.
4 Even though the works of Hegel, Husserl, and Heidegger have been available in
Chinese for some time, Chinese scholars have been just as derelict as their
Western counterparts when it comes to direct comparisons between Daoism and
phenomenology. Two notable exceptions are: Rujun Wu, Daoist Hermeneutics
and the Forceful Purity of Phenomenology (Taibei: Taiwan Xuesheng Shuju
Youxian Gongsi, 2011); and Zhenyu Zhong, Daoist Phenomenology of Qi
(Taibei: Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Zhongguo Wenzhe Yanjiusuo, 2016).
5 For more on phenomenology in its traditional and contemporary guises, see
Dan Zahavi, ed., The Oxford Handbook of the History of Phenomenology
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2018); Dan Zahavi, ed., The Oxford
Handbook of Contemporary Phenomenology (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2012); Dermot Moran and Lester Embree, eds., Phenomenology: Critical
Concepts in Philosophy (London: Routledge, 2004); Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka,
ed., Phenomenology World-Wide: Foundations, Expanding Dynamics,
Life-Engagements: A Guide for Research and Study (Dordrecht: Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 2002); Dermot Moran, Introduction to Phenomenology
(London: Routledge, 2000); and Robert Sokolowski, Introduction to
Phenomenology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
6 We will not concern ourselves with the historical dates of Laozi or Zhuangzi,
or the compilation and editing of their texts, as these are beyond the scope of
this work.
7 More comprehensive introductions are available in: Hans-Georg Moeller,
Daoism Explained: From the Dream of the Butterfly to the Fishnet Allegory
(La Salle: Open Court, 2004); Eske Mollgaard, An Introduction to Daoist
Thought (New York: Routledge, 2011); and Steve Coutinho, An Introduction
to Daoist Philosophies (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013).
References
Coutinho, Steve. (2013), An Introduction to Daoist Philosophies, New York:
Columbia University Press.
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Lau, Kwok-Ying and John Drummond, eds. (2007), Husserl’s Logical

Investigations in the New Century: Western and Chinese Perspectives, in
Contributions to Phenomenology (vol. 55), Dordrecht: Springer.
Ma, Lin. (2007), Heidegger on East-West Dialogue: Anticipating the Event. New
York: Routledge.
May, Reinhard. (1996), Heidegger’s Hidden Sources: East-Asian Influences on His
Work, Graham Parkes (trans.), New York: Routledge.
Moeller, Hans-Georg. (2004), Daoism Explained: From the Dream of the Butterfly
to the Fishnet Allegory, La Salle: Open Court.
Mollgaard, Eske. (2011), An Introduction to Daoist Thought, New York:
Routledge.
Moran, Dermot. (2000), Introduction to Phenomenology, London: Routledge.
Moran, Dermot and Lester Embree, eds. (2004), Phenomenology: Critical Concepts
in Philosophy, London: Routledge.
Nelson, Eric S. (2017), Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early Twentieth-
Century German Thought, London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Parkes, Graham, ed. (1987), Heidegger and Asian Thought. Honolulu: University
of Hawaii Press.
Parkes, Graham, ed. (1991), Nietzsche and Asian Thought. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Sokolowski, Robert. (2000), Introduction to Phenomenology, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Tymieniecka, Anna-Teresa, ed. (1984), Phenomenology of Life in a Dialogue
Between Chinese and Occidental Philosophy, in Analecta Husserliana (vol. 17),
Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Tymieniecka, Anna-Teresa, ed. (2002), Phenomenology World-Wide: Foundations,
Expanding Dynamics, Life-Engagements: A Guide for Research and Study, in
Analecta Husserliana (vol. 80), Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Wu, Rujun 吳汝鈞. (2011), Daoist Hermeneutics and the Forceful Purity of
Phenomenology 道家詮釋學與純粹力動現象學, Taibei: Taiwan Xuesheng Shuju
Youxian Gongsi.
Zahavi, Dan, ed. (2012), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary
Phenomenology, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Zahavi, Dan, ed. (2018), The Oxford Handbook of the History of
Phenomenology, New York: Oxford University Press.
Zhong, Zhenyu 鍾振宇. (2016), Daoist Phenomenology of Qi 道家的氣化現象學,
Taibei: Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Zhongguo Wenzhe Yanjiusuo.
36138.indb 5 03/09/2019 11:16

36138.indb 6 03/09/2019 11:16
PART ONE
Precursory
Encounters:
Unearthing Fertile
Seeds
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36138.indb 8 03/09/2019 11:16
1
Daoism and Hegel on Painting
the Invisible Spirit:
To Color or Not?
David Chai
1. Introduction
To look upon the world is to see an astonishing array of colors. Indeed, the
colors that fall under our gaze bewitch our eyes and intoxicate our hearts
and yet, if we were to sweep away said coloration, turning the world into a
monochrome palette, would we still be enraptured by its bedazzling
visuality? What would we make of a world lacking the emotional,
psychological, and religious signification of color? Based on the bond
between color and these states of human realization, we confidently ascribe
each an array of identificatory markers. With this toolkit at our disposal, we
take the world at large to be constructed in a similar manner, forgetting the
fact that all outward manifestations of inner potential are fleeting in nature;
moreover, what makes each thing a particular thing—its spirit—is colorless.
The foggy translucency of spirit is not because it is impervious to color;
rather, by embodying colors in their collectivity, spirit colors the world such
that it transcends conventional representation. The challenge, therefore, lies
in conveying spirit’s resistance to literal expression.
One aspect of spirit commonly seen in the world’s great works of art is
freedom—not of the social, political, or religious kind, but that belonging to
humanity as a whole—and nowhere is freedom felt more than in Nature.
The artwork that merely imitates Nature, however, is but a decorative image
insofar as it lacks spirit. Ornamental art fails to encourage its viewer to
contemplate its painted scene, even though it might be pleasurable to look
36138.indb 9 03/09/2019 11:16

at, because it does not bring said viewer a sense of inner freedom. In order
for art to be spiritually transformative, it needs to uplift our sense of self-
awareness, in terms of not just who we are as individuals, but who we are
as members of the collective being of spirit.
In discussing painting and spirit, one cannot but turn to the German
philosopher Hegel. In his Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art (hereafter,
Aesthetics), Hegel proclaims painting has united what was formerly two
distinct spheres of art: that of the external environment (architecture), and
that of the embodied spirit (sculpture). The color of a painting, he says, gives
the spiritual inner-life its appearance by rendering the invisible visible. While
this chapter is not concerned with Hegel’s account of the history of art, nor
with his discussion of the different styles of art or particular artists, it is
interested in exploring his thesis that a painter literally colors the living
sensuousness of an object. Neither drawing technique nor the clever use of
light and shadow can match the effect color has on spirit. While Hegel’s
discourse on the role of color in painting is an admittedly minor aspect of
his corpus, when compared to the writings of Alexander Baumgarten (1714–
62) and Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803), it is just as stimulating and
phenomenologically innovative.
Many centuries before Hegel, Chinese painters had come to an altogether
different conclusion regarding painting and color. For them, inner-spirit was
brought to life through brushwork, not color. Indeed, the influence of Daoist
philosophy on Chinese painting made color antithetical to the naturalness
of the depicted scene. What is of utmost importance is the spiritual resonance
between the painter and her subject. Although color was used in early
Chinese painting, it was done so sparingly in order to avoid masking the
brushwork delimiting the figures or scenes therein. Indeed, the blank canvas
was just as important to a painting as its content, so much so it became a
vital component of the finished work. In this way, when early Chinese artists
speak of the harmony between the white canvas and the black ink applied
to its surface, they were pointing to a human–cosmic harmony reflective of
the non-coloration of Nature. Daoist-inspired painting thus draws observers
into the collective spirit of Dao qua ultimate reality by freeing them to
partake in the naturalness of the painter’s heart-mind. In what follows, we
will compare the Hegelian and Daoist appropriation (or lack thereof) of
color and how it bears upon the standing of spirit in both its human and
worldly form.
2. Spirit as Art’s Foundation

Amongst his writings on art, Hegel’s analysis of painting in his Aesthetics
has received an inappropriately low amount of scholarly attention.1
Although he might not formally belong to the phenomenological tradition
associated with Husserl, Hegel nevertheless speaks of the coloration of
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Daoism and Hegel on Painting 11
painting in a manner that can be construed as phenomenological. His

approach to art is decidedly European in orientation however, and while
Hegel claims “the Chinese, Indians, and Egyptians acquired fame on the
score of their paintings,”2 he undermines himself when he says “the Chinese,
Indians, and Egyptians, in their artistic shapes, images of gods, and idols,
never get beyond formlessness or a bad and untrue definiteness of form.”3
The reason why they were incapable of mastering true beauty, Hegel says, is
because the content of their art lacks that which is absolute in itself (i.e.,
spirit). One must then ask, what is this true beauty Hegel speaks of? In his
Aesthetics, he writes that painting has united the disciplines of architecture
and sculpture through its use of color; to be specific, the painter colors spirit
by making visible its invisible nature. This bringing to light what was
formerly dark is spiritual resonance, what Hegel calls shining (scheinen). We
will interrogate Hegel’s claim that the painter colors the living sensuousness
of a subject via the Daoist doctrine that color handicaps access to spirit. To
support this claim, it will be argued that the non-coloration of Daoist
painting allows for a deeper level of harmonization between the painter and
her subject such that the latter marks the naturalness of the former’s heart-
mind (xin 心). In this way, Chinese monochrome painting transcends color
thereby bringing it and those who gaze upon it to a higher realm—not the
shining of spirit as Hegel would have it—but that which gives rise to spirit:
Dao 道.
The ancient Chinese term for painting (huatu 畫圖) is used only once in
the classical texts of Daoism, specifically chapter 21 of the Zhuangzi 莊子.
Said passage reads:
Prince Yuan of Song wanted some new paintings. A crowd of clerks

gathered before him and having receiving their easels, separated into
several lines. Moistening their brushes and ink-sticks, there were so many
of them that half had to stand outside [the hall]. One clerk arrived late,
casually entering [the hall] without the slightest concern. Upon receiving
his easel, he did not join the others in line but returned to his quarters.
When Prince Yuan sent someone to check on this clerk, they found him
sitting on the floor, legs stretched-out before him, naked. Excellent, said
the Prince, this is a real painter!4
There is not much to be gleaned from this passage on the nature of

painting, or how it manages to encapsulate the spirit of Dao. What we are
able to discern is that a person who carries Dao within their heart-mind has
nothing to burden them on the outside. This is why the clerk did not rush to
the side of the Prince, eager to please his every wish, but orders his life in
accordance with the cosmic rhythm of the world. It might also explain why
he practices his craft naked! Needless to say, only when the painter is
spiritually liberated does the resultant painting reflect said freedom; only
when the painter’s spirit wanders between the realms of Nature and the
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canvas does the painted scene touch the spirit of others. As we shall see,
Daoist-inspired painting does not fixate on the technical particularities of
perspective, light and shadow, color saturation, and so forth, but on the
suggestiveness conveyed through brushwork.
In this regard, Daoism’s influence on artists, poets, and philosophers of
the Wei-Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties can be attributed to its emphasis on the
invisible attributes of the world in that to be hidden is to be mysterious, and
mystery lights the way to Dao. In other words, what is authentic (zhen 真)
does not belong to the world of the visible, a world where suggestiveness
is erased by crude pursuits of self-gain and recognition, and where the
hidden is trampled on by the vanity of the known and dispersed by the false
knowledge of spoken words. It is likewise absent from the line of clerks
awaiting their Prince’s command; rather, to be authentic entails a metaphorical
stripping-off of one’s clothes, and by implication the rank and honor
associated with them, so as to reveal one’s true self underneath. Herein lies
the difference between the Daoist and Hegelian views of painting—the
former sees spirit permeating the entirety of reality while the latter locates it
in the carnality of human flesh.
Why does it fall to the painter, as opposed to the sculptor, to successfully
capture human spirit? The following passage from Jean-Luc Marion gives
us some food for thought:
The painter grants visibility to the unseen, delivering the unseen from its
anterior invisibility, its shapelessness. But why is it the painter who
manages to do this—he and he alone? How does he seize the power to
make the unseen appear? By what gift does one become a painter?
Certainly, it is not enough to be able to see, to be on duty with a gaze, so
to speak, to have an eye for the visible already available and on display
every day, since in that case every non-blind person would know how to
paint. If the painter rules over the access of the unseen to the visible, his
gift thus has nothing to do with his vision of the visible but with his
divination of the unseen. The painter, like the blind man, sees more than
the visible, painting and seeing par excellence.5
Perhaps Hegel had something similar in mind when he noted how “art
liberates the true content of phenomena from the pure appearance and
deception of this bad, transitory world, and gives them a higher actuality,
born of the spirit.”6 It would seem that the art of painting is indubitably tied
to spirit, so let us examine in greater detail what this relationship entails.
3. The Art of Painting

Nowhere is Hegel’s opinion on the art of painting more succinctly presented
than the following: “The universal need for art . . . [lies in] man’s rational
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need to lift the inner and outer world into his spiritual consciousness as an
object in which he recognizes again his own self.”7 We can contrast this with
what the Chinese painter and art theorist Xie He 謝赫 (fl. fifth century ce)
wrote:
Spiritual nature is conveyed by instilling vitality (qiyun shengdong

氣韻生動); inner quality is suggested through skillful handling of the
brush (gufa yongbi 骨法用筆); correspondence with reality is achieved
through the representation of forms (yingwu xiangxing 應物象形);
accordance to type is accomplished by application of colors (suilei
fucai 隨類賦彩); layout and composition are determined by careful
positioning and placement (jingying weizhi 經營位置); and similitude and
accuracy are dependent upon faithful modeling and depiction (zhuanyi
moxie 傳移摹寫).8
Xie He’s “Six Laws” (liu fa 六法), like Hegel’s statement quoted before
them, place spirituality front and center; unlike Hegel, however, who held
that painting was about giving expression to human spirit by rendering it
visible through color, Xie He took brushwork to be of greatest importance.
Xie He is indicative of the early Chinese attitude toward art. Though he
would prove to be a highly influential figure, he was not the only one to
correlate painting and spirit. Take, for example, the great Tang poet and
painter Wang Wei 王維 (699–761 CE):
Now those who speak of painting ultimately focus on nothing but

appearances and positioning. Still, when the ancients made paintings, it
was not in order to plan the boundaries of cities or differentiate the locale
of provinces, to make mountains and plateaus or delineate watercourses.
What is founded in form is fused with soul (ling 靈), and what activates
movement is the heart-mind (xin 心). If the soul cannot be seen, then that
wherein it lodges will not move. If eyesight is limited, then what is seen
will not be complete. Thus with one reed brush I simulate the form of the
Great Void (taixu 太虛); with differentiated shapes I paint the perceptions
of the inch-wide pupils.9
Wang Wei lived at a time when painting had only just begun to be the
domain of the literati class in China, and among said persons, ink-wash
landscapes rapidly became the medium of choice. Indeed, “it was exclusively
to the ink-wash that the Chinese literati assigned the play of variation
between pale and dark, dry and wet, between there is and there is not, to
render the evanescent character of things in the process of emergence or
resorption.”10 Working with black ink did not hamper the creative rendering
of painting for the early Chinese. In fact, they made up for the lack of color
by devising six “colors” appropriate to their monochrome take on the
world: black, white, dry, wet, thick, and thin.11 These three pairs allowed for
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more subtle modes of expression to come to light: condensed, opaque,

material, distilled, hazy, and lively.12
Zhang Yanyuan 張彥遠 (c. 815–907 ce) was another notable name in
early Chinese art theory. On the issue of spirit in painting, he said:
“Contemporary painters are roughly good at describing appearances,
attaining formal likeness but without its spirit resonance; providing their
colors but lacking in brush method. How can such be called painting?”13
The allusion to spirit resonance and brushwork was not accidental; indeed,
it indicates a pattern amongst early Chinese intellectuals and artists:
naturalism is sought over and above technical realism. Zhang’s quote might
be sparse in detail but we can nevertheless make a comparison to Hegel’s
statement that: “[Painting is] . . . the formation of a picture by means of
particular colors whereby the form of the object as our vision sees it is
transformed from the shape of something real into a pure appearance
artistically created by the spirit (of the artist).”14 For Hegel, painting is about
the discovery of human essence in that which is beautiful, a beauty inscribed
and imposed upon the world through color. What is more, color lies at the
heart of painting in a way that stone cannot lie at the heart of sculpture: it
transforms the tangibly visible into the intangible invisibility of spirit. This
spirituality, however, is not a resonating of the mysterious pulse of Nature
but an embodiment of the free human soul. Zhang Yanyuan’s view, that a
painting lacking in spirit resonance and correct brushwork does not merit
being called a painting, stands apart from what Hegel has in mind in that
the brush serves as a conduit through which the painter’s spirit can
reverberate in their work, reducing the use of color to second-order
importance.
We can add yet another observation, that despite one’s technical skill in
using a brush, so much so that the likeness between a scene and its portrayal
is beyond reproach, this does not imply one has successfully captured its
ineffable spirit. To quote Zhang once more:
One may be said to have fulfilled one’s aim when the five colors are all
present in the management of ink alone. If one’s [heart-] mind dwells on
the five colors, then the images of things will go wrong. In painting things,
one should especially avoid meticulous completeness in formal appearance
and coloring, and extreme carefulness and detail that display skill and
finish. Therefore one should not deplore incompleteness but rather
deplore completeness. Once one knows a thing’s completeness, where is
the need for completing it in painting? This is not incompleteness. Should
one not recognize a thing’s completeness, that is true incompleteness.15
This textual passage is inspired by none other than the Zhuangzi. For
example, the corruption of images by way of the five colors is derived from
chapter 8 which says: “One who is web-toed in eyesight will be confused by
the five colors, bewitched by patterns and designs, by the brilliant blues and
36138.indb 14 03/09/2019 11:16

yellows on embroidered robes, is this not the case?”16 On the need to

preserve the incompleteness of things, this takes after the example of true
forgetting seen in chapter 5 of the Zhuangzi: “When men do not forget what
can be forgotten but forget what cannot be forgotten, this is called true
forgetting.”17 Painting, therefore, is not tasked with literal reproduction,
either in content or coloration, but mastering the skill of incompleteness. In
other words, painting, as a creative act, can only be natural and a spiritual
embodiment of its subject when the scene is left partially un-rendered.
It is here, in the blankness of invisibility, where the spirit dwells for
Daoism, Daoist-inspired painters, and, one might add, for Hegel who
believes: “The heart of pictures is not the subjects themselves but the
liveliness and soul of the subjective treatment and execution, the mind of
the artist which is mirrored in his work and provides not only a mere
copy of these external things but at the same time himself and his inner
soul.”18 In the words of Stephen Houlgate: “Painting [for Hegel] fulfills its
task as art, therefore, not when it accurately reproduces what is given in
nature, but when it creates a new reality that is itself ensouled . . . rendering
human character and subjectivity concretely visible.”19 The first half of
Houlgate’s explanation represents another commonality between the
Daoist and Hegelian theory of painting, whereas the second half marks
their point of departure: Hegel seeks to strengthen our self-understanding
through a process of internalization, while Daoism endeavors to weaken
our dependency on selfhood by conjoining the self of humanity with the
collective spirit of Nature.
In the above discussion we touched upon one of the most fundamental
principles of painting for the Chinese—spirit resonance (shenyun 神韻),
the first of Xie He’s six laws; however, there are two benchmarks not
included in Xie’s laws to which all early Chinese painters aspired: the
breath of spirit (shenqi 神氣) and the breath of life (shengqi 生氣). It is
interesting to note that Xie He’s shenyun does not appear in the two
principal texts of Daoism (i.e., the Daodejing 道德經 and Zhuangzi) nor
does shengqi, while the term shenqi appears in only two chapters of the
Zhuangzi: 12 and 21. Quite clearly, then, thinkers in Xie He’s time were
working with their own conceptual toolbox that not only emulated ideas
found in the Zhuangzi, but developed new ones specifically suited to the art
of painting. To put the terms shenqi and shengqi into context, here is how
Zhang Yanyuan portrays them:
The [brush] strokes of Gu Kaizhi 顧愷之 (345–406 ce) are strong in

firmness and uninterrupted in continuity, circling back upon themselves
in abrupt rushes. His tone and style are untrammeled and varied; his
atmosphere and flavor sudden as lightning. His conception was
formulated before his brush [was used], so that when the painting was
finished the conception was present. Thus he completed the breath of
spirit (shenqi) . . . Wu Daozi 吳道子 (680–759 ce) kept watch over his
36138.indb 15 03/09/2019 11:16

spirit, concentrating upon his own unity. Being in harmony with the work
of creation itself, [his spirit] could borrow Master Wu’s brush. This is
[described as] formulating the conception before the brush is used, so
that when the painting is finished the conception is present . . . Now, if
one makes use of marking line and ruler, the result will be dead painting.
But if one guards the spirit and concentrates upon unity, there will be real
painting. Is not plain plaster better than dead paintings? Yet even one
stroke of a real painting will show the breath of life (shengqi). Now, the
more one revolves thought and wields the brush while consciously
thinking of oneself as painting, the less success one will have when
painting. If one revolves thought and wields the brush without ideas fixed
on painting, one will have success. [Painting] does not stop in the hand,
nor freeze in the [heart-] mind, but becomes what it is without conscious
realization.20
There is certainly a lot to be said about this long passage but the key idea
seems to be this: over-reliance on ink masks the authentic nature (spirit) of
the subject, wiping out the painter’s brushwork in the process. The opposite
is also true: a weak painting is one whose use of ink is too sparse and whose
brushwork is too feeble. In order to avoid these extremes, spirit resonance is
essential, for only concentrated spirit leads to clarity of thought, and when
both of these are present, the painter will envision the painting before her
brush even touches the canvas. In this way, the idea exists before the brush
is grasped, and what is grasped by the heart-mind is responded to by the
hand, as Zhang Yanyuan so eloquently stated.
Should we jump forward in time to the last dynastic period of China, the
Qing, we find all of the above ideas echoed in Shitao’s 石涛 (1642–1707)
Treatise on the Philosophy of Painting (hua yulu 畫語綠). For example, in
the fourth of his Treatise’s eighteen brief essays, Shitao famously declares
that when “a painting receives its ink, ink is then received by the brush, the
brush is then received by the wrist, and the wrist is received by the heart-
mind.”21 In his seventh essay, Shitao says: “When brush and ink meet, this is
known as indistinct intermingling. When what indistinctly intermingles is
not separated, this is called undifferentiated wholeness. To penetrate such
undifferentiated wholeness, what better way to do so than with the primal
brushstroke?”22 Brush and ink thus form an inseparable pair, in the same
way that Yin and Yang, Heaven and Earth do; what threads them together
is the spirit of Dao. The authentic painter, Shitao writes in his sixteenth
essay, “perceives things beyond their physical form and when composing
such forms, reveals no trace of his efforts.”23 The key is to manipulate ink
and brush in such a way that they free and revitalize the spirit of the subject
being painted: the spirit of Nature is hence one and the same with the spirit
of all things therein.
Returning to Hegel, he says nothing about brushwork but turns his
attention to the spatiality of the canvas:
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[Painting allows] space to persist and extinguishes only one of the three
dimensions . . . This reduction of the three dimensions to a level surface
is implicit in the principle of interiorization which can be asserted, as
inwardness, in space only by reason of the fact that it restricts and does
not permit the subsistence of the totality of the external dimensions . . .
[Painting’s] content is the spiritual inner life which can come into
appearance in the external only as retiring into itself out of it . . . [hence]
painting has to renounce the totality of space.24
John Sallis offers some astute observations on the unique spatial nature
of painting: “The visible forms and colors of the painting itself serve to
project, beyond the painting, a visible configuration depicting things that
either actually are and could actually be seen or that, even if only imaginary,
are imagined as visible. In effect, painting engages three successive planes of
visibility: the forms and colors on the canvas, the visible scene thereby
composed and projected, and the actual or imaginary scene thereby
depicted.”25 A second point Sallis makes is that “a painting can present the
invisible in the very midst of the visible, that it can let something that never
appears to the senses—that cannot appear as such to the senses—be
presented in and through the very shining of the sensible.”26 He continues:
“What comes to appear on the surface as mere shining becomes also a trace
pointing back to spirit in its retreat; and, as painted, the trace is presented as
a trace. Painting presents spirit not as circumscribed or imaged there on the
painted surface, but only by way of the traces that from that surface point
back to spirit in its retreat.”27
The trace Sallis speaks of is also found in the Chinese tradition, such as
this detailed descriptive passage by the Tang dynasty theorist Jing Hao 荊浩
(c. 870–930):
Spirit is obtained when your [heart-] mind moves along with the
movement of the brush and does not hesitate in delineating images.
Resonance is obtained when you establish forms, while hiding [obvious]
traces of the brush, and perfect them by observing the proprieties and
avoiding vulgarity. Thought is obtained when you grasp essential forms,
eliminating unnecessary details [in your observation of nature], and let
your ideas crystallize into the forms to be represented. Scene is obtained
when you study the laws of nature and the different faces of time, look
for the sublime and recreate it with reality. Brush is obtained when you
handle the brush freely, applying all the varieties of strokes in accordance
with your purpose, although you must follow certain basic rules of
brushwork. Here you should regard brushwork neither as substance nor
as form but rather as a movement, like flying or driving. Ink is obtained
when you distinguish between higher and lower parts of objects with a
gradation of ink tones and represent clearly shallowness and depth, thus
making them appear natural as if they had not been done with a brush.28
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Here, the trace is not directly bound-up in spirit but points the way to it
through brushwork. A subtle yet important difference, to be sure. The thing
we need to take away from Jing Hao’s account is that spirit does not lie
dormant within a painting, hidden amongst its colors, but flows with the
movement of the painter’s brush—here weak, there strong, here forcefully
visible, there subtly invisible. Chapter 22 of the Zhuangzi can be cited as but
one of many potential sources of inspiration: “The bright and shining is born
from deep darkness; the ordered is born from formlessness; and pure spirit is
born from Dao.”29 What is to be treasured in a painting is not the forms
inscribed on the canvas but the brushwork underlying said forms. In other
words, the painted forms should convey a degree of incompleteness because
only then does spirit have freedom of movement as the observer’s eyes traverse
from one section of the canvas to another, forming a complete yet fluid image
in their heart-mind. This is what Jing Hao means by resonance. We find the
same rationale expressed by Su Shi 蘇軾 (1037–1101) in a colophon he wrote
on a painting by Li Gonglin 李公麟 (1049–1106): “There is Dao and there is
skill. If one has Dao and not skill, although things have been formed in one’s
heart-mind, they will not take shape through one’s hands.”30
Having spirit alone is, therefore, not enough to make someone a genuine
artist, for such persons have mastered the skill of letting the hand follow the
heart-mind’s intuition, not using the heart-mind to control the hand. In this
way, the true painter allows her spirit to flow freely between hand and heart-
mind such that both come to assume the personality of the depicted subject.
One becomes the mountain, the bamboo, and so forth, the result of which is
a naturalism perfectly harmonious with Dao: “Let your heart-mind wander
in simplicity, blend your vital breath with that which is vast, follow along
with things as they are, and leave no room for personal views.”31 Such an
approach to painting means Chinese artists can produce works of art that
are neither technically driven nor color dependent. As for why Daoist-
inspired painters abstained from color while Hegel took it to be the highest
marker of the artist, this is a question we shall now try to answer.
4. Painting’s Coloration and the

Shining of Spirit
Due to the immense influence of Daoist philosophy on the visual arts in
medieval China, the use of color in painting, particularly landscapes, was
quickly abandoned. The reason for this comes from the Daoist belief that
color corrupts one’s vision. Textual evidence of this is found in both the
Daodejing and Zhuangzi, the latter of which writes:
What can be looked at and seen are but forms and colors; what can be
listened to and heard are but names and sounds. How sad, that the people
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of the world take form and color, name and sound, as sufficient for
expressing the truth of things!32
The truth referred to by Zhuangzi is not that of knowledge but spirit.

Every encounter with an object or person produces in us an emotional
response, even if it is only on a subconscious level. This emotive reaction,
however, seldom forces us to ponder the unquantifiable, spiritual aspect of
said encounter, and so we happily take things as they are presented at face
value, ignorant of what lies within. No matter if it is color, sound, appearance,
or words that beguile us, none pave the way to completeness in Dao. This is
because spiritual wholeness qua the shining of Dao can only be reached
when one subsists in the world colorlessly, silently, formlessly, and emptily.
To be colorless is to openly receive color, to allow it to namelessly change of
its own volition. The decision of the Chinese to paint in black ink was hence
not a random act. Black was seen as the only color capable of harmoniously
circumscribing the whiteness of the canvas beneath, creating the possibility
for other colors to thereupon fill this newly emergent space. Said differently,
the spirit of Dao does not lie with ink or canvas individually but the
application of the former, which takes place in sweeping and fleeting
moments of action, onto the latter, whose inherent blankness is a constant
receptivity akin to the harmony between Dao and the myriad things of the
world. In this way, it is the painting and not the painter that invites the
viewer to imaginatively fill-in any required color. Had the painting already
been replete with color, there would be nothing for the observer to meditate
upon, nowhere for their spirit to wander, for the spirit of Dao does not dwell
in what is full and active but the empty and placid. The whiteness of the
empty canvas thus represents the dark, mysterious nature of both Dao and
the spiritually enlightened painter.
Hegel, conversely, holds that “light becomes the physical principle of
painting.”33 As to why this is so, he says it is because “light makes objects
known in their differences of shape, [makes them] distant from one another,
and it does this by irradiating them; it lightens to a greater or lesser extent
their darkness and invisibility.”34 Color, for Hegel, thus becomes the true
material of painting while coloring is its principle. What is more, he speaks
of color as the dark whereas form, distance, expression, and other manners
of visible and spiritual character, are light. Light as such remains colorless;
it is the pure indeterminacy of identity with itself.35 Adding color to a canvas
is hence to bring to the foreground what was previously unseen. However,
coloring is more than simply contrasting black and white, which would
render a painting flat and lifeless—it is what allows a painting to shine.
Shining, therefore, is not merely light but lightness darkened by color. In
other words, the two-dimensional painting regains its lost third dimension,
not through tricks of drawing, but the act of coloring. “It is color, coloring,
which makes a painter a painter,”36 Hegel writes, and “it is only by the use
of color that painting gives to the life of the soul its really living external
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appearance.”37 Is this to say, then, that without color the Hegelian soul
cannot be knowable to the world via painting? If the shining of spirit is the
result of a painter’s coloring, does this not imply that the painter, and by
extension works of painting, are dependent upon and limited by color?
Hegel’s understanding of light and dark, and color generally, was without
doubt influenced by the work of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832).
Indeed, in his Philosophy of Nature, Hegel often praises Goethe while
viciously criticizing the work of Isaac Newton (1642–1727):
We have to thank Goethe for the conception of color which conforms to

the Notion. Goethe was drawn into a consideration of colors and light
very early, mainly as the result of his interest in painting. The simple
purity of his feeling for Nature, which is the prime faculty of the poet,
was bound to resist the barbarity of reflection one encounters in Newton.38
As for what, precisely, Hegel found so attractive in Goethe’s analysis of

color, the following offers a succinct explanation:
The main feature of Goethe’s theory is that light is for itself, and that
darkness is another principle, which is external to it. White is visible light,
black is visible darkness, and grey is their primary and purely quantitative
relationship, which is therefore either a diminution or augmentation of
brightness or darkness. In the second and more determinate relationship
however, in which light and dark maintain this fixed specific quality in
face of each other, the deciding factor is which of the two is basic, and
which constitutes the dimming medium. There is either a bright base
present with a more shaded principle imposed upon it, or vice versa. It is
this that gives rise to color.39
Goethe’s account of light is relevant to our discussion in that light and

dark partake in a fixed and oppositional pairing. The diminution or
augmentation, as Hegel puts it, of light and dark involves one overpowering
the other; color is thus squeezed-out as a by-product of this violent encounter.
Bright, vibrant colors symbolize the triumphant embodiment of lightness
while dark, dull colors epitomize the submission of light to darkness.
Dramatic, yes, but Goethe assists our understanding of why Hegel writes
what he does about coloration and shining.
It would be wrong of us to assume Hegel’s discussion of light and dark
was metaphysically motivated. Nevertheless, we can raise some interesting
points of comparison with Daoism. For example, Daoism does not subscribe
to the view that light and dark are fixed in position; rather, one is embedded
in the other, creating a permanent state of transformative possibility. This
idea, that white houses black and black houses white, is a nod to their
cosmological model of constant change and transformation. The Daoist
worldview lacks the binary perspective of either white or black but embraces
36138.indb 20 03/09/2019 11:16

the multi-perspectival fluidity of grayness. Chinese ink-wash paintings are

thus a seamless blending of white, black, and gray because doing so not only
portrays the interwoven spiritual harmony of the natural world, it also
reinforces the idea that Dao is beyond clear-cut delimitation and conveyance.
The mystery qua spirit of Dao is, therefore, a shining of the self-embracement
of things in the world; it is none other than a mutual and simultaneous
enlightening and darkening of its own authenticity that does not strive to
overcome the external things it creates, but abides in nourishing its own
invisible root.
Returning to Hegel, in contrast to the plastic arts or poetry, the beauty of
a painting is derived exclusively from its color. What makes a painting
special is the ability of color, not the forms portrayed therein, to speak to
and push the viewer to reflect upon the state of her spirit. Said differently,
“painting thus opens the way for us to regard what we see not just as
material presence, but as the manifestation of what is immaterial and
inward, as the ‘shining forth’ of the human spirit.”40 This is why Hegel writes
that the space captured in a painting is not true, nor is it supposed to be;
rather, it is merely a shining of Nature reflecting the spirit of painter and
humanity alike. On this point, Chinese painters would agree; however, they
would disagree with Hegel when he argues that “shape, distance, boundaries,
contours, in short all the spatial relations and differences of objects appearing
in space, are produced in painting only by color.”41 What is more, Hegel
declares that “oil color not only permits the most delicate and soft fusion
and shading of colors, with the result that the transitions are so unnoticeable
that we cannot say where a color begins and ends . . . [they produce] a
translucency of different layers of color.”42 Owing to its translucency through
layering, color is able to touch the viewer’s spirit in ways poetry and
architecture, for example, cannot. The reason for this, Hegel writes, is due
to the unique properties of light:
Light illumines, the day drives away darkness; as the simple blending of
brightness with present darkness, this duskiness generally gives rise to
grey. In coloring however these two determinations are combined in such
a way, that although they are held asunder, they are to the same extent
posited in unity. Although they are separate, each also shows in the other.
This is a combination which has to be called an individualization; it is a
relationship which resembles that considered in what is called refraction,
in which one determination is active within another, and yet has a
determinate being of its own.43
For Chinese painters inspired by Daoism, not only did they learn to work
with monochromatic tones, they came to prefer them over their colored
alternatives. Wang Wei is a case in point: “Among the ways of painting,
monochrome is by far superior. It originates in the nature of the self-existent
and perfects the efforts of the creator. Thus in the few inches of a painting,
36138.indb 21 03/09/2019 11:16

a hundred thousand miles of scenery may be drawn. East, west, south, and
north seem to be before the eyes; spring, summer, autumn, and winter are
produced under the brush.”44 The self-existent Wang Wei is referring to is
Dao, but Dao is only evident to those whose heart-mind has been properly
attuned to it. The Zhuangzi explains: “He who embodies Dao will have all
the gentlemen of the world gather around him. As for Dao . . . one may look
for it but it has no form; listen for it but it has no voice. Among those who
discuss it, it is called darkly profound. Thus the Dao that is discussed is not
[the authentic] Dao”45 Since Dao is dark and unknowable, Chinese painters
tried to capture its natural self-concealment via visual incompleteness.
Rather than darkening what is light by applying color, Chinese artists used
light to enhance the mystery of the dark. Painting in monochrome thus
required deftness of the brush not found in works of color if it was to avoid
appearing dead. Jing Hao elaborates:
Painting is equivalent to measuring . . . One must not take the outward
appearance and call it the inner reality. If you do not know this method
[of understanding truth], you may even get lifelikeness but never achieve
reality in painting . . . Lifelikeness means to achieve the form of the object
but to leave out its spirit. Reality means that both spirit and substance are
strong. Furthermore, if spirit is conveyed only through the outward
appearance and not through the image in its totality, the image is dead.46
In other words, if one wishes to capture the inner-spirit of a subject or

scene by portraying it in as lifelike a manner as possible, this will inevitably
result in failure. How curious, then, that Hegel should also speak of the
“living movement” of light, one that belies the false lifelikeness of a painting
but which comes about as a result of the inner-shining of spirit:
White is the corporeal fixation of brightness and is as yet achromatic;

black is the materialization and specification of darkness; color occurs
between these two extremes. It is the combination of light and darkness,
and particularly the specification of this combination, which first gives
rise to color. Outside this relationship both light and darkness are as
nothing. Night holds all powers within it as self-dissolving ferment and
deracinating strife, it is the all-embracing and absolute possibility, the
chaos in which matter has no being, and whose annihilation therefore
contains all things. Light is purity of form, and it is in its unity with night,
which is the mother and nourisher of all, that it has its initial being. All
powers stand in awe of night and shift and tremble quietly before it; the
brightness of day is the self-externality of night, which has no inwardness,
and which is shed and dissipated as a spiritless and powerless actuality.
As has become evident however, the truth lies in the unity of both and is
not the light which shines in the darkness, but that which is penetrated by
darkness as by its essence, and is thereby substantiated and materialized.
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It does not shine into darkness, and it neither illumines it nor is it blended
by it; it is rather the inwardly disrupted Notion, which as the unity of
light and darkness displays itself in the differences of its moments. This is
the gay realm of colors, the living movement of which brings forth a
variety of hues and constitutes, in its further development, the realized
actuality of color.47
To paint the living sensuousness of spirit is to paint the living movement

of color, to capture light’s purity of essence is to penetrate and disrupt the
spirit-depriving power of darkness. One cannot help but notice a religious
undertone to Hegel’s description, a valorization of spirit in the grandest of
terms. The same is also true of Daoist-inspired painters. A case in point is
when Zhang Yanyuan, whose description we read earlier, elucidates the role
of light and color in portraying the ephemeral nature of Dao:
Mysteriously evolving without speech, [Dao’s] work operates by itself.

Grasses and trees spread forth their glory without depending upon
cinnabar and azurite; clouds and snow whirl and float aloft and are white
with no need for ceruse. Mountains are green without needing malachite,
and the phoenix is iridescent without the aid of the five colors. For this
reason, one may be said to have fulfilled one’s aim when the five colors
are all present in the management of ink alone. If one’s heart-mind dwells
on the five colors, then the images of things will go wrong. In painting
things, one should especially avoid meticulous completeness in formal
appearance and coloring, and extreme carefulness and detail that display
skill and finish. Therefore one should not deplore incompleteness but
rather deplore completeness. Once one knows a thing’s completeness,
where is the need for completing it? This is not incompleteness. Should
one not recognize a thing’s completeness, that is true incompleteness.48
Taking inspiration from the Zhuangzi,49 Zhang reveals the importance of

balancing the blank canvas with its partially painted surface, a balance that
also serves as a beacon of the painter’s spiritual shining. We should note that
the Chinese gentry since antiquity were schooled in six traditional arts, one
of which was calligraphy, and calligraphy required perfecting the choice
and use of paper, brush, ink-stick, and rubbing stone, skills that would
be transferred to the craft of painting. Without understanding the ratio of
water to ink, or the amount of pressure to apply to one’s brush, the
calligrapher and painter alike will fail to capture the free-flowing spirit of
Dao. Color is hence an obstacle to releasing the heart-mind of the artist in
terms of what a painting can be; by holding the color spectrum to black,
white, and gray, the painted subject can be left incomplete—to melt into the
canvas—and such being the case, it actualizes itself with every glance thrown
its way. In other words, it falls upon the observer to imaginatively recapture
the spiritual shining of the painter during the act of painting, and the best
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way to free the observer’s imagination is to commence their dream in black

and white.
Hegel, on the other hand, holds the opposite is true: “The sense of color
must be a property of the artist, an individual way of looking at and
conceiving tones of color as they really exist; it must as well be an essential
feature of reproductive imagination and invention.”50 In his discussion of
color, Hegel notes three things: first, light and dark colors share a reciprocal
relationship; second, harmony between colors gives us a sense of satisfaction;
third, carnality represents the magic of color’s pure appearance.51 Skin-tone
is the most revered color because it allows others to shine through it,
undisturbed. However, carnal color succeeds best when it is lusterless as this
befits the pure appearance and emanation of the soul, which is why Hegel
argues it is amongst the most difficult things known to painting.52
The painting of flesh stands out for Hegel because it alone acts as the
shining of spirit, and shining is “the middle between the immediate sensible
and ideal thought.”53 What is more, the ability of color to reveal the shining
of human spirit means it also determines the sensible in art, a relationship
brought together by magic:
In general, it may be said that the magic consists in so handling all the colors
that what emerges is an inherently objectless play of shining, which forms
the extreme hovering summit of coloring, an interpenetration of colors, a
shining of reflections that shine in other shinings and become so fine, so
fleeting, so soulful that they begin to pass over into the sphere of music.54
The sensibility of painting does not arise from the canvas surface but
from color’s coloring; indeed, a painting’s surface “is liberated from the
scaffolding of its mere materiality,”55 thus giving way to the shining of the
sensible. Based on the above passage, the shining is none other than
appearing, but an appearing that points to nothing material; it is, one can
say, the play of sensibility. Since art, for Hegel, “brings forth only a shadow-
world of shapes, sounds and sights . . . [it] affords satisfaction to higher
spiritual interests since it has the power to call forth from all the depths of
consciousness an echo and a resounding in the spirit.”56 Said spiritual
resounding does not commence with shining and proceed outward into the
world of objects whereupon it is imprinted as an image; rather, the shining
shines the image of consciousness.
We see something similar in the Chinese tradition, albeit without
dependency on the mind. The Zhuangzi speaks of the primal shining of Dao,
but unlike Hegel and his sensibility of human soul, the spirituality attained
by following Dao is onto-cosmological in nature:
All that have faces, forms, voices, colors—these are but mere things. How
could one thing and another be far removed from each other? How could
any thing be worth taking as a predecessor? They are forms, colors—
36138.indb 24 03/09/2019 11:16

nothing more. But things are born from that which is formless and find
their end in that which is unchanging.57
Hegel’s argument that the goal of art is not to imitate Nature, which
would preclude the shining of the sensible, mirrors the Chinese view;
however, the preparation required of a painter before painting is a point of
divergence. According to Hegel, the painter should “get to know and copy
with precision the colors in their relation to one another, the effects of light,
reflections, etc., as well as the forms and shapes of objects in their most
minute nuances.”58 Given early Chinese painters did not openly embrace
working with color, and so had no need to realistically mimic shadows,
reflections, and the like, they could devote themselves to how best to
represent the intangible spirit of Dao. Herein lies the dilemma for Hegel: if
the non-reductive sensibility of painting consists of the shining of color, and
said shining illuminates the inwardness of spirit as “the mirror of
externality,”59 then removing color removes any hope of what John Sallis
calls “an affective disclosure of the inward spirit to itself.”60 If we truly wish
to resolve this dilemma, perhaps we should admit the fact that, in the words
of Jean-Luc Marion:
[Painting] breathes in the distance between the unseen and the visible
before presenting a new visible (and sometimes without presenting
anything), hides every object from the gaze, or better, delivers the gaze
from the objective restraints of an object. The painting confronts us with
a non-object, unavailable, unmanageable, unable to be (re)produced,
unable to be mastered. A non-object admittedly, a counter-object and not
a simple anti-object, where the successive destruction of all the dimensions
of the pictorial object reinforces by right the rule of objectivity, as its
horizon remains intact.61
5. Conclusion
Unlike the people of old, modern society takes color for granted. We color
the world as we wish it to be colored and pounce on those whose vision
differs from our own. Color is now so heavily symbolic and metaphorically-
laden that we have forgotten its original, non-human roots. Daoism has
shown us the pitfalls of color-dependency and we have seen how painters
and art theorists have applied this way of viewing the world to create
artworks that free one’s heart-mind and spirit of bias and blindness. Whereas
the Chinese subscribed to the doctrine of incompleteness in painting, Hegel
argued the opposite: to paint is to color and to color is to paint the
unhindered spirit. This is achieved by restoring the third dimension to
painting, to enrich and enliven what would otherwise be flat and stale.
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In light of the neglect given to Hegel’s discourse on the coloration of

painting, it is hoped the present study will inspire others to embark on
analyses of their own. The Chinese, on the other hand, have written a great
deal over the centuries about painting, and these works are readily available,
including English translations. What is not readily available, and where this
chapter makes a significant contribution, is the indebtedness of Chinese
aesthetic theory to Daoism, especially when it comes to color. To this end,
the goal of this chapter was not to dismiss Hegel but to use his brilliant
insights on art and color as fodder for our analysis of the Chinese view. That
we learned something new about Hegel as a result of this cross-cultural
engagement is a gift worth treasuring all the more.
Notes
1 See the opening pages of Pippin for textual issues surrounding Hegel’s
Aesthetics.
2 G.W.F. Hegel, Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art (London: Oxford University
Press, 1975), vol. 2: 799.
3 Hegel, Aesthetics, vol. 1: 74.
4 Qingfan Guo, ed., Collected Explanations to the Zhuangzi (Beijing: Zhonghua
Shuju, 1997), 719. Translations of Chinese texts are my own unless stated
otherwise.
5 Jean-Luc Marion, The Crossing of the Visible (Stanford: Stanford University
Press, 2004), 26–7.
7 Ibid., 31.
8 Victor Mair, “Xie He’s ‘Six Laws’ of Painting and their Indian Parallels”, in
Chinese Aesthetics: The Ordering of Literature, the Arts, and the Universe in
the Six Dynasties, ed. Zongqi Cai (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
2004), 94–5; Jianhua Yu, ed., A Compilation of Texts on Chinese Art Theory
(Beijing: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1986), 355.
9 Susan Bush and Xiaoyan Shi, Early Chinese Texts on Painting (Hong Kong:
Hong Kong University Press, 2012), 38–9; Yu, A Compilation of Texts, 585.
10 François Jullien, The Great Image Has No Form, or On the Nonobject
through Painting (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 194.
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid.
13 Bush, Early Chinese Texts, 55; Zicheng Shen, ed., Historical Collection of
Treatises on Painting from Famous Works (Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe, 1982),
36.
15 Bush, Early Chinese Texts, 62–3; Shen, Historical Collection of Treatises, 38.
36138.indb 26 03/09/2019 11:16

16 Guo, Zhuangzi, 314.

17 Ibid., 216–17.
19 Stephen Houlgate, “Presidential Address: Hegel and the Art of Painting,” in
Hegel and Aesthetics, ed. William Maker (Albany: State University of New
York Press, 2000), 68.
20 Bush, Early Chinese Texts, 60–3; Shen, Historical Collection of Treatises,
39–40.
21 Jianhua Yu, ed., Shitao’s Treatise on the Philosophy of Painting (Beijing:
Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1962), 5.
22 Ibid., 7.
23 Ibid., 12.
25 John Sallis, Transfigurements: On the True Sense of Art (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 2008), 11.
26 Ibid., 14.
27 Ibid., 91–2.
28 Bush, Early Chinese Texts, 170; Shen, Historical Collection of Treatises, 50.
30 Susan Bush, The Chinese Literati on Painting: Su Shi to Dong Qichang (Hong
Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2012), 37.
32 Ibid., 488–9. See also the passage from note 16.
34 Ibid., 809.
35 Ibid., 810.
36 Ibid., 838.
37 Ibid., 839.
38 G.W.F. Hegel, Philosophy of Nature (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1970),
vol. 2: 148.
39 Ibid.
40 William Maker, ed., Hegel and Aesthetics (Albany: State University of New
York Press, 2000), 64.
42 Ibid., 847–8.
43 Hegel, Philosophy of Nature, vol. 2: 138.
44 Bush, Early Chinese Texts, 172; Yu, A Compilation of Texts, 592.
46 Bush, Early Chinese Texts, 146; Yu, A Compilation of Texts, 605.
47 Hegel, Philosophy of Nature, vol. 2: 142.
36138.indb 27 03/09/2019 11:16

48 Bush, Early Chinese Texts, 62–3; Shen, Historical Collection of Treatises, 38.
49 Guo, Zhuangzi, 216–17.
51 Ibid., 841–5.
52 Ibid., 847.
56 Ibid., 39.
60 Sallis, Transfigurements, 93.
61 Marion, The Crossing, 42.
References
Bush, Susan and Xiaoyan Shi. (2012), Early Chinese Texts on Painting, Hong
Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Bush, Susan. (2012), The Chinese Literati on Painting: Su Shi to Dong Qichang,
Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Cai, Zongqi, ed. (2004), Chinese Aesthetics: The Ordering of Literature, the Arts,
and the Universe in the Six Dynasties, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Guo, Qingfan 郭慶藩, ed. (1997), Collected Explanations to the Zhuangzi
莊子集釋, Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.
Hegel, G.W.F. (1970), Philosophy of Nature, M.J. Petry (trans.), London: George
Allen & Unwin.
Hegel, G.W.F. (1975), Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art, T.M. Knox (trans.),
London: Oxford University Press.
Houlgate, Stephen. (2000), “Presidential Address: Hegel and the Art of Painting,”
in William Maker (ed.), Hegel and Aesthetics, 61–82, Albany: State University
of New York Press.
Jullien, François. (2009), The Great Image Has No Form, or On the Nonobject
through Painting, Jane Marie Todd (trans.), Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Mair, Victor. (2004), “Xie He’s ‘Six Laws’ of Painting and their Indian Parallels,”
in Cai Zongqi (ed.), Chinese Aesthetics: The Ordering of Literature, the Arts,
and the Universe in the Six Dynasties, 81–122, Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press.
Maker, William, ed. (2000), Hegel and Aesthetics, Albany: State University of New
York Press.
Marion, Jean-Luc. (2004), The Crossing of the Visible, James Smith (trans.),
Stanford: Stanford University Press.
36138.indb 28 03/09/2019 11:16

Pippin, Robert. (2014), After the Beautiful: Hegel and the Philosophy of Pictorial
Modernism, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Sallis, John. (2008), Transfigurements: On the True Sense of Art, Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Shen, Zicheng 沈子丞, ed. (1982), Historical Collection of Treatises on Painting
from Famous Works 歷代論畫名著彙編, Beijing: Wenwu Chubanshe.
Yu, Jianhua 俞劍華, ed. (1962), Shitao’s Treatise on the Philosophy of Painting
石濤畫語錄, Beijing: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe.
Yu, Jianhua 俞劍華, ed. (1986), A Compilation of Texts on Chinese Art Theory
中國畫論類編. Beijing: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe.
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36138.indb 30 03/09/2019 11:16
2
Two Portrayals of Death in
Light of the Views of Brentano
and Early Daoism
Mary I. Bockover
1. Introduction
This chapter is divided into two main parts. The first part is Western in
perspective and begins by examining Brentano’s thesis, which attempts to
distinguish mental from physical phenomena. In sum, Brentano (1838–
1917) argues that mental or “intentional” phenomena entail objects “within
themselves” that are characterized by what is called “intentional inexistence,”
whereas physical phenomena are characterized by having extension and
spatial location. After discussing this distinction in depth, I offer a
clarification of Brentano’s view, as well as my own account of how conscious
experience forms an irreducible unity—where how one is conscious entails
what one is conscious of, or about—but not the other way around. The
object of each intentional event exists “within it” in this (unidirectional)
sense. Insights from the discussion of Brentano’s view are then applied to
how death might be understood and treated in the West.
Next, I transition to the second Daoist part of this chapter by critiquing
Brentano’s distinction between mental and physical phenomena in a way
that brings out what objectivity would mean in that context. Specifically, I
argue that all phenomena are a function of our conscious experience,
including physical phenomena that are experienced as if they have an
independent existence (i.e., outside of the mind). I also show how this lays
the groundwork for understanding dreams as intentional events that can
serve a unique function in helping us to consider who we are within the
larger context of this thing that we call “the real world.” This view is then
compared to the role of dreaming in the Zhuangzi 莊子, based on some
36138.indb 31 03/09/2019 11:16

stories found therein. We end the first part of this chapter by finding, in light
of this comparison, that dreaming is a rich and engaging mental process that
can inform us about our own lives and the mysterious qualities of life and
death in general.
The second part of this chapter goes on to provide a Daoist understanding
and treatment of death based on two great Daoist classics, the Daodejing
道德經 and the Zhuangzi. This discussion shows how an adequate
understanding of the role of death in these texts first requires understanding
the worldview or “metaphysical”1 framework expressed therein; one which
sees things as being essentially interconnected or as being varying aspects of
the same thing, process, or way of change. A basic assumption of Daoism is
that Dao 道 (the “Way” or what I call the Great Maker) “contains” and
produces all things. For Daoists, Dao is the Ultimate Reality: what is
ultimately real and true about existence in general, and life and death in
particular.
This comparative discussion of metaphysics and phenomenology achieves
a number of goals. For one, it shows how our most basic assumptions will
deeply influence how we view reality, life and death. It will also show how
Daoist philosophy can be sharply contrasted with the Western view that
tends to focus on, and to privilege the life of the mind—conscious experience,
reason, or the pervasive sense of subjectivity that distinguishes us from other
people and things. Namely, we will see how the basic Western tendency to
conceive of ourselves as being self-contained, independent, or as existing
in isolation from other things both living and nonliving, differs from the
Daoist view that sees life as a mystery and a miracle populated with living
beings that are mutually connected and supporting. We will also see how
these two very different worldviews can be applied to what it means to live
and die well.
2. Brentano’s Thesis: The Distinction

between Mental and Physical Phenomena
In Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint, Franz Brentano (1838–1917)
developed the notion of “intentionality,” which was originally introduced by
scholastic philosophers to refer to a concept. According to Brentano,
intentionality distinguishes mental phenomena so that they are directed at
objects or states of affairs that do not need to exist or be true about the
physical world. The objects of mental phenomena are characterized by
“inexistence,” meaning that they exist “in the mind” even though they may
be of, or about physical objects.2 Brentano held that only mental phenomena
are characterized by intentional inexistence and cannot be reduced to
physical phenomena for this reason. This key excerpt captures Brentano’s
thesis on intentionality:
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Portrayals of death in Brentano and daoism 33
Every mental phenomenon is characterized by what the Scholastics of the

Middle Ages called the intentional (or mental) inexistence of an object,
and what we might call, though not wholly unambiguously, reference to
a content, direction towards an object (which is not to be understood
here as meaning a thing), or immanent objectivity. Every mental
phenomenon includes something as object within itself, although they do
not all do so in the same way. In presentation something is presented, in
judgement something is affirmed or denied, in love loved, in hate hated,
in desire desired and so on. This intentional inexistence is characteristic
exclusively of mental phenomena. No physical phenomenon exhibits
anything like it. We could, therefore, define mental phenomena by saying
that they are those phenomena which contain an object intentionally
within themselves.3
By contrast, Brentano claims that physical phenomena have extension

and spatial location in the “real” external world. Physical phenomena are
often the objects or events to which mental phenomena are directed, but not
always, because one can be conscious of something that is fictitious or
abstract. Stated generally, mental phenomena make up the world of
conscious experience in all of its variety. The intentional objects of mental
phenomena are what our experiences are of, or about—from our most
basic sensations to our most complex ideas (and every kind of experience
in-between).
To explain Brentano’s thesis further, every mental phenomenon is an act
of inner perception, even when referring to the external world. External
sensory perception is the way of being conscious that allows us to experience
presumably real physical phenomena; we hear a sound, smell an odor, feel
hot or cold, see colors, figures, and the like. The intentional object is what
we hear, smell, feel, or see; the physical phenomena would be the sound
that is heard, the odor that is smelled, the hot or cold that is felt, and the
color that is seen. Our sensations, like all acts of inner perception, are
indubitable according to Brentano, which is to say that we can be sure that
we are having a sensation, but cannot be at all sure that what we are sensing
is true of the external world. Stated simply, our sensory experiences can
be doubted, which is why they can be thought of as having intentional
inexistence.
For this reason, Brentano, for most of his life, held in his theory of
perception that external sensory perception can only yield hypotheses about
the perceived de facto world, but not truth. Physical phenomena may be
what such external sensory experiences presumably are of—the feeling of
warmth, the smell of lavender, the sight of Mount Shasta, for example—but
whether our external perceptions accurately or correctly tell us anything
about the actual external world being perceived, simply cannot be
conclusively established. This is shown by the fact that our perceptions of
the same thing can vary dramatically; for instance, what feels warm to one
36138.indb 33 03/09/2019 11:16

person may not feel warm at all to another. In addition, we know that our
senses can be notoriously deceptive and as such, that what we perceive as
real may actually be just an illusion. A similar view was previously held by
René Descartes (1596–1650) who also argued that the senses cannot be
trusted when it comes to establishing truth.4
Brentano’s concept of intentionality includes a huge variety of conscious
experiences; indeed, every conscious act is an intentional act, and “every
mental phenomenon includes something as an object within itself,” which is
what the experience is of, or about. We have also seen that intentional
objects are centrally defined by their “inexistence,” which means that they
are mental or psychological objects as opposed to physical ones, even when
referring to, or being directed upon physical objects. Brentano also held that
all intentional acts form a unity, which is to say that all of the various modes
by which one may experience a situation—such as seeing, smelling, feeling,
and even thinking about it—are taken together in the conscious act to create
one overall experience. For instance, I may be seeing and smelling some
lavender at the fields by Mount Shasta, while at the same time feeling the
texture of the plant and thinking about how nice it would be to plant some
at my own home. But I do not experience these phenomena—what I see,
smell, feel, and think about—as separate events. They are experienced as a
unified event.
I would like to offer another way to think about the unity of intentional
phenomena, which is this: mental events entail their objects but not the
other way around.5 That is, this entailment is unidirectional; the mental
event entails the object it is directed upon, but the intentional object does
not entail that a particular kind of experience is had in virtue of its content
alone. One can believe something, can fear the same thing, can hate or love
it, desire it, speculate about it, dream about it, and so on. The intentional
object—what the experience is of, or about—does not tell us about the kind
of mental state it is an object of. Quite clearly, mental events may also give
rise to radically different, even incommensurable experiences while being
directed at the same object. For instance, it would be difficult for one to be
happy and sad about the exact same thing at the same time, although one
may be happy about certain aspects of that thing and sad about others.
One’s feelings about that thing may also change with the passage of time
and the accumulation of new experiences.
I think Brentano’s view of intentionality can be further clarified by
looking more closely at the relation between mental events and their objects.
For while Brentano used “intentional object” and “content” interchangeably,
I suggest that this must be stipulated since there is a sense in which the
content of experience might be thought to include what kind of experience
it is or the more specific way something is experienced, which the object
alone typically leaves out. For example, consider this intentional object,
“that his friends will make good parents,” and notice that he may speculate
about this without necessarily believing that they will. He may also be happy
36138.indb 34 03/09/2019 11:16

that his friends will make good parents, which does entail that he believes it
will be the case. He may also believe that they will make good parents but
need not be happy about it, for he may be envious of what he perceives to
be their potential to be better parents than he is. This example shows the
following about intentional events: stipulating that their “contents” and
“objects” can be used interchangeably, both only refer to what the experience
is of, or about, and not the way it is being experienced. Stated another way,
they form a unity that is unidirectional: each event must entail an intentional
object, but these objects do not in themselves account for the more specific
kind of experience being had. Quite often the object does not reveal anything
more than what the experience is directed upon.
This is also the case for sensory experiences, once we accept Brentano’s
distinction between mental and physical phenomena. Recall that in
Brentano’s view, physical phenomena would include warmth and cold.
Warmth and cold are physical phenomena that exist in the external world;
for example, the ice was cold (i.e., freezing) until it was warmed up enough
to become liquid. Warmth and cold are located in the ice and then the water
that the ice becomes after being warmed up. Given Brentano’s theory of
perception, however, the warmth and cold are physical phenomena that we
cannot know anything about based on feeling them because external sense
perception is so unreliable. If we want to get an objectively clearer idea
about how cold the ice is, or how warm the water is, we could use a reliable
thermometer to take their temperature. In this way, we gain evidence about
how warm or cold the object really is.
Physical pain is interestingly different than warmth and cold insofar as it
is an essentially embodied experience. Pain is located in the bodies of sentient
beings, all of which have extension and spatial location (this includes the
sense organs). But pain is also the way we describe what we feel—in this
case, it is an intentional sensory experience of certain bodily events. We also
use “warm” and “cold” in the same way: to refer to our experience of a
physical event. The difference, then, is that with physical pain, the object—
the pain—is in our living conscious bodies.
3. The Phenomenological Paradox and

Ambiguity of Death
Brentano’s view suggests that the world becomes a world for us only through
our experience of it: through sense perception as well as all of the other
modes on intentionality that make up the psychological content of the mind.
For this reason, I think of him as the father of phenomenology, although it
was his student Edmund Husserl (1859–1939) who has been largely credited
with this role. We must be clear that Brentano’s view is not strictly subjectivist,
however, because we live in a world of physical phenomena that we can
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more or less access through our experience of it. This de facto world contains
physical objects that become intentional for us through our distinctively
human experience of them. This does not reduce the actual object to our
experience of it however. As discussed earlier, our experience is largely of, or
about the objective physical world. For instance, we judge that things are
true about the physical world with more or less accuracy (i.e., with more or
less evidence).
In effect, Brentano’s view does not deny that there is an independent,
objective world of physical phenomena; on the contrary, his distinction
between mental and physical phenomena depends on it. He would, however,
have us see that we cannot know anything conclusively about that world.
We can form hypotheses about it, share our experience of it, and construct
evidence about it, but we will never know it with the veracity of intentional
inner perception. When having an experience, we cannot doubt that the
experience is ours; that it is one’s “self” having the experience (as it is a
function of one’s own consciousness). Absolute truth is experienced only in
this “mental” or psychological domain of intentionality or inner perception,
while the objective physical world—although encountered and even
shared—will essentially remain a mystery.
What does this have to do with the phenomenology of death? More
specifically, how can Brentano’s view be applied to our encounter with
death? A fact about our nature as self-aware beings is that we develop a
sense of mortality. We can ask questions about our own mortality, about our
own death. Most of the time we ask such questions without having a clear
idea of what we mean by “death.” This should come as no surprise, since we
have no clear idea of what “life” is either. Ironically, life—the thing that
animates our bodies—can be just as mysterious as death. And like life, death
can be an object for various modes of conscious experience; we can fear
death, ponder death, and perhaps even sense death (etc.). Death as a
physiological phenomenon has been an object of scientific research as well.
But even when death is “observed” and rigorously studied in this way,
exactly what is being observed and studied in many ways remains an enigma.
Brentano’s view is consistent with this idea. When it comes to what we think
about death, various kinds of hypotheses may be offered, with some being
more or less empirically supported, but like our encounter with life, the real
“truth” of the matter will remain inescapably speculative.6
A distinct problem of giving a phenomenological account of death
should be apparent from the start. I call it the phenomenological paradox of
death: from the point of view of living persons, we are not able to say what
death is because we have not directly experienced it for ourselves. More
precisely, most of us have not experienced our own death and lived to tell
about it.
Our experience does tell (most of) us that we are embodied living
conscious beings. So how might we come to understand our own death? We
might think—or rather, speculate—that death brings a complete and final
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end to our conscious experience.7 But again, it depends upon what is meant
by “death.” Consider that within the last half-century there have been cases
where “people” have physically undergone “higher brain death” and have
been given life support that only serves a “maintenance function,” or that
keeps other bodily functions active or alive but offers no reasonable hope of
returning them to sentient life. In the West, and based on such cases, the
biomedical definition of death itself changed along with the criteria used to
measure it. Previously death had largely been viewed as a bodily event based
on the presence or absence of cardiovascular activity, making death more
easily conceived as different in kind from life. One is alive at one moment
and dead the next—when their heart stops beating or they take their last
breath. But because death came to be defined and measured by brain activity,
it became easier to think of it as a process—where one is more or less dead
by being more or less brain dead. In addition to this, even with a healthy
body and brain, death is a vital part of maintaining our health and well-
being; for example, cells must die for new ones to be generated. As such,
death can be conceived as being essential to life instead of as being its
opposite, or instead of being conceived as an event that annihilates life
altogether.
To continue, and in light of recent brain death cases, the question about
what makes us persons is raised again. We do not have to conclusively know
what the connection is between mind and body, or more specifically between
consciousness and brain activity, to reasonably suppose that brain damage
goes hand-in-hand with diminished cognitive functions.8 Higher brain death
seems to go hand-in-hand with the cessation of consciousness, which for
Homo sapiens includes self-awareness and a whole host of intentional
experiences, such as the sensory experiences of pleasure and pain. We may
still be thought of as living human beings even after undergoing higher brain
death, but if our identity as persons depends on having higher brain
functions, when these are irreversibly lost then the once living person can be
thought of as having already died (even though in some sense the body may
still be alive).
In short, having a living human body may not be enough to make us
persons, or may not be enough to invest our lives with the kind of quality
and dignity vital to living a full human life. For that, self-awareness may be
required: the ability to see ourselves as the subject of our own experience.
Put another way, a certain type of consciousness is required, which gives us
the ability to experience ourselves as standing in relation to others—to other
people, life forms, and a whole host of other objects and events. This
reflective awareness is also essential to our being able to ask questions about
the meaning of death and life. Regardless of our questions though, it seems
fair to say that how we come to value life and death will intimately be
bound up with our subjective experience. And at least in the West, what
makes us fear death so often is that it may completely and irreversibly take
that subjective experience away.
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4. Transition from a Western to a Daoist

Phenomenology of Death
We can now understand how Brentano’s view that inner perception is the
only kind that yields absolute truth, is indebted to Descartes’s idea that the
only thing one can know with complete veracity is that one exists as a
thinking—(self) conscious—being. We become indubitably aware that we
are conscious beings through the very act of being conscious, even though
we cannot be sure about the truth of the content of our experiences, since
the senses can deceive and conceptual “truths” may also be misguided. The
truth of our own subjectivity cannot be doubted. Even in the act of doubting,
that we are having an experience is indubitable.
My complaint against Brentano is that he equivocates what in truth is the
mind-dependent domain of physical phenomena with an (allegedly) real or
de facto external world that our mental phenomena are typically of, or
about. Just for example, is the figure, or sound, or heat really in the external
world? I tend to agree with Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), who distinguishes
between noumena and phenomena, or between reality as it exists “in itself”
or independent of our experience of it, and reality as it is formed in virtue of
our experience, respectively.9 Kant argues that anything we can know comes
to light for us only in virtue of the specific intuitions and categories we have
for understanding the nature of things. This understanding resides “in the
mind” as phenomena, not in the independent and “ultimately real” world of
noumena.
Brentano could fairly respond to this complaint simply by saying that he
is much more an empiricist than Kant—that there is an actual, physical
world that can be more than taken for granted, since we can experience it,
and even consistently measure it, with more or less accuracy. He might say
that I might not like his use of terminology—namely, his use of “physical
phenomena”—but that his overall view is still preferable to one that takes
reality to be a function of how we are conscious of it. But Kant did not hold
that we construct reality (for there is noumena); we construct our
understanding of reality, which is all that we can know of it. Thus any notion
of there being an actual external physical world will boil down to an article
of faith—a presumption of what is real only. In any case, which side of this
debate you come down on will depend on what you think ultimately has
reality in its own right.
Brentano also held that both physical and mental phenomena were
suitable for scientific investigation. In fact, he advocated for a rigorous
empirical or objective approach to studying psychological subject matter.
Brentano offered the following distinction as a way of understanding how
this can happen. Genetic psychology is the study of psychological phenomena
from a third-person point of view that laid the groundwork for fields such
as empirical psychology and cognitive science today. Descriptive psychology
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is the study of psychological phenomena from a first-person point of view—

through the systematic observation of the contents of one’s own mind—
using a method called “introspection.”10 Brentano’s notion of descriptive
psychology would significantly influence the development of phenomenology.
So, unlike how subjective events are commonly viewed today, Brentano
held that mental events—comprised of the contents of one’s own mind or
experience—were amenable to objective, scientific study. They were
empirical phenomena insofar as they could be observed, although from a
first-person point of view. By contrast, what it now means for something to
be empirical no longer just refers to what can be observed. To constitute
reliable evidence, data has to be repeatedly observed and replicated with
increasingly rigorous standards. Results came to be thought of as needing to
stand on their own and not be driven by the subjects performing the tests; in
effect, the more persons who perform a test and get like results, the better.
In this way, the modern notion of “empirical” became conceptually more
restrictive. All of this went hand-in-hand with radical developments and
refinements in the scientific method, which now requires a multipronged
system of third-person verification to objectively test its subject matter. In
this way, subjective first-person “data” has even come to be conceived by
many as inherently biased and counter to the aims of objectivity. In effect,
and even by definition for the “hard” sciences, the subjective contents of our
own minds are no longer considered to be appropriate subject matter for
scientific investigation (for materialist reductionists, physical phenomena
are thought to be the only “real” phenomena). In general, this is how the
philosophical discipline of phenomenology came into prominence—so
human experience could continue to be rationally and objectively examined
from a first-person point of view.
Regardless of what we can know though, we experience life as if there is
a real world outside of ourselves. This experience seems different from the
mental world we experience within. And even though we cannot absolutely
determine anything about the external world (and both Brentano and Kant
would agree here), except that under sound circumstances we have an
inescapable sense that it exists, that does not necessarily reduce it to, or
elevate it from being mere illusion.
Even more, it may not be unreasonable to believe in “things” that cannot
be perceived, at least not directly through the senses. There may also be
other ways of objectively perceiving that do not take standard physical
phenomena (especially according to today’s standards) to be their only
possible objects. In any case, and whatever its nature may be, we have a
strong sense that there is a life and world beyond ourselves that has its own
reality. But if we cannot ultimately know about that reality, our judgments
about it may be as illusory as our perceptions of it.
In the second part of this chapter, we will see that Daoism seems more
optimistic about our ability to experience Ultimate Reality, even if we cannot
know it as an empirical object. However, while we may have the capacity to
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experience Dao, on some (e.g., spiritual) level, this is spoken of as being

extremely rare for those of us in the land of the living. We find this in the
Zhuangzi:
Lady Li was the daughter of the border guard of Ai. When she was first
taken captive and brought to the state of Jin, she wept until her tears
drenched the collar of her robe. But later, when she went to live in the
palace of the ruler, shared his couch with him, and ate the delicious meats
of his table, she wondered why she had ever wept. How do I know that
the dead do not wonder why they ever longed for life?
He who dreams of drinking wine may weep when morning comes; he
who dreams of weeping in the morning may go off to hunt. While he is
dreaming, he does not know it is a dream, and in his dream, he may even
try to interpret his dream. Only after he wakes does he know it was a
dream. And someday there will be a great awakening when we know this
is all a great dream.11
We will see why this is the case in what follows in the second part of this
chapter, but let me suggest now that death may bring the great awakening
Zhuangzi refers to in this excerpt. From the point of view of the living, death
looks like something to weep over, as Lady Li did when she had her life as a
border guard’s daughter stolen from her. But if death allows us to return to
Dao, then the transformation from life to death may be a tremendous
benefit. This is supported later in the Zhuangzi with the following story:12
When Zhuangzi went to Chu, he saw an old skull, all dry and parched.
He poked it with his carriage whip and then asked, “Sir, were you greedy
for life and forgetful of the reason, and so came to this? Was your state
overthrown and did you bow beneath the axe, and so came to this? Did
you do some evil deed and were you ashamed to bring disgrace upon
your parents and family, and so came to this? Was it through the pangs of
cold and hunger that you came to this? Or did the springs and autumns
pile up until they brought you to this?” When he had finished speaking,
he dragged the skull over and, using it for a pillow, lay down to sleep. In
the middle of the night, the skull came to him in a dream and said, “You
chatter like a rhetorician and all your words betray the entanglements of
a living man. The dead know nothing of these! Would you like to hear a
lecture on the dead?” “Indeed” said Zhuangzi. The skull replied, “Among
the dead there are no rulers above, and no subjects below, and no chores
of the four seasons. With nothing to do, our springs and autumns are as
endless as Heaven and Earth. A king facing south on his throne could
have no more happiness than this!” Zhuangzi could not believe this and
said, “If I got the Arbiter of Fate to give you a body again, make you some
bones and flesh, return you to your parents and family and your old
home and friends, you would want that, would you not?” The skull
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frowned severely, wrinkling up its brow. “Why would I throw away more
happiness than that of a king on a throne and take on the troubles of a
human being again?” it said.
Let me point out, in light of the previous excerpt, that Zhuangzi’s dream
could include an interpretation within it, but in the dream, he does not
experience this; the message comes from the skull and is something that
Zhuangzi “could not believe.” One question this story raises is: Where do we
draw the line between what is “real” and what is “illusory”? First, dreams—
with their transformative power to move us and inform us—are a type of
mental phenomenon. Moreover, the intentional content of dreams only
differs in degree from that of waking experience. Like Brentano, Zhuangzi
takes waking reality as it is ordinarily experienced to not be ultimately (or
absolutely) real at all, and he refers to people who believe that it is as
“stupid,”13 because they do not understand that compared to Dao, to
Ultimate Reality, this life—regardless of whether we are dreaming or
awake—is just a “great dream” or illusion.
Both the Daodejing and Zhuangzi describe a certain kind of subjective
experience—of Dao—as taking one beyond the illusory character of life as
it is ordinarily experienced. This will also be discussed in our examination
of these two classical Daoist texts. First though, I want to share a couple of
thoughts by comparing how the role of dreaming can be understood from a
Western subject-oriented view, with the Daoist Dao-oriented view that will
be discussed in more depth in the second part of this chapter.
As we can see in light of the material from the Zhuangzi above, Zhuangzi
did not take one’s dream life to be irredeemably illusory; on the contrary,
dreaming is potentially a source of great insight. Many are familiar with the
butterfly dream in which Zhuangzi cannot tell if “he was Zhuang Zhou who
had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming he was Zhuang
Zhou.”14 This is to say, in light of his subjective experience he cannot tell the
difference, although he goes on to say, “between Zhuang Zhou and a
butterfly there must be some distinction! This is called the Transformation
of Things.”15 The significance of this passage is not clear, but it may suggest
that as far as awareness or consciousness itself is concerned, we are essentially
the same despite our differences; we are conscious beings united in that fact.
But who is the subject here? Is it Zhuang Zhou, who upon waking
experienced himself as solidly and unmistakably Zhuang Zhou? Or is it the
butterfly “flitting and fluttering around, happy with himself and doing as he
pleased”?16 Whoever was having the experience seemed to be the same in
either case, or the question could not have been raised, even in the context
of a dream, for it is the subject of the dream who is asking the question. This
is not to radically distinguish between embodied consciousness and the
bodies it imbues with the capacity for subjective experience. One cannot be
a subject of experience without being uniquely and existentially situated in
a world filled with all kinds of objects (whatever “world” is supposed to
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mean here!). Rather, and as the passage suggests, I think it is meant to draw
our attention to Dao and its mysterious transformative powers. Namely,
regardless of the particular lives at hand or the bodies that they animate,
they are all the same in being united in Dao. Despite their differences, they
all have the power to change of their own accord in virtue of being alive.
I believe that the phenomenon of dreaming is extremely important, and
often because of what it doesn’t answer or resolve. I think dreaming acts as
a gateway to deeper mysteries, as Zhuangzi’s dream about the roadside skull
was for him. Dreams allow us to confront a part of ourselves that is a
mystery to us and that informs us that we are part of something larger—
something beyond the self that is also a part of the self, as Dao is in each of
us but is also (eternally) beyond any one of us.17 If we are lucky, our
reflections may bring insight to our waking lives, but the deeper insight is
that our lives, our experience, our very selves are a part of this great mystery
that Daoists simply refer to as Dao.
Why should we automatically privilege our waking life over our dream
life when it comes to forming a relationship with Ultimate Reality, which
goes beyond them both? Of course, this is completely anecdotal, but
numerous reports from near death experiences refer to a tunnel being
traversed in a dreamlike state, and of experiences happening during that
state that had bearing on one’s current life—even regarding things of
which one was previously unaware. In that state, something also happened
that brought that person back to the land of the living. Who knows what
we will experience (if anything) as we pass into death from life; as we will
see shortly, Daoism views life and death as mysteries that can be deeply,
even spiritually, appreciated so long as we open ourselves up to them. Both
the Zhuangzi and Daodejing tell us that in order to do this, we must
start from a place of not knowing—to be open to possibilities never
before experienced—and that preconceived notions will only keep us from
taking them in. Shall we welcome the mysteries even when death comes our
way?
5. Towards an Understanding of Death in

the Daodejing: First, the “Metaphysic” or
View of “Reality” Expressed Therein
In this second part of this chapter I am ultimately interested in the view of
death expressed in the Daodejing, sometimes translated The Way and its
Power, and the Zhuangzi. Understanding death in these texts first requires
understanding their “metaphysic” or view of reality though, or more
specifically, gaining insight into the significance of death from these Daoist
perspectives requires knowing how it fits into their larger worldviews.
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Chapter 1 of the Daodejing contains a very brief account of how the

“universe” came to be—that is, the philosophical universe or Ultimate
Reality, which goes far beyond the physical universe. I realize that I am using
Western language here when referring to Dao as Ultimate Reality, for
Chinese metaphysics generally portrays reality in terms of generative
processes or “ways of change”—in terms of relations and patterns of
change—whereas in the West it is generally understood in terms of static
essences or separate substances. Despite this cultural difference, Dao is the
source and sustainer of everything, which paradoxically is typically cast as
“what is not”—as what cannot be seen, heard, or known, at least not in the
sense that we may come to know physical objects and events. More
importantly, while Dao is repeatedly referred to as “something” that cannot
be fathomed or measured, it is also referred to as that which creates all
things and sets the course for how they change as long as they exist. In other
words, the Dao is the creative “principle”18 of the universe itself. Here is
what chapter 1 says about Dao:
The Dao that can be spoken of is not the constant Dao; the Dao that can
be named is not the constant name. The nameless was the beginning of
Heaven and Earth; the named was the mother of the myriad creatures.
Hence always rid yourself of desires in order to observe its secrets; but
always allow yourself to have desires in order to observe its manifestations.
These two are the same but diverge in name as they issue forth. Being the
same they are called mysteries, mystery upon mystery—the gateway of
the manifold secrets.19
The nameless Dao was the beginning of Heaven and Earth, the images of
the first two hexagrams of the Yijing 易經 (Book of Changes), which are
Creativity and Receptivity respectively.20 Dao birthed them as a mother gives
birth to her progeny. Dao is the mother of the myriad creatures—all that
was, is, and will be. These are the “manifestations” that we can observe, if we
desire to do so. But Dao includes more than what is made manifest and can
be named, for Dao includes “what is not” and “what will not be,” since all
non-things could also have existence if only Dao would make it so. In other
words, everything is possible for Dao, even if all things are not made actual
(or manifest); Dao has the de 德 or power to do anything, and through Dao
all things are done, even though not all things are done. These “things” (or
non-things) may have no observable existence, but they are real and “exist”
as possibilities, as the potential Dao has to bring things into existence or not.
We also read in chapter 42 of the Daodejing:
Dao begets one, one begets two, two begets three, and three begets the
myriad creatures. The myriad creatures carry on their backs the Yin and
embrace in their arms the Yang, and are the blending of the generative
forces of the two.21
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Dao is often translated as “one” (often capitalized to show its significance),

but in this excerpt is said to beget one, which I take to mean that the idea of
there being one already implies that there is something else, such as two, or
three, or 10,000 things (here, called the myriad creatures). In other words,
the “one” is what we call Dao once we give it a name, but if we hold to “its”
being nameless, it admits of no distinction whatsoever. This is one way of
thinking about Dao. Dao in this sense is called “one” to name the nameless
way of change, also characterized as “changeless” because there is truly
nothing from which it can be distinguished. What we observe is not change
itself, but the effect that change has had on things. These two aspects of
reality—the changeless change that can only be observed in virtue of the
effect it has on what Dao has created, and the things that are observed as
changing because Dao has made it so—are in practice inescapably
interdependent. There is no change unless there is something to be changed.
Or, the changeless (way or dao) of change is activated only once it has
something to act upon. The changeless way of change still exists and is real
even before there is anything to be changed though. This is the ultimate
power of Dao: to create something out of nothing. Would this be out of
nothing in an absolute sense? No: it is Dao’s power to create and make
things manifest in the world.
Now, referring back to chapter 1 of the Daodejing, as soon as we speak
about Dao—as soon as we give the nameless a name—we distinguish it as
“something,” which mistakenly makes the infinite source and sustainer of
reality appear to be a definite object to be experienced as other manifest
objects of experience are. So, as soon as we start to talk about Dao, we
misrepresent the very “thing” we are trying to fathom. Consider this excerpt
from chapter 25 of the text:
There is a thing confusedly formed, born before Heaven and Earth. Silent
and void it stands alone and does not change, goes round and does not
weary. It is capable of being the mother of the world. I know not its name
so I style it “the Way.”22
The “thing” that “stands alone and does not change” is the changeless
change just explained, that was “born before Heaven and Earth” or before
anything was actually created. In fact, to say it was born may be off, since
Dao is consistently referred to as eternal or “always so.” What is this “way”
more specifically though? We go back to chapter 42 and see: from Dao came
something in contrast to it, which then became further differentiated into
two primal forces (Yin and Yang) that interact (“the three” that “goes round
and does not weary”) to produce everything else. In short, this is the way the
world changes. This is the way things move from the “silent and void” or
not being of Dao into being or observable reality. Ultimately though, the
primal forces of “what is not” and “what is” are absolutely interrelated, as
we will soon see in more depth. For now, we can see why the primal force of
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Yin that powers all change is likened more to the silent emptiness of the
Primal Mother than to the ostensible and observable changes we can see and
name (Yang). Still, Yin and Yang are always interdependent, as these basic
metaphysical “ingredients” for change must interact for anything to change
at all.
To explain the view of reality found in the Daodejing in more depth, Yin
originally referred to “darkness” in contrast to the “lightness” of Yang, but
now the Yin–Yang relation applies to any pair of related “opposites” that
are in reality mutually implying complements. In fact, they are just different
aspects of the same “thing,” or more accurately, the same way of change. For
example, creativity (the image is Heaven) and receptivity (the image is Earth)
are simply different aspects of the same “creative” process. We focus on
what is created because we can see, hear, or experience it in a more tangible
way. But the Daodejing makes it clear that inactivity (wuwei 無爲) is a
necessary aspect of any activity (activity and inactivity are also mutually
entailing); nothing could be created without it possessing an element of
receptivity within itself. Something comes into being out of something it
was not, and the “place” into which it moves as an existing thing has
to be receptive to its being (there). For example, it is not possible to have a
creative thought without first being open to the possibilities of things not
yet thought. The mind has to be “silent and void” in order for something
new and different to enter. Similarly, it is the empty space between the
notes that makes manifest the sound. Here’s an excerpt from Daodejing
chapter 2:
Thus Something and Nothing produce each other; the difficult and easy
complement each other; the long and the short offset each other; the high
and the low incline toward each other; note and sound harmonize with
each other; before and after follow each other.23
My claim is that these complements do not just produce, offset, incline

toward, or harmonize with each other. These “opposites” refer to the same
“thing,” or more precisely, they are varying aspects of the same creative
process or way of change. For example, Nothing is not logically inconsistent
with Something; it is a vital aspect of what anything is, including what it
can do. Think again about the generative power of Dao. Everything that
exists first had the potential to exist, and was at some point brought into
existence from what it was not. Moreover, things and processes can be
distinguished from others only by virtue of what they are not, making
each thing definite (one is not two, two is not three, etc.). Therefore,
Nothing is not Nothing in an absolute sense. Nothing is not the negation of
Something, rather, it is essential to what makes it what it is, including the
way it can change. The same holds true for any mutually entailing pairs
of “opposites.” Consider that dark is just less light. Place one instance of
“less light” beside another that is even less light, then the first instance
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becomes “dark” by comparison. These qualities refer to the same thing that
we call lightness or darkness depending on our focus and how we desire to
make use of them, but they are different only in degree, existing on a
continuum and manifesting as definite qualities because of what they are not
(and by contrast). Mainly, each thing or quality has a “way” that is useful
only in virtue of Nothing. Chapter 11 of the Daodejing makes clear this
point:
Thirty spokes share a hub. Adapt the nothing therein to the purpose at
hand, and you will have the use of the cart. Knead clay in order to make
a vessel. Adapt the nothing therein to the purpose at hand, and you will
have the use of the vessel. Cut out doors and windows in order to make
a room. Adapt the nothing therein to the purpose at hand, and you will
have the use of the room. Thus what we gain is Something, yet it is by
virtue of Nothing that this can be put to use.24
To conclude, the Dao cannot be fathomed in any ordinary way, for the
very reason that it is not an object of ordinary experience. However, if we
expand our focus beyond the specific purpose or desired end we may have
in mind, we can experience the mysteries of Dao on what could be called a
spiritual level.25 Experience on this level allows us to observe more than how
things and processes manifest in the world; it also allows us to feel our
connection with the magnificence of creation itself. The Daodejing does not
just critique our myopic human view of things; we can experience the unity
of things and how they have their source in Dao, if, like Dao, we make
our minds “silent and void.” Then our minds may be pervaded with a
profound appreciation for the mysteries of Ultimate Reality. In this way, we
have phenomenological access to the Mother of Creation that produces all
things and brings them to completion, not in knowing the details of the
process but in having our very being moved by being part of creation itself.
This may be the strongest sense of connection one can feel—that “one” is
not really one at all but a vital aspect of “something” that goes far beyond
the “self.”
Because of this, I think the central aim of the Daodejing is to evoke in us
a deep appreciation for what it is to be alive. We do not live our lives as
much as life is living us. From this perspective, we are not so much subjects
of consciousness as we are subjects of life, a life that is given to us, and it is
a false sense of agency and overabundance of desire that make us think that
we are the ultimate source of our own vitality. We live for as long as Dao
carries us, and then we return to that great source. This realization should
dramatically impact how we experience and value life: as for our own
existence, there was an almost infinitely greater chance of our not being, but
here we are. Life is truly a miracle, a dimly visible reality from which we
move, and breathe, and have our being. Life may be the most profound
mystery of all. Of it, how can we not stand in awe?
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6. The Phenomenology of Death

in the Daodejing
As light and dark are mutually implying complements, so too are life and
death. They are just different aspects of the same “thing,” process or event,
or way of change. Death is just “less life” as life is just “less death.” They
exist as aspects of something we call “life” because we, as living, conscious
beings are drawn to what makes more sense to us—to what we perceive,
think about, and name. Here is another key point in the Daodejing: what we
perceive and name shapes the world as we experience it. This is the “human
way” (rendao 人道) that constructs a uniquely human reality built of ideas,
conventions, and artifacts that can give us an overrated sense of our own
importance as living members of this world. Our power to create a human
world can never match the power of Dao though, which has ultimate power
over our lives and the lives of all beings, although it need not make a show
of it. Dao and its power are beyond our control, no matter how much we
would like to think otherwise. Dao produces all things, including our natural
capacity to live as we uniquely do as human beings. We can create only
because Dao has created us to do so.
Our nature is to create, which rests on our innate capacity to distinguish
things. We name them based on our unique way of experiencing them as
separate and distinct. Then we construct new things by putting the parts
together in new and different ways. Dao has given us this human way, but it
has become unbalanced and unhealthy. This is one of the most important
points that the Daodejing makes: we are consumed by desire to construct
more and to have more, and as a result we are losing our connection with
each other as well as with Dao, the Great Maker who has given us our very
lives. The Yin–Yang relation has become unbalanced in us, and too much
Yang energy is making us sick. This is why the Daodejing reminds us to
embrace the Yin—to welcome the dark, to return to our roots, to live simply
and be receptive to the source and sustainer of life itself.
In a way, the emptiness, stillness, and silence of Dao is more like death
than life. Paradoxically, this “dimly visible”26 aspect of life is life in its
fullness in a key respect. Dao’s infinite power to create rests upon what is
not—what does not exist and is brought into being; the inactivity needed for
activity to rest, be restored, and to achieve its very best; the Nothing that is
the vital part of Something that makes it what it is; the “death” that changes
something into something else so it can go from one “state of being” to
another—that is to say, so it can live. Without such transformation, nothing
could live or exist in the first place. Based on this, I think of death as being
the “secret essence” of life. Here is an important analogy that I will now
explain: death is the essence of life as Dao is the essence of All Things.
Dao is the essence of all things; it is Ultimate Reality even though we may
not be able to experience it like the things it brings into being. I have said
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that life is perhaps the most miraculous of all created things, which is why
it is of such central importance in the Daodejing. But death is the process
whereby living things return to Dao. This is why both Dao and death are
almost always referred to with Yin language and imagery; they seem
changeless, empty, and darker than any mystery. Most critically, death is not
the absolute negation of life. As Dao is the essence of being, death is the
essence of life in being its source (we come into being from not being), its
sustainer (change requires the death of what came before), and its ultimate
secret. And this is nothing short of ironic.
The Daodejing is infused with paradoxes or apparent contradictions
designed to bring out the truly ironic quality of life. We have already seen
this in relation to Yin–Yang, inaction and action, nothing and something,
empty and full, etc. It is the inaction in action that activates change and
allows it to produce maximum results. Without death life would not be as
full, and this is nothing short of ironic, for death gives our lives value and
meaning exactly because we do not know just what it is or what it has in
store for us. “Death” is a word that refers to a change so mysterious that it
leaves us with no words, and no way to conclusively account for it. This is
profoundly ironic because if we think death is a mystery, what on earth do
we think life is!
7. Towards an Understanding of Death in the

Zhuangzi: First, a Comparative Account of
Zhuangzi’s “Metaphysic” or View of “Reality”
As we have already seen in the Daodejing and will see in the Zhuangzi, if
one stands in awe of being alive, and of the extraordinary depths this
experience can offer, then one has realized—phenomenologically—the
beauty of being alive, regardless of what life has in store. I think this is one
key truth that the Daodejing and Zhuangzi were trying to convey, not as a
conceptual or epistemic truth, but as an experiential realization.
In any case, the traditional metaphysic of ancient China schematized Dao
as being tripartite: a Dao of Heaven (tian 天), Humanity (ren 人), and Earth
(di 地). This traditional account saw humanity as bridging the gap between
Heaven and Earth, in a sense as ministering for Dao so that prosperity,
civility, and peace could be achieved. Human power was taken to be an
extension of the power of Dao. The problem was that the humans in power
seriously abused this natural gift and virtue, and the result was profound
self-centeredness and social disorder.27
I think this is why the Daodejing radically and explicitly revised how we
understand Dao to consist of the unspeakable Dao, Heaven, and Earth. That
is, as a metaphysical category, humanity was removed and presumably
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relegated to the realm of Earth and the myriad creatures that Dao has
populated on it. We have seen this from the beginning of the text, wherein
the constant Dao birthed its primal progeny of Heaven and Earth—with no
mention of humanity; no metaphysical elevation of humanity above the
other myriad creatures.
Indeed, the Daodejing generally critiques the human way as having lost
its way by creating imbalance and disorder instead of harmoniously blending
with others in the human community and the rest of the world. We humans
were demoted in not living up to the calling, in not being true to the mandate
of Heaven. The Zhuangzi maintained the traditional language of the Dao—
of Heaven, Humanity, and Earth—but still offered a clearly Daoist solution
for restoring the good life: we must return to Heaven’s (or Nature’s) Way, to
harmoniously blend with the rest of life.
Why must we turn our attention to Heaven? So that we can gain power
over others? No, and this is precisely why we fail to hear the Dao. If our
lives are aligned with Dao, then we will be able to live a good life by
cultivating a general state of well-being on a personal, social, and spiritual
level. Zhuangzi characterizes this way of being as one of ease and true
contentment that comes from being lost in the Dao. In order to do this,
however, one must lose oneself. From chapter 2 of the Zhuangzi we see this
exchange between Ziqi and Ziyou:
Ziqi of Nanguo sat leaning on a low table. Looking up to Heaven, he

sighed and seemed to be at a loss as if his spirit had left him. Yan Cheng
Ziyou [his pupil], who was standing in attendance in front of him, said,
“What is the matter? The body may be allowed to be like dry wood but
should the mind be allowed to be like dead ashes? Surely the man leaning
on the table now is not the same man leaning on the table before.” “Aren’t
you asking a good question!” Ziqi replied. “Do you know that I have just
lost myself? You have heard the music of man but not the music of Earth.
You may have heard the music of the Earth but not the music of Heaven.”
. . . Ziyou said, “Since the music of Earth consists of sounds produced in
the various hollows, and the music of man consists of sounds produced
in a series of flutes, what is the music of Heaven?” “The wind blows in a
thousand different ways,” replied Ziqi, “but the sounds are all produced
in their own way. They do so by themselves. Who is there to rouse them
to action?”28
Both the Daodejing and Zhuangzi acknowledge that we are created by

Dao to create artifacts and conventions for interacting in a human context.
But we have forgotten that we are subjects of Dao and its power, subjects of
life, and this should be humbling as well as uplifting. We should be humbled
by the realization that we are not as great as we may think regardless of the
power and status that the human world may give us. We are like all other
living things in coming from Dao, returning to Dao, and in being subjected
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to its power at all times. At the same time, we should be uplifted by the
realization that we can rest in that which gives us our life, what gives us our
very being and efficacy. We have been given this gift, and life will live itself
as sound produces itself. What rouses them all to action? Dao is truly the
Great Maker who will provide for us if only we let go of ourselves and turn
our attention to Heaven. This is key to cultivating a good life: to not let an
inflated sense of self-worth get in the way.
According to Zhuangzi, there is an unmediated spiritual knowledge that
the “perfect person” (i.e., the sage) experiences, that allows one to fully
appreciate the boundless unity and perfection of Dao that is foundational to
living a good life, and that naturally leads one to live a life of ease and
contentment. “Knowing” Dao so intimately is highly paradoxical though. It
does not entail knowing Dao in the sense that we gain immediate and total
access to all of the details of objective reality (that is, all that Dao creates). I
think the spiritual—or mystical—sense of “knowing” refers to an experience
for which an awareness of self does not get in the way of experiencing a
close and vital connection with Ultimate Reality. Such a spiritual experience
of Dao is “pure”—a kind of “unknowing” where the mind is filled up, but
not with ordinary objects, mental or physical. Instead, one becomes aware
of Dao’s miraculous creative potential, so that what is “dimly visible” or not
fathomed at all by most of us becomes illuminated. This experience is of the
infinite Way of change itself, which is beyond all (relative) perceptions and
distinctions. As the traditional account of the tripartite Dao suggests, we
humans are a vital part of creation and have a special role to play in it; to
fully appreciate our connection with the source and sustainer of reality and
to be naturally guided by it. Knowing “this” puts us at ease in feeling Dao’s
power to carry and support us where our own limited self-will cannot. In
this way, one can abide by the power to act not out of self-will but as a
vehicle for Dao and the harmonious blending and ease of action it makes
possible. Is this easy? . . . When it comes to our own dying? I think not, for
all we have to do is be at ease with losing our very “selves”!
8. A Comparative Account of the

Phenomenology of Death in the Zhuangzi
According to Chinese philosophy in general, knowledge does not just make
certain kinds of experience possible; it is directly connected with living a
good life and acting in a particular kind of way. A main theme in both the
Daodejing and the Zhuangzi concerns what I will call excellence in action—
“actionless action” (wuwei) in the Daodejing and “natural” or “spontaneous”
(ziran 自然) action in the Zhuangzi. In both texts, this action is executed
with such refined skill that it looks easy. One may even refer to such action
as “perfected” in using just the right amount of effort to achieve the best
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possible results (or at least what appear to be). The Zhuangzi makes clear
that one has to have a “knack” for acquiring such skill; conversely, that for
some, no matter how much effort and practice they put into it, they may not
be able to acquire a particular skill, not to mention reach the perfected
ability possessed by true savants. Both texts discuss how extraordinary skill
can be applied to specific areas of action as well as to living life more
generally. As far as specific talents are concerned, actions become “second
nature” since we are creatures of artifact—we do not just act directly
according to what nature has given us. For us, life embodies this paradox:
nature gives us the ability to create of our own doing.29 We “by nature”
create realities, both material and conceptual. We construct our world, our
cultures, our roles, and our “selves.” We construct ideas and meanings. And
by nature, we try to grasp the meaning of life and death.
Excellence in action is not just a capacity in either text, however. In the
Zhuangzi, the knack for developing a skill is perfected by one’s being a
committed participant in the activity. It is a living embodiment of skill
always borne out in action, so consistently that persons possessing such skill
are often identified in virtue of it. This is the human way: we are creatures
of artifact who do not just directly respond to the promptings of nature;
rather, we take what nature provides and then imaginatively create something
out of it that fulfills some desired purpose.30 Some examples from the
Zhuangzi include fishermen, potters, cooks, woodworkers, and the like.
Here is what Cook Ding has to say about his skill in chapter 3:
What I care about is Dao, which goes beyond skill. When I first began
cutting up oxen, all I could see was the ox itself. After three years I no
longer saw the whole ox. And now—now I go at it by spirit and don’t
look with my eyes. Perception and understanding have come to a stop
and spirit moves where it wants. I go along with the natural makeup,
strike the big hollows, guide the knife through the big openings, and
follow things as they are. So I never touch the smallest ligament or tendon,
much less a main joint. A good cook changes his knife once a year because
he cuts. A mediocre cook changes his knife once a month because he
hacks. I’ve had this knife of mine for nineteen years and I’ve cut up
thousands of oxen with it, and yet the blade is as good as though it had
just come from the grindstone.31
Cook Ding describes how he has applied Dao to develop his special
talent. His knack is brought to life in an extraordinary way, not because he
is so great, but because his “perception and understanding have come to a
stop” for him, so the spirit or power of Dao itself can guide his action. His
action becomes an extension of Dao because his “self” does not interfere
with what he is doing and its aim. This truth can be generalized (more or
less) to any excellence in action. Dao can best act through us because the
focus is on the object and how to achieve it and not on how we are making
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it happen.32 Consult your own experience. When you act in a way that today
might be referred to as “being in the zone,” when you “just do it” with ease
and skill but without thinking, notice that your perception of “you doing
the thing” has vanished. Your focus is “actionlessly” and spontaneously on
the action and its aim, in a way that does not involve an explicit awareness
of what you are doing or what you are aiming for. Truly, it is as if the “you”
does not figure into the experience at all. Your living conscious body—not
your “self”—becomes a conduit of Dao’s power to create, to produce, and
to achieve excellent results. This is how to live well, applied to specific skills
or talents. It also applies to the art of living and dying.
For contemporary purposes, I think the sage is a person who has come to
master life. To say that the sage has a “mastery” in the art of living may not
be using a very Daoist word, but the point is still made: the sage is a spiritual
being who is “pure” in focus, despite the challenges life might offer up;
“perfected” in the ability to be connected to, and to derive (even
extraordinary) strength from Dao. But like so many themes, “strength” here
is to be understood in its paradoxical fullness. In both texts, Daoist strength
may appear by conventional standards to be weak. In the Zhuangzi, the
sagely ability to “let go” of the self in order to take sustenance from Dao is
a prime example. The sage experiences Dao and its power directly—and is
humbled by experiencing the true nature of things, that inseparably creates
great ease and contentment with any change that Dao may bring their way.
But feeling at ease in the face of death? How can this be easy? Feeling at ease
with this change we call death can occur when one realizes that Dao or the
great Way of change is ultimately good. That truth is anticipated in the
following excerpt from chapter 6 of the Zhuangzi:
Life and death are fated—constant as the succession of dark and dawn, a
matter of Heaven. There are some things which man can do nothing
about—all are a matter of the nature of creatures. If man is willing to
regard Heaven as a father and to love it, then how much more should he
be willing to do for that which is even greater! If he is willing to regard
the ruler as superior to himself and to die for him, then how much more
should he be willing to do for the Truth!33
What is “that which is even greater” than Heaven or Nature? It is the

power that Dao gave Heaven to have things act and change according to
their nature. What power did Dao imbue in matter in order for it to live? It
is the power to change of its own accord (and according to its own specific
li or principle): the power of self-transformation. Life and death, draped in
conventionally ritualized dressing, are only the veneer of the miraculous and
mysterious power of creation itself. Knowing this truth—embodying this
truth as a lived reality—allows one to be content with what even by
conventional standards would be the saddest of circumstances. To state this
central truth found in the Zhuangzi in more detail: experiencing Dao and its
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miraculous power generates a deep and abiding faith in its workings—

namely, a faith that Dao is good in a way that human conventions cannot
touch. This profound faith and the comfort it entails is expressed in an
excerpt concerning Master Lai, who is gravely ill, and Master Li who has
come to visit.
Soon afterward Zilai fell ill, was grasping for breath and was about to
die. His wife and children surrounded him and wept. Zili went to see him.
“Go away,” he said. “Don’t disturb the transformation that is about to
take place.” Then, leaning against the door, he continued, “Great is the
Creator! What will he make of you now? Where will he take you? Will he
make you into a rat’s liver? Will he make you into an insect’s leg?” Zilai
said, “Wherever a parent tells a son to go, whether east, west, south, or
north, he has to obey. The Yin and Yang are like man’s parents. If they
pressed me to die and I disobeyed, I would be obstinate. What fault is
theirs? For the universe gave me this body so I may be carried, my life so
I may toil, my old age so I may repose, and my death so I may rest.
Therefore to regard life as good is the way to regard death as good.”34
Feeling at ease in the face of death is one thing. But it is not disconnected
from what many if not most of us get practice in during our lives—how to
manage and even feel comfort in times of what by conventional standards
would be considered misfortune. Consider Cripple Shu who had his “chin
stuck down in his navel, shoulders above his head, pigtail pointing to the
sky, his five organs on the top . . .” Even crippled as he was, he went on to
“finish out the years that Heaven gave him” with “crippled virtue,” which I
take to be the skill of living one’s life as best one can despite such limitations.35
Then there is Shentu Jia without a foot, Mr. Lame-Hunchback-No-Lips, Mr.
Pitcher-Sized-Wen, and many others who populate the Zhuangzi and who
are True Persons or persons of virtue despite their abnormalities. We also
meet Master Yu who fell ill and was amazed when the Creator made him
“all crookedy.” He did not resent it at all, but instead was “calm at heart and
unconcerned.”36 He responded in awe, imaging all of the wonderful things
that he could do with whatever the Creator might make of him—such as
transforming his left arm into a rooster, or his right arm into a crossbow
pellet, or his buttocks into cartwheels. These seem like absurd possibilities,
but I think the point is this: life is unpredictable and can do anything. The
question is, what will we make of it? Will we live virtuously or the best we
can despite what life might throw at us?
These cases also communicate a crucial message: there is something
inherently good about life, come what may. Despite its spectacular variety
and unpredictability, life is still a gift—a miracle and mystery that gives us
the chance to act, change, and grow into something new and different. This
transformation can be extraordinary. Recall that the Zhuangzi begins with
a story of the Kun fish who transforms into the Peng bird—a radical
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transformation that may be just as radical as the transformation of life to

death. In a sense the Kun fish dies when the Peng bird emerges. We have
analogously radical transformations when we look at natural evolution over
time. If space and time are relative, lodged in a perspective that is species-
specific and specific to any given life, then all these distinctions become
somewhat blurred in the grand scheme of things. That too may be the case
with the relation between what we call life and death. But one thing seems
clear: that life entails death, or what we “know” of what we call “life”
involves a process or event that we call “death,” that seems to be quite
unlike it. Since living entails dying, living well entails dying well, which the
Zhuangzi tells us involves a mindset of contentment and ease; a willingness
to freely go with the change regardless of what it may bring.
9. Conclusion
A question that may arise from the examples and stories in the Daodejing
and Zhuangzi is what the relation is between the self—our awareness of our
existence as living things—and the material form that our lives animate. In
the first part of this chapter, I critiqued Brentano’s thesis that mental and
physical events are different in kind; where mental events are thought to
exist in the mind only, while physical objects (such as our bodies) exist in the
external physical world. My point was that “physical phenomena” have to
be experienced by subjects in order for them to exist for us at all (they are
phenomena), and to that extent they are “mental” objects too, even though
they are experienced as if they have an independent existence. In addition,
the mental phenomenon of dreaming shows how even more varied and
ambiguous conscious experience can be—because until we wake up, dreams
can seem as real as any waking experience, while waking life can sometimes
feel like a dream. In any case, for humans, we are not only conscious of, or
about things; we can see ourselves as figuring into the content of our own
experience. This is where the sense of “I” comes from that Zhuangzi refers
to in various places.37 The Zhuangzi does not discuss the question of what
the relation is between our “selves” and our bodies in any depth however. I
think this is because our consciousness, mind, or experience, is never
conceived in isolation from our bodies, that are existentially necessarily for
us to have a place in the world and that are constantly changing. Nor are we
conceived as metaphysically separate from the other “external” people,
places, things, and events that make up our ever-changing world.
To explain further, my focusing on, and defining the “self” as a self-aware
subject of experience displays a cultural bias. We have seen that the Zhuangzi
refers to actual embodied characters no matter how extreme or absurd—
who in each case cannot be understood in absence of their story or situation.
I think if we could ask Zhuangzi, he might reply that ideas such as mind or
self are just abstractions, and perhaps misleading ones when considering
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what is real. Exactly what does it mean to have a mind or self? Of course,
we are able to be aware and to act according to the limitations of our nature,
which for humans mean we can reflect on our experience and actions, as
well as our role in bringing them about or changing them in the future. But
do these concepts merely refer to certain species-specific capacities? Then
where is the real person in this, when what is most essential to our having a
particular life is abstracted away? Life is to be lived and not just postulated.
I think Zhuangzi might say that such abstractions, especially when taken
to be independent realities, fail to do justice to our experience as living
human beings. We are not minds with selves; and even if we posit that
we have these, they will not define what makes us who we most essentially
are; they will not capture what makes existence unique for each and every
one of us.
To continue, I think Zhuangzi might say that the subject–object distinction
as Brentano saw it, or as I have redefined it, does more than fail to do justice
to our experience. While we might agree that experience has to be of, or
about something, there is no good reason to privilege the experience of our
own minds or conscious activities over the things that make up our world—
the one we live and die in. I see the overall matter this way: Western
metaphysics or accounts of reality tend to be biased or lodged in a
“mentalistic” and hence “individualistic” worldview. So, we become
preoccupied with what might happen to our individual (self) consciousness
when we die. By contrast, Daoist worldviews tend to be biased in favor of
the concept of Dao or framed in a perspective that sees this Ultimate Reality
that produces and sustains all things as needing no explanation. Dao and its
power to create is ultimately what is real. Moreover, if we consult our
experience, we can clearly observe that nothing real exists alone or in
isolation, which would include our so-called minds or selves.38 Dao or the
unfathomable way of change is ultimately real, so all other questions, such
as ones about the self are of secondary or no real importance. To state the
matter simply: for Daoists we are subjects of life, not subjects of objects.
We do know that both the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi see life as a
miracle and mystery that cannot be fathomed. We can appreciate it fully and
be at ease with its changes, but we cannot know the infinite Dao as we might
“know” definite things. As the Daodejing says in its opening chapter, we can
“observe” Dao’s secrets, which I take to mean that we can “see” and be
awed by them, but we cannot know them. We can only know that they are
good in coming from Dao. In effect, we can have faith in Dao and its power
to change us into whatever it will. Dao is the way of change, including the
change of life into death. So there is nothing to fear; nothing ultimately to
be sad about.
Zhuangzi’s wife died. When Huizi went to convey his condolences, he

found Zhuangzi sitting with his legs sprawled out, pounding on a tub
and singing. “You lived with her, she brought up your children and grew
36138.indb 55 03/09/2019 11:16

old,” said Huizi. “It should be enough simply not to weep at her death.
But pounding on a tub and singing—this is going too far, isn’t it?”
Zhuangzi said, “You’re wrong. When she first died, do you think I did
not grieve like anyone else? But I looked back to her beginning and the
time before she was born. Not only the time before she was born, but
the time before she had a body. Not only the time before she had a
body, but the time before she had a spirit. In the midst of the jumble of
wonder and mystery a change took place and she had a spirit. Another
change and she had a body. Another change and she was born. Now
there’s been another change and she’s dead. It’s just like the progression
of the four seasons, spring, summer, fall, winter. Now she’s going to lie
down peacefully in a vast room. If I were to follow after her bawling and
sobbing, it would show that I don’t understand anything about fate. So
I stopped.”39
Zhuangzi’s wife dies, then she “lies asleep in the great house (the
universe).”40 This passage expresses Zhuangzi’s faith in the workings of Dao,
in Heaven or Nature, and in our destiny within that larger context—of
human life and the death it necessarily entails. So, what can we say about
death according to the Zhuangzi? We are told that death is peaceful, restful,
and perhaps the greatest transformation in the process or way of change that
living things undergo. Dao or the Great Maker made life, and human life
evolved from that, which now includes each one of us as well as those we
care about. We also are told that the Great Maker is Good, and that anything
it does is all right, even though it may not seem that way from a human
perspective. Zhuangzi wept for his wife, and presumably we will weep for
those we love if their time comes to pass into the Great Unknown before us.
The Great Maker also made us so that we might try to know ourselves—
to plumb the depths of our being even if we come up with just a deeper
mystery. Now imagine this as a kind of thought experiment. Imagine that
your time to die has come and the door to the vast room, the great house,
opens in front of you. If you could, if it was within your power to do so,
would “you” willingly pass through that door with eyes wide open and ears
attuned? Would you choose to go and see?
Notes
1 I put the word “metaphysics” in quotes since the worldview in ancient China
did not see the distinction between the physical and so-called metaphysical
world as being one of kind.
2 Mental objects need not be real or physically exist either; for example, we can
be conscious of fictitious or abstract ideas, images, and objects too.
3 Franz Brentano, Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint (London:
Routledge, 1995), 88–9.
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4 See Descartes’s “First Meditation” wherein he uses his Dream Hypothesis to

consider that everything his senses tell him is true about reality may actually be
false or just a dream. This hypothesis is used to show that since the senses can
deceive, they cannot be trusted to get at what is true beyond a doubt.
5 I discussed this in depth in my Ph.D. dissertation called Emotionally
Relevant Feelings. Among other things, I show how there is an intentional
sense of feeling that is not to be understood as either a (bodily) sensation,
or as a judgment, or as a combination of the two. These “emotionally
relevant feelings” constitute a distinct type of intentional event in their
own right.
6 “Truth” here would mean beliefs that we have about death that we have
shared empirical evidence for believing.
7 See Epicurus’ argument concerning death that basically concludes that death
cannot harm us since, in order to be harmed, we must be able to have
experiences, which death prevents.
8 Ample evidence supports this, but there are also accounts suggesting that one
may be conscious of a lot more than has been assumed. For instance, see recent
testimony by Eben Alexander (1953–present), e.g., Proof of Heaven.
9 Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1998), chapter 3.
10 Some other introspectionist philosophers were William James (1842–1910) and
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920).
11 Zhuangzi, Zhuangzi: Basic Writings (New York: Columbia University Press,
2003), 42–3.
12 See Chai 2016 for a deeper appreciation of the significance of this story.
13 Zhuangzi, Basic Writings, 43.
14 Ibid., 44.
15 Ibid.
16 Ibid.
17 I think dreaming is akin to meditating and praying, as a tool for increasing
awareness, agency, and peace of mind in a world not defined by materialist
reductionist values.
18 I put “principle” in quotes because it is a Western way of referring to
something that according to Chinese metaphysics is ultimately and completely
real. Indeed, even using the term “metaphysics” as it is often distinguished from
“physics” may suggest a distinction of kind where a general Chinese worldview
would see such a difference more in terms of degree.
19 Laozi, Daodejing (London: Penguin Books, 1963), chapter 1.
20 Yijing is often translated “The Way of Changes,” but A.C. Graham, a noted
scholar of Chinese philosophy, translated the “Yi” in the title as “Divination
Made Easy.”
21 Laozi, Daodejing, chapter 42.
22 Ibid., chapter 25.
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25 This “spiritual” level may actually be most basic and primal—while human
objectification may disconnect or alienate us from each other and the world we
live and die in.
27 This is very much the case around the Warring States Period (475–221 bce).
28 Wing-Tsit Chan (trans.), “The Mystical Way of Chuang Tzu,” in A Source
Book in Chinese Philosophy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963),
179–80.
29 One could point out that non-humans also creatively respond to the callings of
nature, such as female Grizzlies who will “act against their nature” in order to
protect their young [see the video, Bear 71]. But humans take this to a different
level, and both the Daodejing and Zhuangzi cite this as being potentially very
problematic. I think both texts indicate that the problem lies in the fact that
nature has given us a sense of “self” that we then misconceive as deserving far
too much power. That is, the problem lies in our seeing our elevated
metaphysical status as being a product of our own efforts instead of as being
a gift from Dao. We have transformed this gift into an Achilles’ heel that will
lead to our downfall as a result—precisely because we abuse instead of
nurture our lives and our special connection to Dao.
30 Recall chapter 1 of the Daodejing, “always rid yourself of desires in order to
observe its [Dao’s] secrets; but always allow yourself to have desires in order to
observe its manifestations”; that is, so we can make use of them to accomplish
some imagined purpose.
32 Self-consciousness may actually interfere with our ability to “just do” the
action with excellent results.
34 Chan, “The Mystical Way of Chuang Tzu,” 197–8.
35 Zhuangzi, Basic Writings, 61–2.
36 Ibid., 80.
37 Ibid., 32–3.
38 This culturally biased assumption has many moral and political implications.
In the West, conceiving of oneself as independent and autonomous has
unpleasant results despite the positive ones.
40 Chan, “The Mystical Way of Chuang Tzu,” 209.
36138.indb 58 03/09/2019 11:16

References
Alexander, Eben. (2012), Proof of Heaven: A Neurosurgeon’s Journey into the
Afterlife, New York: Simon & Schuster Inc.
Bockover, Mary. (1991), Emotionally Relevant Feelings, Ph.D. dissertation,
University of California at Santa Barbara.
Brentano, Franz. (1995), Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint, Linda
McAlister (trans.), London: Routledge.
Chai, David. (2016), “On Pillowing One’s Skull: Zhuangzi and Heidegger on
Death,” Frontiers of Philosophy in China, 11.3: 483–500.
Chan, Wing-Tsit, trans. (1963), “The Mystical Way of Chuang Tzu,” in A Source
Book in Chinese Philosophy, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Descartes, René. (1960), Meditations on First Philosophy, Laurence Lafleur (trans.),
Indianapolis and New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc.
Graham, A.C. (1989), Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient
China, La Salle: Open Court.
Kant, Immanuel. (1998), Critique of Pure Reason, Paul Guyer and Allen Wood
(trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Laozi. (1963), Daodejing, D.C. Lau (trans.), London: Penguin Books.
Yijing. (1950), Richard Wilhelm and Cary Baynes (trans.), Princeton: Princeton
University Press.
Zhuangzi. (2003), Zhuangzi: Basic Writings, Burton Watson (trans.), New York:
36138.indb 59 03/09/2019 11:16

36138.indb 60 03/09/2019 11:16
3
In the Light of Heaven
before Sunrise:
Zhuangzi and Nietzsche on

Transperspectival Experience
Graham Parkes
The world is overfull of beautiful things, but nevertheless poor,

very poor, in beautiful moments and unveilings of these things.
NIETZSCHE1
Zhuangzi and Nietzsche. The names have similar cadences and rhyme on the
last syllable.2 But what is the point of the and? In a context like this, it sounds
like a compare-and-contrast exercise. But again—so what? Well, with
Nietzsche and Zhuangzi the consonances are remarkable, between what they
say and how they say it. These have been remarked on before, in the first
comparison (as far as I know) of these two thinkers’ ideas: an article called
“The Wandering Dance: Zhuangzi and Zarathustra,” published in Philosophy
East & West in 1983. But before considering this essay, whose point is “to
enhance our understanding of both philosophies,” let’s first ask the question,
which the essay fails to ask, whether Nietzsche was familiar with Zhuangzi’s
ideas. Then, after comparing Zhuangzi’s and Nietzsche’s views on what’s
going on at the deepest philosophical level, we’ll inquire into how a
comparison might highlight aspects of their thought that have generally gone
unnoticed—especially on the question of whether and how perspectives
beyond the human might be attainable. Finally, I’ll point to a correspondence
between the physical practices underlying their philosophical ideas.
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The occasional comments Nietzsche makes about China suggest that he

didn’t know much more about Chinese culture than one would expect from
a well-educated German of his time. He mentions Chinese philosophers
only twice, both times at the end of his career. In a letter to a good friend he
wonders whether The Laws of Manu, an ancient Hindu text that he has just
read with enthusiasm, might have influenced “Confucius und Laotse
[Laozi]”—unlikely, since scholars now date the text to not much earlier than
the second century bce, a few centuries after the golden age of classical
Chinese philosophy. And in a discussion of Christ the Redeemer in The
Antichristian, he claims that the allusive language of the Holy Bible
corresponds to the language of the Sankhya School of philosophy in India
and Laozi in China.3
This claim suggests that the basis for the mentions of Laozi may have
been the German translation of the text by Victor von Strauss, published in
1870. Strauss compares the “saying” connotation of the Chinese term dao 道
with the Biblical “In the beginning was the Word”; and although he leaves
the term untranslated, he writes in his Preface that the only being to whom
you could ascribe everything that Laozi ascribes to dao is: “God, and only
God!” According to Strauss, Laozi was possessed of “a surprisingly grand
and profound awareness of God, a sublime and very definite concept of God
that is consistently congruent with the revealed concept of God.” This
wholesale projection of Christian ideas onto the ancient Chinese text results
in misleading mistranslations that give the text a religious and moralistic
flavor that’s quite foreign to the original. This would surely have discouraged
Nietzsche from taking the book, if he read it, as serious philosophy.4
1. The Wandering Dance

“The Wandering Dance” begins by acknowledging “the disparate historical
circumstances” of the Zhuangzi 莊子 and Zarathustra, and then draws
numerous parallels—between the literary styles, dramatic episodes,
conversations and dialogues, irony, humor, parody, and above all their
imagery. The significance of these parallels (which the essay doesn’t mention)
is that Zhuangzi and Nietzsche are thinkers who highlight the limitations of
language with respect to a world of radical becoming, and employ language
in new and poetic ways to help transform our experience.
In both cases it’s images rather than concepts that articulate the thought,
with images of natural phenomena predominating—sky, earth, fire, water,
plants, animals, moon, sun, and stars. The imagery reflects a common
antipathy to anthropocentrism: both authors believe that we become fully
human (or “Overhuman” in Nietzsche’s case) by getting over the ludicrous
prejudice that we are the center of the universe.
On an abstract plane, the anti-anthropocentrism is connected with their
perspectivisms, which are remarkably similar and raise the question of how
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Zhuangzi, nietzsche on transperspectival experience 63
to go beyond human perspectives—or whether that’s even possible. They are

both thinkers of flux and transformation, philosophers of becoming rather
than Being. And on the question of what, ultimately, is going on, they offer
comparable suggestions. “The Wandering Dance” deals with this question,
claiming early on that “Nietzsche’s later understanding of will to power as
an interpretive energy inherent in all things comes close to the panpsychism
that informs the Zhuangzi.”5
This is the basic philosophical question: when the Zhuangzi says “Just
open yourself to the one energy that is the world,” and Nietzsche says “This
world is the will to power—and nothing besides! And you yourselves are
also this will to power—and nothing besides!” are they saying more or less
the same thing?6
“The Wandering Dance” is surely heading in the right direction, but the
formulations are sometimes imprecise. Rather than “an interpretive energy
inherent in all things” the energy is all things: that’s what they are. And
“panpsychism” isn’t quite the right term for Zhuangzi’s view that everything
is qi 氣 energy. The Daoists’ “one energy that is the world” isn’t just a matter
of “life energy,” since qi exceeds the animate and animal realms to become
rivers and rocks—what we regard as “inanimate” matter—as well.7 The
closest equivalent to qi in Western philosophy before Nietzsche is probably
the notion of aer proposed by Anaximines, but “panaerism” doesn’t sound
quite right for the idea of the world as a field of energies. “Panenergism”
perhaps?
The wandering dancer develops the idea further: “Just as for Nietzsche
every being manifests will to power—primarily through interpreting and
construing the world in terms of values—so, too, for Zhuangzi every being
has its own perspective, determined by the conditions particular to it.”8
Better to say that every being is will to power, because “manifests” suggests
that they could be separate from it. Otherwise this is fine, though the author
doesn’t provide much textual justification for the claim that Nietzsche
understands will to power as “interpreting” and “interpretive energy.” There
is only—but significantly—a citation of the first mention of will to power in
Thus Spoke Zarathustra, in “On the Thousand Goals and One.” Zarathustra
speaks thus:
A tablet of things held to be good hangs over every people. Behold,

it is the tablet of its overcomings; behold, it is the voice of its will to
power.9
The values that inform our world, the points on which a people overcomes
itself, are collective interpretations, different in different cultures, of what
is good, or praiseworthy, holy, or evil.
But this only gives us “will to power as interpretation” in the human
realm, which needs to be extended to the non-human as well—and that’s
where “The Wandering Dance” takes us.
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Just as for Nietzsche everything in existence is a manifestation of the will

to power, so in the Zhuangzi there is a correspondence between the
universal dao and the idea of de 德, or power, which is the manifestation
of the dao in particular existents.10
If we drop the “manifestations” again, and “the universal” before dao,

we’ll be on track: dao refers to the whole process, together with the way, or
patterning, of its unfolding—and so not to something that could exist
independently of its manifestations. We could say, then, that corresponding
to dao as total patterning of particular des would be the world as will to
power as a field for particular things as configurations of will to power.
2. The Field of Dao-De

A colleague of the wandering dancer at the University of Hawaii, Roger
Ames, developed this theme in an essay from 1991 with the title “Nietzsche’s
‘Will to Power’ and Chinese ‘Virtuality’ (De): A Comparative Study.” For the
thinkers behind the classical Daoist texts, according to Ames, “Existence is a
ceaseless and continuous process or field of change (dao) made determinate
in the interdependent particulars (de) that constitute it.” And for each of
these particulars, “the range of its particularity is variable, contingent upon
the way in which it is interpreted both by itself and by other environing
particulars.” This means that de is continuous with dao: “a variable field or
focus of potency in the process of existence. As viewed from the perspective
of any particular, this dynamic process in toto is called dao, but when
discussed as individuated existents, these particulars are de.”11 These fine
formulations, which remain central to Ames’s reading of Daoism, open up a
helpful way of understanding the philosophy of qi as the field of dao and de.
Turning to Nietzsche, Ames suggests that “perhaps the most felicitous
way of describing the ‘part–whole’ relationship in will to power is to invoke
the language of ‘field and focus’ we used for describing dao-de.” Most
felicitous indeed. Insofar as Nietzsche understood existence “as a force-
field: dynamic quanta of interconnected relationships” (Ames again), the
particulars as de would be configurations of will to power such as rocks,
trees, animals, human beings and so forth. Whereas the essay focuses on
these particulars as de, it’s just as significant that the whole field of dao
would be equivalent to “the world as will to power” for Nietzsche.12 For
example, one of our wisest Nietzsche scholars, in discussing Nietzsche’s
rejection of materialistic atomism in favor of a view of “the world as will to
power,” supposes that “it can be shown with some probability that to be is
to be energy in an always shifting energy field.”13
What is more, in a passage that Ames doesn’t cite, Nietzsche entertains a
view of existence as “interpretation” similar to what Ames ascribes to the
Daoists (any particular is “interpreted both by itself and by other environing
36138.indb 64 03/09/2019 11:16

particulars”). In an aphorism in The Joyous Science titled “Our New

‘Infinite,’ ” Nietzsche asks “whether all existence isn’t essentially interpreting
existence.” If we open ourselves up to perspectives beyond the human, he
writes, we find that “the world has become ‘infinite’ for us again, insofar as
we cannot reject the possibility that it contains infinite interpretations.”14
Since this means not only multiple interpretations from each human being,
but also from all other beings, we’re in a world that’s a lot more like
Zhuangzi’s than Ames appears to acknowledge.
Ames goes on to invoke the stark contrast in tone and language between the
Daoists and Nietzsche: with the former we have a sense of mutuality, coherence,
coordination, harmony, integration; and from Nietzsche’s side we get
overcoming, mastery, contest, conquest, domination. Yes, this contrast is valid
to some extent—and derives from the differing contexts. The Daoists (Laozi
especially) advocate, in view of the horrors of the Warring States period (475–
221 bce), maintaining a low profile and withdrawing rather than confronting
or contending; while Nietzsche, faced with two millennia of Platonism and
Christianity, engages the war of ideas in a more aggressive mode.
Ames cites the infamous characterization of “life as will to power” from
Beyond Good and Evil: “Life itself is essentially appropriation, injury,
overpowering what is alien and weaker, suppression, hardness, imposition
of one’s own forms, incorporation and at least, at its mildest, exploitation.”15
Critics of Nietzsche who cite this statement as evidence of the man’s moral
turpitude miss the point by taking it as prescriptive rather than descriptive.
And on this point, I have to part company with my friend Roger Ames. Yes,
Nietzsche characterizes life as appropriation, injury, and so forth, but this
doesn’t mean that he’s advocating a human life—especially a philosophical
one—dedicated to murdering, raping, and pillaging. The question is this:
given that life is essentially appropriation—how, as human beings, do we
deal with that? How are we to live our lives?
Ames concludes his essay with what he sees as the main contrast between
the Nietzschean and Daoist ideals:
The attitude of the Nietzschean Übermensch who engages his world by

asserting his will to power against both his environments and himself
might be regarded by the person of virtuality as one who squanders his
considerable energies by failing to respect the complementarity and
synchronicity of things.16
In the philosophical “compare-and-contrast” exercise, the more

interesting is often the “contrast” phase—but in this case it’s coming too
soon: the parallels extend further. The comparative approach prompts us to
look for correspondences that may not immediately be apparent: domination
in Daoism, for example, and harmonious integration in Nietzsche. Leaving
the former topic aside for now, let’s see whether we might find in Nietzsche
a Daoist sense for “the complementarity and synchronicity of things”—not
36138.indb 65 03/09/2019 11:16

only in his texts but also in (what we know of) his experience as a plausible
basis for the ideas found in his works.
A reason to suppose that there is such a sense there comes from a well-
known note from 1885 that prefigures Nietzsche’s paramount presentation
of the teaching of will to power in Beyond Good and Evil 36. “This world,”
he writes, is
an ocean of energies . . . flowing out from the simplest forms into the
most manifold, from the stillest, most rigid, and coldest into the most
incandescent, wildest, and most self-contradictory, and then again
returning home from abundance to the simple, from the play of
contradictions to the pleasure of harmony.17
3. A Net of Light

When Nietzsche discovered the Upper Engadine (in the south east of
Switzerland) in 1879, “at the end of [his] thirty-fifth year,” he felt himself
“surrounded by death”—his father had died at 35 of a brain tumor, and
Nietzsche’s susceptibility to migraines made him think that he might suffer
a similar fate. But at the same time, he felt himself profoundly related to the
landscape: “The nature here,” he wrote, “is related to my own.” This
resonates not only with the Daoists’ ideal of a natural spontaneity in the
human being which is attuned to the powers of Heaven and Earth, but also
with the Stoics’ project of living “according to our human nature as well as
the nature of the universe.” Marcus Aurelius liked to remind himself that
“our own natures are parts of the nature of the whole,” and so the task is to
integrate them harmoniously.18
Nietzsche likes to remind those who are proud of the human spirit that
their pride rests on the mere prejudice of human superiority to all other beings.
For most of human history, he remarks, spirit (Geist) pervaded the human and
natural realms equally. “There was thus no shame attached to being descended
from animals or trees . . . and one saw spirit as that which connected us to the
natural world rather than what separated us from it.” Such a view is still
possible in the modern age, as long as we’re open to the idea, and experience,
of what Nietzsche calls “Nature as Doppelgänger”: the idea that “in many a
part of nature we discover ourselves again, with enjoyable horror.” And in the
part called the Engadine, he is fortunate to be able to say: “This part of nature
is intimate and familiar to me, related by blood, and even more.”19
We’re not going to get that sense of intimacy and quality of experience as
long as we remain in what Nietzsche regards as the natural attitude—in
which we simplify and thereby falsify our experience in order to get by,
getting from the natural world what we need, and taking care of human
business. We need to shift out of our “life” perspective to a “death” view of
the world: uncouple for a while the drive for self-preservation so that we can
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just look, or contemplate, without wanting or aiming at anything. In an

aphorism of The Wanderer and His Shadow that was composed amidst the
magnificent landscape of the Engadine, Nietzsche writes of himself in the
third person, graced by a vision of the great god Pan asleep “At Midday”:
Upon a meadow hidden among the woods he sees the great God Pan
asleep; all the things of nature have fallen asleep with him, an expression
of eternity on their faces—so it seems to him. He wants nothing, he frets
about nothing, his heart stands still, only his eyes are alive—it is a death
with open eyes. Now the man sees much that he has never seen before,
and for as far as he can see everything is spun into a net of light, and as it
were buried in it.20
The world as a net of light, ein Lichtnetz: things of nature buried in the
light, the Earth illumined, everything dissolved into a network of
interactions—a field of dao and de.
Letting the heart stand still and not wanting anything is a way of getting
beyond the all-too-human perspective: “To think oneself away out of
humanity, to unlearn desires of all kinds: and to employ the entire abundance
of one’s powers in looking.”21 The Daoists engage in a corresponding
practice, which Zhuangzi calls “fasting the heart”—a matter of emptying
the mind of what we humans bring to our engagement with the world in the
way of prejudices and preconceptions, inclinations and aversions, all of
which get in the way of our experiencing what is actually going on. Talking
of hearing rather than seeing (which Nietzsche as an “ear” rather than an
“eye” person would appreciate), Zhuangzi recommends (through the person
of “Confucius”) “coming to hear with the vital energy [qi] rather than the
heart” because “the heart is halted at whatever verifies its preconceptions.”
This fasting of the heart bypasses human prejudices and lets one experience
through the openness of qi “the presence of beings.”22
Returning to Nietzsche, another world of light, “pure and crisp,” shines
forth in another passage that evokes the mountain landscapes of the
Engadine, Et in Arcadia ego: “Even here, I [death] am.” The ground is
“bright with flowers and grasses” yet also shadowed by death, as in the
painting by Poussin that Nietzsche alludes to. He describes a scene of beauty
that “made one shudder and mutely worship the moment of its revelation,”
a “pure, crisp world of light, in which there was no longing, expecting, or
looking forward and back.”23 Another “enjoyable horror,” a shudder in the
face of light—reminiscent of the shuddering and divine delight that Lucretius
experienced on understanding Epicurus’ vision of natural activity going on
throughout the void.24
But how is it that the everyday world seems so much more substantial
than light most of the time, so full of things, some of which can get in the
way? It’s a matter of where our attention is: on figures (things we have to
cope with to survive) or ground (the background contexts). The Zhuangzi’s
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take on this is succinctly summed up by Brook Ziporyn in the Introduction

to his translation, and in distinctly phenomenological terms:
Our attention is directed away from the foreground purposes of human

activity and toward the background, that is, what normally escapes our
purpose-driven awareness. This move reorients our focus toward the
spontaneous and purposeless processes in nature and man that undergird
and produce things, begin things, end things, compose the stuff of things,
and guide things along their courses by not deliberately guiding them
at all.25
It’s a matter of broadening our perspectives, expanding the “natural

light” (lumen naturale) of human understanding to become co-extensive
with what Zhuangzi calls the “broad light of Heaven.”26 Viewing things in
this light lets us see them impartially, since the light of Heaven is above all
indifferent to what it illuminates. But how would such a broadening of
perspective work in Nietzsche’s case?
4. Driving Reality

A year after writing of his experience of the “net of light” Nietzsche remarks
that we tend to get caught in a very different net, imprisoned by the restricted
range of our sense-apparatus, its location in a particular place, and the
projections of our minds.
The habits of our senses have woven us into the lies and deceptions of
sense-perception . . . from which there is no escaping, no hidden bypaths
into the actual world! We are in our own nets, we spiders, and whatever
we may catch in it, we cannot catch anything that does not allow itself to
be caught in our own net.27
As spiders we spin webs of concepts from our own mental substance and
project them into the world—also images, schemata, narratives, categories,
persons—where they support the fleeting stuff of our lives and lend it some
kind of structure, providing some measure of regularity on which we can
depend.
In a context where preconceptions prevent us from being flexible in the
perspectives we entertain, and in the uses for things that we envision,
Zhuangzi describes this situation as “a lot of tangled weeds clogging up the
mind.” He uses similar terms to characterize the obscuring effects of notions
of right and wrong, and ingrained Confucian virtues such as humaneness
and responsibility—effects that Nietzsche would also regard as restrictive.
In one of the Zhuangzi’s Outer chapters there’s the question: “What is the
use of throwing humaneness and responsibility into the midst of the Course
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[dao] and its virtuosity [de], trying to fasten everything together as if with
glue and knotted cords? All it does is cast the world into confusion.”28
Projections of moral values and attempts to fix things into some kind of
conceptual framework are fruitless exercises—because as Nietzsche as well
as Zhuangzi will say: they are already fastened together. We would see this
if we opened up and paid closer attention.
On another level of description Nietzsche highlights the crucial role of
the drives (Triebe) in constituting our experience—for example, the drives
for distinction, understanding, predominance, security, play, peace and quiet,
justice, truth, and so forth.29 On the basis of the play of nervous stimulation
on the system, the drives interpret nerve-impulses by imagining their
causes—and they do this as much, and more freely, when we are asleep and
dreaming as when we’re awake.30 In contrast to the spider’s web of dry
concepts, the play of drives produces images, and is described in terms of
images—especially of vegetation. The activity of the drives introduces a
strong dose of poetic or imaginative invention into our experience.
In one of his more incisive provocations, Nietzsche invokes the power of
past experience as he ridicules the realists’ naïve belief in their ability to be
totally objective:
That mountain there! That cloud there! What is “real” about those? Try
taking away the phantasm and the entire human contribution, you sober
ones! Yes, if only you could do that! If you could forget your heritage,
your past, your training—your entire humanity and animality! For us
there is no “reality”—nor for you either, you sober ones.31
In other words, it is impossible to extract from our current awareness

the sedimentations, accumulated over millennia, of previous animal as well
as cultural experience, impossible to escape the ways in which “some
phantasy, some prejudice, some unreason, some ignorance, some fear and
who knows what else” have woven their way into our “every feeling and
sense-impression.”
Zhuangzi would agree, but he doesn’t emphasize the archaic or historic
dimension to this contribution, in part because the weight of tradition
appears to lie less heavily on his shoulders. Yes, he was aware of the power
of tradition invoked by the Confucian thinkers who came before him, but
Nietzsche is confronted by over two millennia more of cultural development.
On the one hand Nietzsche appears to have lost touch with the net of
light and resigned himself to being caught, if not in a spider’s web of
concepts, then at least in the inventive play of interpreting drives. But on the
other, while he was composing this passage about the inevitable contribution
from our archaic heritage, he was also thinking of ways to subvert it. We
find a number of passages in his writings suggesting that it may be possible
after all to check that ancient positing, perhaps through some kind of
phenomenological epoché, and let natural phenomena like mountains and
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clouds simply show themselves, from themselves—and perhaps even as they

are in themselves?
5. Opening up the Angle

Nietzsche elaborates the idea of knowing things as they are in themselves,
rather than as human awareness construes them, in a remarkable series of
notebook entries from 1881. “The task: to see things as they are! The means:
to be able to see with a hundred eyes, from many persons!” We can adopt a
multiplicity of perspectives because we consist in a multiplicity of drives,
which often manifest themselves as inner persons. But in order to “think
oneself away out of humanity” it’s necessary to acknowledge as well the vast
inscape of the human soul, which consists in land and sea, rocks and waves,
wind and stars.32
After praising “wanting to know things as they are [as] the only good
inclination,” Nietzsche writes: “What is needed is practice in seeing with
other eyes: practice in seeing apart from human relations, and thus seeing
factually [sachlich]! To cure human beings of their delusions of grandeur!”33
If we are to “know things as they are” we have to get out of the anthropocentric
mode of approach and regard things from the perspective of the thing
itself—die Sache selbst. To see sachlich is to see from the viewpoint of
the thing in the sense of “the matter,” the affair, the concern, the whole
situation.
Zhuangzi appreciates not only the benefits of seeing with other eyes but
also of fluttering with other wings, swimming with other fins, and waving
one’s boughs in the winds. Stories of talking animals, insects, and even trees
abound in the Zhuangzi, and invite us to entertain the perspectives of other
inhabitants of the world. The “free and easy wandering” of the opening
chapter involves a play of transformations and a dance through diverse
perspectives. We tend to get stuck in the human perspective because the
heart “is halted at whatever verifies its preconceptions.”34
Nietzsche suggests in a similar vein that “we only see what we’re familiar
with,” and that the greater part of what we see “is not a sense-impression
but a product of fantasy.” This highlights the unnoticed role of the imagining
drives in the play of the world that is our experience: they make much of it
up as we go along. Practice in seeing with other eyes weakens the sense of
the ego, unsettling the faith that it’s I who own the show or me who runs it.
If we can free the I from what Nietzsche calls the self-deception of possession,
we can come to “recognize the affinities and antagonisms among things,
multiplicities therefore and their laws.”35 That would really be something to
recognize, those four items. And affinities and antagonisms among the
myriad things are exactly what the ancient Chinese thinkers were concerned
to understand, articulating such patterns in images of Yin and Yang, as
exemplified especially in the Yijing 易經, or Book of Changes.
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Nietzsche apparently stayed with the idea of “seeing with other eyes”
through to his later work, as exemplified by the often-cited sentence from
On the Genealogy of Morality:
There is only a perspectival seeing, only a perspectival “knowing”; the

more affects we are able to put into words about a thing, the more eyes,
various eyes we are able to use for the same thing, the more complete will
be our “concept” of the thing, our “objectivity.”
That makes sense. But if we forget about concepts and the intellect that
employs them, can’t we attain a complete experience of things as they are?
A reason to suppose that we can is Zarathustra’s saying, at “Midday,” that
“The world is complete.”36 So how does it get that way?
To be a good “student of nature,” Nietzsche writes in The Joyous Science,
one needs to “get out of one’s human corner” and go beyond the “one-
sided” view that sees life as “a struggle for existence,” in order to appreciate
the overflowing abundance of the natural world as “will to power.”37 To get
out of one’s Winkel is to open up the human angle on things to 360 degrees,
as it were, while somehow shifting the center so that the perspective is no
longer anthropocentric. And this is a point at which a comparison with
Zhuangzi raises a further question: yes, multiplying perspectives all around
is enlightening—but can’t we thereby go further to some kind of
perspectiveless experience?
6. The Light of Heaven

Here’s a related question, which arises from an examination of the “Equalizing
Assessments of Things” (qiwulun 齊物論) chapter of the Zhuangzi along
with the “Before the Sunrise” and “At Noon” chapters of Zarathustra: How
does the Daoist sage’s “letting all things bask in the broad daylight of
Heaven” compare with Zarathustra’s blessing, “to stand over each and every
thing as its own Heaven” and his experience of the world’s becoming
“complete—round and ripe”? Complete: vollkommen, or “perfect.”
In the Zhuangzi’s second chapter the sage is said to begin from accepting
his perspective as “this,” and then to proceed to entertain so many “that”
perspectives in relation to his own that he begins to see through the relativity
and interdependence of all “thises” and “thats.” In the end “he doesn’t proceed
from any one of them alone but instead lets them all bask in the broad
daylight of Heaven.”38 (The Chinese term for “Heaven” [tian 天] is often used
as shorthand for “Heaven and Earth,” which means the natural world. Like
Zarathustra’s Himmel it has no transcendent or otherworldly connotations.)
Zhuangzi then adds the retroflective comment: “And that too is only a
case of going by the rightness of the present this”—emphasizing that these
pronouncements about thises and thats are also made from a particular
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perspective. It’s worth noting that Nietzsche makes a similar rhetorical move
when he accuses the physicists of his day of misunderstanding the natural
world through their anthropomorphic perspective: they only see nature as
“lawful” because they project “the democratic instincts of the modern soul”
onto the object of their study. “Everywhere equality before the law!” From
his beyond-anthropocentric perspective Nietzsche understands the natural
world as “will to power,” as having a “necessary” and “predictable” course
[Verlauf], not because laws reign in it but because laws are absolutely absent,
and every power draws its ultimate consequence in every moment.
Every particular thing or process, as a configuration of interpreting will
to power, is at every moment construing all other things and is the product
of their manifold interactions. The Daoist sage would understand this talk
of the course of nature as both “necessary” (which is “freedom itself,”
Zarathustra says, “blissfully playing with the thorn of freedom”) and
“predictable” (intuitively, once you understand the rhythms and cadences).39
But having dismissed the physicists’ “naïvely humanitarian” interpretation
of nature and proposed his own view of the world as will to power instead,
Nietzsche then adds this final twist: “Given that this is also only an
interpretation—and you will be eager enough to raise this objection?—well,
all the better.—”40 The last dash is there to give us time to reflect on what
he’s doing here.
Both Zhuangzi and Nietzsche say the world unfolds in an array of diverse
perspectives and interactions—and acknowledge their claims as perspectival,
though proffering not just any perspective but one that affirms the plurality
of perspectives and the possibility of entertaining that plurality. In both
cases: yes, another interpretation—but in each case so powerful as to be not
just any other interpretation. Their interpretations make good sense of
what’s going on—but on the understanding that it’s in the nature of
interpretations to be superseded. After all, the secret of life as will to power,
which the figure of Life herself intimates to Zarathustra, is this: that she is
“that which must always overcome itself.”41
Returning to “the broad daylight of Heaven”: the Daoist sage goes along
with the play of perspectives it reveals, “using various rights and wrongs to
harmonize with others and yet remaining at rest in the center of the Potter’s
Wheel of Heaven.” Zhuangzi explains what’s going on here by elaborating
the image:
When “this” and “that”—right and wrong—are no longer coupled as

opposites—that is called the Course as Axis, the axis of all courses. When
this axis finds its place in the center of the ring, it responds to all the
endless things it confronts, thwarted by none.42
The “Course” is Brook Ziporyn’s translation of dao, or “Way,” and so it’s

a matter of finding the axis of the Way things are unfolding, some kind of
still center in the cyclical patterning of events and processes.
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The same point can be made with reference to the other great classic of
philosophical Daoism—the Daodejing—which uses the image of a cartwheel:
“Thirty spokes are united in one hub. It is in its emptiness that the usefulness
of the cart resides.”43 Just as a wheel can only rotate if its center is empty
(otherwise you’d only have a disc or a potter’s wheel), so the world can go
round, and things come and go in cyclical fashion, only thanks to emptiness
within it. We generally experience through perspectives on the rim of the
wheel, as it were, and often fail to appreciate that with a turn of the world—
in a day, or a year, or a sequence of years in a lifetime—we can find ourselves
on the opposite side, where “there” has become “here,” and “that” has
become “this.” Most experience affords this opportunity, and with practice
we realize there’s a point in the middle from where we can appreciate both.
If it’s a circle cycling, the calmest place is the center—as long as you rotate
on your axis.
After extension and expansion to the peripheries, this withdrawal to the
center, the axis of the Course, the still point of the turning world (where the
dance takes place), allows us to go beyond our customary, restricted, all-too-
human perspectives, and get a sense of the whole. Not a transcendence to a
God’s-eye view, nor a view from everywhere or nowhere, this drive to the
heart of things, or withdrawal to the center, may let us see “the world from
the inside,” as Nietzsche puts it when he writes of “the world as will to
power—and nothing besides.”
The Daoist sage is wise thanks in part to his virtuosity in changing
perspectives. In one of his last works, Nietzsche congratulates himself on
a corresponding ability, acquired through long practice, to “switch
perspectives.”44 And just as the sage can let all those perspectives bask in
that way because he has made himself “one with Heaven,” so Zarathustra
“Before the Sunrise” is on the deck of a ship out on the open sea, where the
horizon affords the greatest expanse of sky—so vast as to be absorbing. By
casting himself up into the light-abyss of the sky he is able to merge with his
“friend,” with which he has so many things “in common.” Here and in “At
Midday” depth and height “are no longer coupled as opposites” but come
together in a coincidentia oppositorum.
7. Before the Sunrise

Zarathustra rises before dawn to speak to the sky all around him, addressing
it as a familiar: “O Heaven above me, so pure! so deep! You abyss of light!
Beholding you I shudder with godlike desires.”45 His own depth, he tells
Heaven, comes from casting himself up into the height of the sky. Opposites
can now come together, in part because no Heavenly bodies are visible: no
sky Gods—nor even one God—no providential forces loom behind or
beyond.
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“You do not speak,” Zarathustra remarks: this is how Heaven reveals its
“wisdom.” Openness and reticence are likewise a central characteristic of
Heaven in the Chinese philosophical tradition. Early on, when a student of
Confucius asked him why he wished he didn’t have to speak, the Master
replied: “Does Heaven ever speak? And yet the four seasons turn and the
myriad creatures are born and grow within it. Does Heaven ever speak?”46
The reticence of the Chinese Heaven comes from its impartiality: it casts
its light, not to mention rain, evenly on all things. A remarkable feature of
the pre-dawn sky (also true of post-sunset dusk) is the quality of light in the
absence of direct sun: more so than on an overcast day, things appear to
shine with their own light. When they are illuminated by the sun (symbol of
the Idea of the Good) the light always comes from a particular direction,
making one side of things bright and leaving the other in shadow. This
would correspond in the Zhuangzi to perspectives that afford us a “this”
and a “that.” By contrast the illumination of the pre-dawn sky is uniform
and without directionality: no bias, no light casting dark shadow, and
instead of exclusive opposites a smooth continuum.
Rising into the light-abyss of Heaven, Zarathustra reaches the ranks of
those who “bless”:
And this is my blessing: to stand over each and every thing as its own
Heaven, as its round roof, its azure bell and eternal security: and blessed
is he who blesses thus!
For all things are baptized at the fount of eternity and beyond good
and evil.
With respect to each particular thing that he encounters, Zarathustra

stands as impartially and non-judgmentally as Heaven stands to him when
he is open to it. When we deal with things from the perspective of utility, we
confine them and restrict their possibilities. But Zarathustra’s new stance
lets things be what they are, insofar as he frees and “redeems them from
their bondage under Purpose.”
Verily, a blessing it is and no blasphemy when I teach: “Over all things

stands the Heaven Accident, the Heaven Innocence, the Heaven
Contingency, the Heaven Exuberance.”
Zarathustra is able to stand as Heaven over things together with these

four other liberating Heavens because he is one with them: Heavens are like
horizons in being non-obstructive.
Zarathustra calls Heaven “a dance-floor for Divine accidents,” showing
his stance to be dynamic rather than static: he realizes that things chafe
under the yoke of determination by something other than themselves and
want instead “to dance on the feet of chance.” The Daoist thinkers call this
freedom from necessity ziran 自然, “so of themselves,” spontaneous, or—
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because it’s a dynamic condition—“self-so-ing.” It’s significant that in

modern Chinese (and Japanese) this is the term chosen to translate the
English word “nature.”47
There’s a story in the Zhuangzi that anticipates Zarathustra’s point in
almost a mirror-image. It’s a retelling of the ancient tale of how one day,
when ten suns rose in the sky at once and threatened to scorch the Earth, the
mythical sage-ruler Yao saved the world by having nine of them shot down
by the legendary archer Yi. Since the sun is sometimes said to “govern”
humans, the idea is that ten rulers are too many and one is best. But Zhuangzi
turns it around: “Once upon a time, ten suns rose in the sky at once, and the
ten thousand things were all simultaneously illuminated. And how much
better are many virtuosities than many suns?” Multiple de’s means many
perspectives, as well as sages who entertain them.
The Confucian philosopher Wang Fuzhi 王夫之 (1619–92) commented:
“When the ten suns shone, there was no this and that, no large and small,
no right and wrong.” And Ziporyn could almost be referring to Nietzsche
when he notes:
Yao thinks ten different standards of “rightness” will lead to chaos—

there must be a single unified truth, a single ruler. Zhuangzi here allows
all things their own rightness—and thereby there will be all the more
illumination, with each thing its own sun.
A few episodes later in the Zhuangzi, there is this description of the sage:
He is there taking part in the diversity of ten thousand harvests, but in

each he tastes one and the same purity of fully formed maturation. For to
him each thing is just so, each thing is right, and so he enfolds them all
within himself by affirming the rightness of each.48
—Again turning out to be just like Zarathustra, who realized early on there
was no point in wasting his time with followers: “Companions the creator
seeks, and fellow harvesters: for all that is with him stands ripe for the
harvest. But the hundred sickles are lacking.”49 And Zarathustra later affirms
the rightness of all things on the grounds of their being “beyond good and
evil.”
“Before the Sunrise” ends with Heaven’s blushing and Zarathustra’s
realizing that the pre-dawn sky is about to disappear, to give way to day and
its light. It’s then that he says: “The world is deep—and deeper than ever the
day has thought.”50 The day and life perspectives reveal things we need to
know to get through, to make it; while the night and death perspectives—
deeper because they reveal the underworld we inhabit nightly in our dreams
and dreamless sleep—complement and complete our experience. They
round it out. Just as in the Zhuangzi, where life and death are often said to
belong together, and waking life and dream are interchangeable.51
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Images of roundness, ripeness, and stillness abound in a chapter of

Zarathustra “At Midday,” which is a reprise of the themes in the earlier “At
Midday” and invokes the God Dionysus as well as Pan. Speaking
hypnagogically to his own soul, Zarathustra says:
Do not sing! Still! The world is complete . . . a moment’s glance [Augen-
Blick]—a little makes for the best happiness. What? Did the world not
just become complete? Round and ripe? Oh the golden round hoop—
whither does it fly? . . . Still! Did the world not just become complete? Oh
the golden round ball!52
The golden round hoop is a larger version of the ring of eternal recurrence,
which is generated by those moments when life assumes such fullness that
one can want it to come around again, and innumerable times again. If you
can get into the gateway of the moment the right way—behind which “all
things have happened, and been done, and passed by already”—you realize
that “all things are fastened together so tightly that this moment draws after
it all things that are to come.”53 And so by affirming this moment, you are in
a position to affirm all things.
There’s a passage in the Zhuangzi that resonates with the Potter’s Wheel
of Heaven image discussed earlier, and seems strangely to anticipate
Nietzsche’s thought of eternal recurrence. In the course of a description of
the sage, who “gets through to the intertwining of things, so that everything
forms a single body around him,” the text invokes the intense joy of
contemplating “the old homeland, the old neighborhood.” (Perhaps also a
matter of realizing one’s original nature.) And how much greater the joy “if
you could still see what you had once seen and hear what you had once
heard there”—which could happen if those moments came around again, if
they recurred. How this might happen is suggested by a reversion to the sage
who “found the center of the ring”:
He brought himself to completion by following along with things, staying

right there with them no matter how they ended or began, no matter
what their impulse or season. It is the one who constantly changes
together with all things who is always one and unchanging—when has he
ever had to abandon them for even a moment?54
When the center of the ring was found back in the second chapter of the
Zhuangzi, the Axis of the Way was able “to respond to all the endless things
it confronts, thwarted by none.”
The center of the ring can accommodate the axis and its endless turning
because it’s empty, and we can find a place there only if we are empty of
tangled weeds and conceptual clutter. The Zhuangzi suggests that you know
you’ve fasted the heart well enough if what moves you to activity is not your
self, but the forces of Heaven and Earth moving through the body unimpeded.
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Here are the final pieces of advice concerning the practice of dealing with
things—and people—after emptying the mind:
Concentrate on the hollows of what is before you, and the empty chamber
within you will generate its own brightness. Good fortune comes to roost
in stillness. To lack this stillness is called scurrying around even when
sitting down . . . This is the transformation of all things, the hinge on
which [the sage-emperors of old] used to move.
As one of the Outer chapters advises: “Let your body be moved only by
the totality of things.”55 Paying attention to the openness that’s before us is a
matter of realizing that things are empty of essences, that they are what they
are only in relation to others and thanks to “the affinities and antagonisms”
among them. Just as one can scurry around even when sitting down, one can
also, with practice, stay still while moving about. The benefits of finding still
points are praised in the Daodejing as well as the Zhuangzi. And to get in
touch with our inner stillness, it helps to sit still for a while every now and
then. A few words, then, on practice, before we conclude.
8. Methods and Practices

As is usual for East-Asian philosophies, the ideas in the Zhuangzi are rooted
in certain kinds of physical or somatic practice.56 There are allusions in the
text to breathing techniques, but the main task is “fasting of the heart”
(xinzhai 心齋), emptying it and keeping it empty of all the mental and
emotional furniture that obstructs the flow of experience. The practitioner
also learns, whether through meditation or the consummate practice of
crafts, to experience not through the senses and the heart-mind but rather
through qi energies.57 The practices thus range along a spectrum from
“passive” (as in sitting still) to active (as in carving awesomely beautiful
bell-stands).
Nietzsche engaged in corresponding practices at either end of this
spectrum: vigorous and prolonged hiking in the open air on the one hand,
and what he calls “incubation” on the other. Incubation was the practice, in
the cult of the divine healer Asclepius, of sleeping in sacred places in order
to receive a dream, the interpretation of which would cure one’s ills. In
Nietzsche’s case his migraine headaches would put him indoors and flat out
on his back, often for three days at a stretch. “The poor guy,” people often
say, but here’s what he himself had to say about this affliction.
Illness gradually liberated me, cleaning me out . . . Illness likewise gave
me the right to a complete change in my habits . . . it bestowed on me the
needfulness to lie still, to be idle, to wait and be patient . . . But that’s
what is called thinking!58
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There’s a good deal of lying still in the Nietzschean philosophical corpus,

especially in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, where the protagonist is laid out flat
before each intimation of the thought of eternal recurrence. Yes, Nietzsche
thought best, perhaps, with the body in vigorous motion, but also when
immobile and supine.
At the active end of the spectrum was Nietzsche’s hiking—or marching,
he often called it—“six to eight hours” in the open air, a meditative exercise
that emptied and opened out the mind and smoothed the body into energetic
flow. He reports that his greatest creativity came when the muscles were
working at their most supple pitch, such that the body is experienced not as
recalcitrant matter but as a dynamic configuration of energies.59
The point of the preceding exercise has not been to deny the harder or
harsher aspects of Nietzsche’s thought, but rather to show how the
comparison with Zhuangzi highlights complementary aspects of “harmony”
and “interconnection” in Nietzsche’s thought that are often overlooked.
Restrictions of space and time permit no more than a brief look at how the
comparison can reveal, conversely, the “creative” aspect to Zhuangzi’s
philosophy, which is often regarded as calmly reflective and quietistic.
9. Creative Experience

When we ask what kinds of experience are the basis of an interpretation of
the world as will to power or a field of dao and de, there comes a point
where the views of Nietzsche and the Daoists appear to diverge. The Daoist
sage practices fasting the heart and emptying the mind so that he can reflect
the actual ongoing situation without distortion. And for Nietzsche, “seeing
apart from human relations” and from a “death” perspective can lead to
“knowing things as they are.” But then what are we to make of Nietzsche’s
occasional praise of creative experience and repudiation of “mirror”-like
perception?
In a chapter of Zarathustra titled “On Immaculate Perception” (or
“Understanding”), the protagonist appears in a rather un-Daoist light when
he ridicules those philosophers who aspire to “the immaculate perception of
all things.” Their ultimate aspiration, he says, is
to look upon life without desire and not like a dog with its tongue
hanging out . . . To love the Earth as the moon loves her, and to touch her
beauty with the eye alone . . . [and to be able to say] “I want nothing from
things, except that I may lie there before them like a mirror with a
hundred eyes.”
Such knowers Zarathustra brands unproductive because they have lost

touch with “the unexhausted procreative life-will” that is will to power, and
are thus incapable of loving the Earth “as creators, procreators, or enjoyers
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of becoming.”60 As a conduit for the procreative life-will that is will to

power, as a conductor of the drives that play through the human body, the
Nietzschean creator contributes to the play of life through understanding
and acting.
But if, by contrast, the Daoist sage’s mind is to reflect the actual situation
without distortion, wouldn’t this prevent him from being a creator and an
enjoyer of becoming? After all, at the end of the Inner Chapters there is this
injunction:
Fully realize whatever is received from Heaven, and never have personal
gain in sight. It is just being empty, nothing more. The utmost man uses
his mind like a mirror, rejecting nothing, welcoming nothing: responding
but not storing. Thus he can handle all things without harm.61
Without harm to him or to them. As long as the mirror reflects the broad
daylight of Heaven, it impartially lets the things it reflects show themselves
as they are, rather than as the partial mind would have them be—insofar as
the partial mind rejects bad stuff and welcomes good things, and stores by
holding on.
A lot depends of course on where the utmost man situates his mirror-
mind. Think of the creativity of the great photographer, who gets the
camera in the right place at the right time, and pointing in the right direction,
before clicking the shutter. This is the registration moment of experience,
but there is also the activation moment, which makes for creativity. The
“Fathoming Life” chapter says that, if one is able to “let go of the world”
and not hold on,
you are reborn along with each presence that confronts you . . . When the
body is intact and the seminal quintessence of vitality restored, you are
one with Heaven . . . Making the quintessence of vitality still more
concentrated and quintessential, you return to the source, thereby
assisting in the operations of Heaven.62
In this way, the good Daoist can expand her awareness throughout the
whole field, and through “sympathetic resonance” (ganying 感應) get the
hang of what’s really going on.
This passage is followed by accounts of the awe-inspiring virtuosities of
a cicada catcher, a ferryman, a maker of bell-stands, a charioteer, and an
artisan. At the conclusion of these stories, a Master says of the conduct of
the Consummate Person (or Daoist sage): “This is called taking action but
not relying on it for any credit, helping things grow but not controlling
them.”63 There are of course passages in the Zhuangzi that can be cited in
favor of a more quietist reading, where the sage is detached from the human
realm. But the comparison with Nietzsche reveals a more engaged aspect of
the philosophy, where the sage practices non-attachment rather than
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detachment. I find this aspect more appealing, and more relevant, because
the way things are going these days, they need all the help we can give them.
The last sentence of Parkes (1983) trusts that “at least a few steps have
been made along the way of the wandering dance.” The Dionysian move out
of oneself, and into other persons and things of nature, requires a “lightness
of foot” that’s attuned to the music of the world. As Zarathustra says, “the
dancer has his ear—deep down in his toes!”64 Zhuangzi, wandering freely
among diverse perspectives, is foremost among those few well-attuned
thinkers who were able to go beyond talking the talk, and even walking the
walk, to dancing the dance—in the light of the Heavens above and around.
Notes
1 Friedrich Nietzsche, The Joyous Science, 339 (KSA, 3: 569). Translations of
Nietzsche’s texts are my own, for the sake of preserving the imagery.
References to the published works are by section number, so that the passages
can be found in any edition, followed by the volume and page number of the
Kritische Studienausgabe (KSA) of the collected works. References to the
unpublished notes are in the KSA, by volume and page number, and to the
letters in the Kritische Studienausgabe of the Briefe (KSB).
2 The last syllables of both names rhyme with the last syllable of “feature”
without the “r” sound, rather than with “(kim)chee.” In citations I have
changed Wade-Giles romanization to Pinyin for the sake of consistency.
3 Nietzsche, letter to Heinrich Köselitz, May 31, 1888 (KSB, 8: 325); The
Antichristian, 32.
4 Laozi, Lao-Tse’s Tao Te King (Leipzig: Fleischer Verlag, 1870), xxxii–xxxvii;
see also the commentary to the first chapter on page 3.
5 Graham Parkes, “The Wandering Dance: Zhuangzi and Zarathustra,”
Philosophy East and West, 33.3 (1983): 237.
6 Zhuangzi, Zhuangzi: The Essential Writings with Selections from Traditional
Commentaries Brook Ziporyn (trans.) (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing,
2009), 22 (86); Nietzsche, KSA, 11.610 = Will to Power, 1067 (1885).
References to the Zhuangzi are to the chapter, followed by the page in Brook
Ziporyn’s translation in parentheses.
7 Zhuangzi, Essential Writings, 22 (86).
8 Parkes, “The Wandering Dance,” 240.
9 Nietzsche, Zarathustra, 1:15, “On the Thousand Goals and One.” For more on
will to power as interpretation, see xxi–xxii.
10 Parkes, “The Wandering Dance,” 246–7.
11 Roger Ames, “Nietzsche’s ‘Will to Power’ and Chinese ‘Virtuality’ (De): A
Comparative Study,” in Nietzsche and Asian Thought, ed. Graham Parkes
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 133, 134 (emphasis added), 136.
12 Ibid., 143–4.
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13 Laurence Lampert, Nietzsche’s Task: An Interpretation of Beyond Good and

Evil (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), 41.
14 Nietzsche, The Joyous Science, 374. In German he asks “ob nicht alles Dasein
essentiell ein auslegendes Dasein ist.”
15 Ames, “Nietzsche’s ‘Will to Power’,” 147, citing Beyond Good and Evil, 259.
16 Ibid., 146–8.
17 Nietzsche, KSA, 11.610 = Will to Power, 1067, 1885. (I’m admittedly
enhancing the resonances with Daoism by rendering the word Kraft as
“energy” rather than “force.”)
18 Nietzsche, Letters, B4: 441, 430. Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, C.R. Haines
(trans.), (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1916), 12.26.
19 Nietzsche, Dawn of Morning, 31; The Wanderer and His Shadow, 338.
Nietzsche also writes of how closely related he feels to the landscape in several
of the letters he sent to family and friends during his first stay in the Engadine
(June–September 1879). See also WHS 14, 17, 51, 57, 115, 138, 176, 205, 295,
308, and 332.
20 Nietzsche, The Wanderer and His Shadow, 308.
21 Nietzsche, KSA, 9: 454.
22 Zhuangzi, 4 (26–7).
23 Nietzsche, The Wanderer and His Shadow, 295. The aphorism’s title comes
from a painting by Poussin, Les bergers d’Arcadie, showing a group of
Arcadian shepherds examining the inscription Et in Arcadia ego on a
sarcophagus. An earlier version has a skull on top of the sarcophagus, but here
a shepherd points instead to the shadow of his companion’s head. Available
online at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et_in_Arcadia_ego
24 Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, 3.15–30; translation in Pierre Hadot, Philosophy
as a Way of Life (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1995), 88.
25 Zhuangzi, “Translator’s Introduction,” xv.
26 Zhuangzi, 2 (12).
27 Nietzsche, Dawn of Morning, 117. He first uses the spider’s web image in
connection with Parmenides in his long essay on the Presocratic thinkers (KSA,
1: 844), and in “On Truth and Lie in the Extramoral Sense” (KSA, 1: 882, 885).
28 Zhuangzi, 1 (8), 2 (18).
29 Some drives Nietzsche mentions in works from the so-called middle period: the
drive to contradict; drive for justice, drive for truth, curiosity, fear of boredom,
resentment, vanity, the drive to play (the Untimely Meditation on History,
section 6); drive for security (The Wanderer and His Shadow, 16); drive for
preponderance (Übergewicht) (31); drive to be sociable (70); the same drive:
cowardice/humility (Dawn of Morning, 38); the drive to understand (45); the
drive for calm, fear of shame, love (109); the drive for distinction (113).
30 Nietzsche, Dawn of Morning, 117. For a detailed discussion of the nature and
function of the drives, see chapter 8 of Graham Parkes, Composing the Soul:
Reaches of Nietzsche’s Psychology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1994).
36138.indb 81 03/09/2019 11:16

31 Nietzsche, The Joyous Science, 57.

32 Nietzsche, KSA, 9: 466, 9: 454. For a description of Nietzsche’s inscapes, see
Parkes, Composing the Soul, chapter 4.
33 Nietzsche, KSA, 9: 443–4.
34 Zhuangzi, 4 (26). We hear, for example, a talking cicada and turtle-dove in
chapter 1 (4), and a talking tree in chapter 4 (30).
35 Nietzsche, KSA, 9: 445–6, 9: 450–1.
36 Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morality, 3.12; Zarathustra, 4.10, “At
Midday.”
37 Nietzsche, The Joyous Science, 349.
38 Nietzsche, Ecce Homo, “Why I am so Wise,” 1. Zhuangzi, 2 (12). For “one
with Heaven” see Zhuangzi, 19 (77), “Fathoming Life.”
39 Nietzsche, Zarathustra, 3.12, “On Old and New Tablets,” 2.
40 Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, 36.22.
41 Nietzsche, Zarathustra, 3.12, “On Self-Overcoming.”
42 Zhuangzi, 2 (12), 19 (77).
43 Laozi, Daodejing, 11. Hans-Georg Moeller has elucidated the significance of the
cartwheel image in Hans-Georg Moeller, Daoism Explained: From the Dream
of the Butterfly to the Fishnet Allegory (La Salle: Open Court, 2004), 27–35.
44 Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morality, 3.12; Ecce Homo, “Why I am So
Wise,” 1. The German for switching perspectives is Perspektiven umstellen, to
turn them round or reverse them.
45 Nietzsche, Zarathustra, 3.4, “Before the Sunrise.”
46 Confucius, Analects, 17.19.
47 I discuss this topic in Graham Parkes, “Zhuangzi and Nietzsche on the Human
in Nature,” Environmental Philosophy, 10.1 (2013): 1–24.
48 Zhuangzi, 2 (17); Ziporyn, 17n24; Zhuangzi, 2 (19).
49 Nietzsche, Zarathustra, Prologue, section 9.
50 “The world is deep” prefigures Zarathustra, 3.15, “The Other Dance-Song”
(section 3).
51 Life and death: Zhuangzi chapters 1, 5, 6, 22, 23, and 25; dream and waking:
2 (numerous discussions) and 6.
52 Nietzsche, Zarathustra, 4.10, “At Midday.”
53 Nietzsche, The Joyous Science, 341; Zarathustra, 3.2, “On the Vision and the
Riddle.”
54 Zhuangzi, 25 (108).
55 Ibid., 4 (27), 23 (99).
56 See Graham Parkes, “Awe and Humility in the Face of Things: Somatic Practice
in East-Asian Philosophies,” European Journal for Philosophy of Religion, 4.3
(2012): 69–88.
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58 Nietzsche, Ecce Homo, “Why I write such good books,” “Human,

All-Too-Human,” 4.
59 Nietzsche, Ecce Homo, “Why I Write such Good Books,” “Thus Spoke
Zarathustra,” 4.
60 Nietzsche, Zarathustra, 2.12, “On Self-Overcoming”; 2.15, “On Immaculate
Perception.”
62 Ibid., 19 (77) (emphasis added).
63 Ibid., 19 (83).
64 Nietzsche, Zarathustra, 3.15, “The Other Dance-Song.”
References
Ames, Roger. (1991), “Nietzsche’s ‘Will to Power’ and Chinese ‘Virtuality’ (De): A
Comparative Study,” in Nietzsche and Asian Thought, Graham Parkes (ed.),
130–50, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hadot, Pierre. (1995), Philosophy as a Way of Life, Michael Chase (trans.),
Cambridge: Blackwell.
Lampert, Laurence. (2001), Nietzsche’s Task: An Interpretation of Beyond Good
and Evil, New Haven: Yale University Press.
Laozi. (1870), Lao-Tse’s Tao Te King. Victor von Strauss (trans.), Leipzig: Fleischer
Verlag.
Laozi. (2007), Daodejing. Hans-Georg Moeller (trans.), La Salle: Open Court
Publishing.
Moeller, Hans-Georg. (2004), Daoism Explained: From the Dream of the Butterfly
to the Fishnet Allegory, La Salle: Open Court Publishing.
Nietzsche, Friedrich. (1980), Sämtliche Werke: Kritische Studienausgabe, München:
de Gruyter.
Nietzsche, Friedrich. (1986), Sämtliche Briefe: Kritische Studienausgabe, München:
de Gruyter.
Nietzsche, Friedrich. (2005), Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for Everyone and
Nobody. Graham Parkes (trans.), Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Parkes, Graham. (1983), “The Wandering Dance: Zhuangzi and Zarathustra,”
Philosophy East and West, 33.3: 235–50.
Parkes, Graham, ed. (1991), Nietzsche and Asian Thought, Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Parkes, Graham. (1994), Composing the Soul: Reaches of Nietzsche’s Psychology,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Parkes, Graham. (2012), “Awe and Humility in the Face of Things: Somatic
Practice in East-Asian Philosophies,” European Journal for Philosophy of
Religion, 4.3: 69–88.
Parkes, Graham. (2013), “Zhuangzi and Nietzsche on the Human in Nature,”
Environmental Philosophy, 10.1: 1–24.
36138.indb 83 03/09/2019 11:16

Zhuangzi. (2009), Zhuangzi: The Essential Writings with Selections from
Traditional Commentaries, Brook Ziporyn (trans.), Indianapolis: Hackett
Publishing.
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PART TWO
Early Encounters:
Nourishing the
Sprouts of
Possibility
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36138.indb 86 03/09/2019 11:16
4
The Pre-objective and the
Primordial:
Elements of a Phenomenological
Reading of Zhuangzi
Kwok-Ying Lau
1. Anti-Rationalist, Skeptic, or Mystic:

Is Zhuangzi Unintelligible?
The eminent Western scholar of Chinese Philosophy A.C. Graham presents
Zhuangzi as an “anti-rationalist,” albeit a “great” one.1 To Graham,
Zhuangzi’s entire intellectual effort consists in nothing other than conducting
an “assault on reason” and “dismiss[ing] reason for the immediate experience
of an undifferentiated world, transforming ‘all are one’ from a moral to a
mystical affirmation.”2 One of the arguments Graham puts forward to
substantiate his diagnosis of Zhuangzi as an anti-rationalist is that this pre-
Qin Daoist philosopher always refuses to practice rational thought by
means of analytic thinking. As Graham sees it, one of Zhuangzi’s persistent
thoughts is that “in accepting what fits in with one’s ideas as ‘this’ and
rejecting what does not, analytic thinking lights up only a lesser whole
around the thinker and casts the rest into darkness.”3 Graham explains
further his rather pejorative diagnosis of Zhuangzi in the following terms:
that this pre-Qin Daoist philosopher
shares that common and elusive feeling that the whole is more than the
sum of its parts, that analysis always leaves something out, that neither
side of the dichotomy is wholly true.4
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Thus he sums up Zhuangzi’s whole doctrine as skepticism.5 This diagnosis

of Zhuangzi has received a large following among scholars who plunge into
the difficult text known as the Zhuangzi 莊子.6
For me, to label Zhuangzi as an anti-rationalist, skeptic, and even a
mystic, is nothing surprisingly new. The Zhuangzi has always been presented
in such a manner by its Western readership.7 To defend rational thinking is
the vocation of a philosopher; however, is Graham’s understanding of
rational thinking as a somewhat narrowly defined form of analytic thinking
not too exclusive? When he criticizes Zhuangzi of holding the view that
“the whole is more than the sum of its parts,” is he aware of the fact that
Gestalt theories since the first decades of the twentieth century have shown
precisely the truthfulness of what he thinks as absurdity? Taking into
account the basic structural components of elementary perception, namely
the differential relation between the figure and the ground of a perceptual
object, the whole is precisely greater than the summation of its parts. And
the acknowledgment of this kind of perceptual truth gives rise to the
acknowledgment that the logic of perception as a logic of perceptual
meaning is irreducible to the logic of physical properties as a logic of
mathematical summation.
The most well-known illustrative examples of Gestalt psychology (i.e.,
lines of Müller-Lyer; figures of multistability) reveal the following stunning
truth: that one identical geometric figure can give rise to two entirely
different perceptual objects with two different perceptual meanings. This
discovery of Gestalt theories leads to the discovery of the pre-objective order
of things, an order which goes beyond, or more precisely beneath the order
of empirical visible objects: the perceptual field is not formed by the simple
addition or juxtaposition of physical elements. It is rather structured by the
two heterogeneous elements of the figure and the ground. It is only upon
this phenomenal field, which is itself not of the order of the visible object,
that any empirical object can come to appearance and be visible to the
naked eye. The pre-objective order is an order of things which organizes
itself into meaningful appearances prior to the active intervention or
interpretation of the reflective perceiving subject. Thus this is an order of
things incomprehensible to objective thought, the mode of thinking prevalent
in modern scientific and positivistic thought, which relies on formal logical
deduction and judgment of the reflective knowing subject on empirical
visible objects. The truth of Gestalt theories has been acknowledged by
Edmund Husserl, the father of modern phenomenology, in his Logical
Investigations of 1900–18 and by Maurice Merleau-Ponty in his
Phenomenology of Perception of 1945.9 In his magnum opus, Merleau-
Ponty seeks to go deeper than the level of objective thought in order
to understand in its fuller extent the operation of rational thinking and, at
the same time, the works of great thinkers such as those of Husserl.
While some commentators have seriously criticized Husserl, Merleau-Ponty
defended him against those who applied a so-called objective critique
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of Husserl’s doctrine by subjecting it “to analytic observation or out-of-

context thinking.”10 This latter attitude is positivistic in nature, an attitude
which “requires the meaning of [a man’s] work to be wholly positive and
by rights susceptible to an inventory which sets forth what is and is not in
those works.”11 To Merleau-Ponty, by adopting a purely positivistic
and analytic attitude one will end up destroying the heritage of Husserl the
thinker. On the example of Merleau-Ponty with regard to the works of
Husserl, we would like to adopt a similar attitude toward the works
of Zhuangzi in order to understand them philosophically. In the rest of this
chapter we will attempt a phenomenological approach to the reading of
the Zhuangzi text in order to go into the pre-objective order of things
to which we think that this text conveys us. By proposing such a reading,
we hope to render Zhuangzi more comprehensible to a contemporary
reader.
2. Epoché: From Getting Rid of Prejudice to

“Fasting of the Mind” and “Sit and Forget”
What does it mean by adopting a phenomenological approach with regard
to a famous classical text such as the Zhuangzi? It means first of all that we
are guided by the motto “going back to the things themselves” and follow
strictly the principle of description prior to interpretation.12 In concrete
terms we carry out the epoché, i.e., suspension of judgment with regard to
any prejudice and any unexamined thesis about these texts, be they a result
of traditional or modern authoritative exegetes, prior to our own
examination.13 We let the texts speak for themselves and describe what they
reveal to us in a language as close and faithful as possible to the state of
affairs thus revealed.14 In this regard, we find that the opening paragraph of
chapter 2 (qiwulun 齊物論) of the Zhuangzi shows precisely that the author
of this text advocates a critical attitude with regard to those who pronounce
their opinions on cognitive and moral issues in an irresponsible manner. To
Zhuangzi it is simply impossible to attain truth for all those who profess a
cognitive judgment (affirmative or negative about a state of affairs) or a
moral judgment (that an action is just or unjust) if they remain in the pre-
reflective mundane attitude of everyday life. Zhuangzi guards us against the
attitude of upholding unexamined prejudices which is prevalent in our pre-
reflective everyday life. Let us listen to Zhuangzi:
If we follow our prejudices and take them as our guide [or teacher], who
will not have his own guide [or teacher]? Why should only those who are
intelligent enough to know the laws of change by heart maintain their
own guiding principle? The foolish do the same thing. If one makes an
affirmation or a negation prior to the judgment by the cognitive mind, it
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is just as [absurd as] saying that one sets out for the Southern lands today
but arrived there yesterday. To do so is to make something out of nothing.
Making something out of nothing is a state of affairs that even the sage
Yu is unable to understand. How could I alone make sense of it?15
At the outset of considering whether ordinary opinions can attain truth,

Zhuangzi makes a preliminary distinction between two kinds of attitude
held respectively by the foolish and the wise man. The wise man possesses
knowledge of the laws of change by heart whereas the foolish does not.
While the wise man lets himself be guided by the reflective judgment
conducted by the exercise of his faculty of cognition in accordance with the
laws of change, i.e., the laws of nature, the foolish lets himself be guided by
prejudices. The attitude of the wise man is reflective, while that of the foolish
is unreflective which leads to absurdities. Here Zhuangzi announces a first
principle for true cognition: do not let yourself be guided by prejudices
otherwise you will result in absurdities which even the sage cannot resolve.
This vigilant attitude is comparable, and arguably equivalent to, the practice
of epoché, the basic phenomenological attitude advocated by Husserl and
his phenomenological followers. With the practice of epoché there is not
only the theoretical distinction between the non-reflective attitude of natural
life and the reflective attitude as methodological guidance to true knowledge,
there is also the call for transformation of the unreflective attitude into the
reflective attitude. This self-transformation of the subject is the fruit of
the spiritual exercise of self-examination of the wise man. Wisdom or
intelligence is thus not generated nor demonstrated through a kind of formal
logical deduction, but by the practice of spiritual exercise of the subject on
herself who engages herself in critical reflections. But the term “reflection”
here has a connotation which is not merely theoretical, but also practical
and moral. In the Chinese language, theoretical reflection is fansi
反思, whereas reflection in the practical and ethical sense of the term is
fanxing 反省. The reflections brought about and highlighted by Zhuangzi
are not of the purely theoretical order, but belong to the practical and ethical
order too.
But how can we guard against our prejudices as we are always preoccupied
by all kinds of mundane practical interests in our everyday existence? The
first step is to abstain from pursuing activities motivated by mundane life
interests. Below is what Zhuangzi reports from someone who claims to have
learned the Dao (wendao 聞道) in chapter 6 (dazongshi 大宗師):
In any event, it should have been easy to teach the Dao of a sage to
someone with the ability of a sage. Still, I had to instruct him and watch
over his practice. After three days, he could get rid of all mundane
preoccupations. Once he was able to get rid of mundane preoccupations,
I continued to watch over his practice. After seven days, he was able
to remain unaffected by the concern of external things. Once he was
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able to remain unaffected by the concern of external things, I continued

to watch over his practice. After nine days, he was able to abstain
from any concern about life [and death]. Once he was able to abstain
from any concern about life [and death], he was able to achieve enlighten
ment comparable to the clarity of the morning. Achieving enlightenment
comparable to the clarity of the morning, he could then envision the
Unique. Envisioning the Unique, he could transcend [the historical time
of] past and present. Transcending [the historical time of] past and
present, he could gain access to the state of [spiritual] immortality.16
In this step-by-step progressive process of spiritual exercise in seven

stages which leads to the learned acquisition of Dao, all begins by abstaining
from the preoccupation of mundane interest. This first step leads to the
giving-up of concern over external things and hence to the liberation from
reification of the mind. Once the mind is liberated from the effect of
reification by external things, it passes onto the stage of abstention from
concern about mundane life and death which is the precondition for
enlightenment of the mind and the vision of the Unique, another name for
the Dao. The attitude of abstention from all sorts of mundane interests,
material concerns as well as concerns of the mundane life span is the attitude
of epoché with regard to all mundane life interests. It is the gateway to
enlightenment and the visioning of the Dao. The talk about “fasting of the
mind” (xinzhai 心齋) in chapter 4 (renjianshi 人間世)17 and “sit and forget”
(zuowang 坐忘) in chapter 618 should both be understood along this line:
they are practices of spiritual asceticism which, beginning by the epoché of
all mundane life interests, bring about self-transformation of the subject and
lead in turn to enlightenment and ultimately to experience of partaking of
the vision of the Dao.
“Fasting of the mind” and “sitting and forgetting” are two modes of
spiritual exercise or self-cultivation that manifest a quasi-religious attitude
of asceticism. But if these celebrated practices are quasi-religious in nature,
one may raise the following query: how can they be assimilated to the
phenomenological epoché of Husserl who has invented this methodological
device with the explicit epistemological purpose of acquisition of knowledge
with scientific rigor? In other words, how can the epoché which, in its
original form, was epistemologically oriented, be extended to a usage which
is practically and quasi-religiously oriented?
While it is true that Husserl had at the beginning understood the epoché
purely from the epistemological standpoint, his invention of this method
was first inspired by the aesthetic attitude as one that abstains from any
practical and pragmatic interest with respect to the object of aesthetic
contemplation.19 In the early 1920s, Husserl began to see that the epoché is
at the basis of the religious attitude of Buddhism, which is a quasi-
transcendental attitude. In fact, it is through the practice of prayers and
meditations that a Buddhist practitioner strives to overcome all mundane
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life interests.20 Toward the end of his life, notably in the unfinished but
important work The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental
Phenomenology, Husserl explicitly recognizes the convergence between the
phenomenological epoché and religious conversion by stating that “the total
phenomenological attitude and the epoché belonging to it are destined in
essence to effect, at first, a complete personal transformation, comparable in
the beginning to a religious conversion.”21 So there is a profound proximity
between the usage of epoché in the epistemological domain, the aesthetic
domain, as well as the religious domain in terms of their common attitude
in relation to mundane life interests: abstention or indifference. If we take
into account the fact that this attitude is also at the basis of the ascetic
attitude of Stoicism as a philosophic school prevalent in Western antiquity,
we can see that the attitude underlying the epoché is both a cross-cultural
phenomenon (as shown in Chinese pre-Qin Daoism, Indian Buddhism,
Greek-Roman Stoicism, and contemporary European phenomenology) and
a multi-domain technique of the self (technique de soi), to use the terminology
of Foucault, observable in philosophical reflection, aesthetic contemplation,
and religious practice, because all these activities necessitate a pre-requisite
process of self-transformation experienced through and through by the
subject of philosophical meditation, aesthetic appreciation and religious
askesis.
Our analyses of the Zhuangzi passages above show that the practice of
the epoché through spiritual exercise is not only a guiding principle for the
formation of true and sound cognitive judgments, it is also the condition
sine qua non for achieving enlightenment of the mind as a pre-requisite for
envisioning the Dao and gaining access to the state of spiritual immortality.
In this regard, Zhuangzi shows a great sense of rigor in terms of
methodological considerations with respect to ascertaining sound and true
cognitive judgments, as well as securing systematic execution of progressive
practical steps which lead to spiritual self-transformation as the precondition
to the learned acquisition of the Dao.22
3. Description: Return to the Pre-Objective

and the Primordial Order of Things
Though Zhuangzi is good at argumentation, as seen from his celebrated
debates with his friend Hui Shi, and subtle analysis, he always proceeds by
way of description. In the following, I will take three well-known passages
from the Zhuangzi as examples to show what is meant by the pre-objective
and the primordial order of things. They are taken respectively from the
passages about the Cook Ding in chapter 3 (yangshengzhu 養生主), about
the Wheelwright Pian in chapter 13 (tiandao 天道), and about the swimmer
in chapter 19 (dasheng 達生).
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3.1. Cook Ding’s Technique of the Self-Cultivation

Toward Perfection
Cook Ding’s technique of self-cultivation is a body-schema qua knowledge
of the pre-objective order, coincidence of the capacity to know, and the
capacity to act, integration of theory and practice:
Cook Ding was cutting up an ox for Lord Wenhui. Wherever his hand
touched, his shoulder leaned, his foot stepped, his knee nudged, the flesh
would fall away with a swishing sound. Each slice of the cleaver was right
in tune, zip zap! He danced in rhythm to the Mulberry Grove; moved in
concert with the strains of the Managing Chief. Ah, wonderful! said Lord
Wenhui, that skill can attain such heights! The cook put down his cleaver
and responded, what your servant loves is Dao, which goes beyond mere
skill. When I first began to cut oxen, what I saw was nothing but whole
oxen. After three years, I no longer saw whole oxen. Today, I meet the ox
with my spirit rather than looking at it with my eyes. My sense organs
stop functioning and my spirit moves as it pleases. In accord with the
natural grain, I slice at the great crevices, lead the blade through the great
cavities. Following its inherent structure, I never encounter the slightest
obstacle even where the veins and arteries come together or where the
ligaments and tendons join, much less from obvious big bones. A good
cook changes his cleaver once a year because he chops. An ordinary cook
changes his cleaver once a month because he hacks. Now I have been
using my cleaver for nineteen years and have cut up thousands of oxen
with it, but the blade is still as fresh as though it had just come from the
grindstone. Between the joints there are spaces, but the edge of the blade
has no thickness. Since I am inserting something without any thickness
into an empty space, there will certainly be lots of room for the blade to
play around in. That is why the blade is still as fresh as though it had just
come from the grindstone. Nonetheless, whenever I come to a complicated
spot and see that it will be difficult to handle, I cautiously restrain myself,
focus my vision, and slow my motion. With an imperceptible movement
of the cleaver, plop! and the flesh is already separated, like a clump of
earth collapsing to the ground. I stand there holding the cleaver in my
hand, look all around me with complacent satisfaction, then I wipe off
the cleaver and store it away. Wonderful! said Lord Wenhui. From hearing
the words of the cook, I have learned how to nourish life.23
In this celebrated passage, there is a widely shared understanding that it

shows Zhuangzi’s indifference and even negative attitude toward both
cognitive and moral activities, for what is essential for Zhuangzi is nurturing
life, which is a kind of practical activity in which neither the cognitive
interest nor the moral concern comes to the fore. In this regard, cognitive
and moral activities are both harmful to achieving the ultimate end of
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nurturing life. Thus it is often understood that Zhuangzi’s whole orientation

is to repress both the cognitive and the moral dimension of human activity.
Yet if we return to this famous tale in the Zhuangzi, we find that it contains
meticulous descriptions about the Dao and the progressive steps leading to
the technique of self-cultivation in the profession of a cook who is in fact a
butcher. These descriptions contain rich elements of an ethic of self-
cultivation in terms of the perfect coordination of the body and the mind in
view of attaining a maximum degree of self-mastery in the exercise of the
art of dissection of an ox. Ethic is the term employed to capture the relation
of the moral subject to herself. Thus if one can say that Zhuangzi is an
a-moralist in the sense that he does not care about conventional moral
norms, it is difficult to maintain that Zhuangzi has no ethical concern. On
the contrary, we can even say that Zhuangzi’s ultimate concern is an ethic of
self-cultivation.
However, this very expression “ethic of self-cultivation in Zhuangzi”
needs clarification, as there will be questions about the sense of self in the
Zhuangzi. Is there a unitary sense of self as identity in this Daoist philosopher
who always emphasizes the change and transformation (hua 化) of things?
By emphasizing change and transformation, is Zhuangzi not rather a thinker
of non-identity? And if Zhuangzi is a thinker of non-identity, how can we
talk about the self in the sense of a form of identity of the subject in the
Zhuangzi? All of these are not easy questions to answer. Their complete
clarification needs another work which we cannot undertake here. But we
can at least address this issue in a preliminary way by borrowing the
distinction between two forms of identity proposed by the eminent French
phenomenological philosopher Paul Ricoeur: identity as idem and identity
as ipse. Idem-identity is identity understood along the lines of sameness by
reference to externally identifiable properties or characters. This is identity
understood from the point of view of whatness, proper for a thing or the
static character trait of a person. When the physical properties of a certain
thing change, it will probably be changed into another thing. Ipse-identity is
identity of an individual (or even a group) from the perspective of “who.” It
refers to the identical pole of an acting subject immersed in a plurality of
actions that manifests a selfhood despite the fact that her external and
physical features undergo constant changes. As a living being, a human
person is an individual who undergoes constant changes but who still keeps
a sense of identity as a self. More importantly, a human subject is also a
being of possibility and desire: she tries to be someone she is not yet. That
means a human being is also a being of promise: she promises to the others
but first of all to herself to be the one she projects to be. The realization of
promise must be enacted through time. Understood in this sense, the selfhood
of a person is not established outside of time but within time. Thus identity
of a person, or simply personal identity, is ipse-identity on the basis of idem-
identity. In this way, for a human being who expresses her identity as a self,
there is no contradiction between her sense of selfhood and the changes—
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physical, physiological, and psychological—she constantly experiences.24

According to Ricoeur, personal identity cannot be attained by external
description in the manner of description of a physical object; rather, it can
only be done so by construction of the permanence of the selfhood in time
through narratives. Thus personal identity is a kind of narrative identity.25
Ricoeur’s distinction between idem-identity and ipse-identity, as well as his
introduction of the notion of narrative identity, contribute considerably to
the clarification of the puzzle around personal identity since Hume.26
With Ricoeur’s concept of narrative identity in mind, the fact that
although Zhuangzi emphasizes change and transformation, there is still
room to speak of the self, and thus of practices of self-transformation which
are an integral part of his ethic of self-cultivation. In light of this, let us
return to the technique of self-cultivation which attains a degree of perfection
as professed by Cook Ding. Cook Ding’s action of dissecting the ox is not
guided by a degree of perception perceptible by the naked eye, but by some
sort of vision of the whole body of the ox animated by the spirit. When his
vision is guided by the spirit in coordination with the vision of the whole
body of the ox, what is in front of him is no more an ordinary empirical
object, but the texture and inner structure of this object. His action is thus
no more exercised at the surface of the empirical object but goes deep-down
into its inner space. Thus Cook Ding is able to act, or more precisely to
articulate his various gestures within this inner space. This is no more an
action guided by some sort of representational thinking, i.e., a mode of
thinking characterized by the attentive fixation of the eyes on the object seen
or that of the mind on the object of thought through some sort of idea or
image. Cook Ding’s dissection of the ox can be better understood by the
Merleau-Pontian term of “body-schema” (schéma corporelle) put forward
in his master work Phenomenology of Perception (we will return to this
again a bit later).
Zhuangzi’s description of the inner space of the object as the deep-
structure of the thing in terms of void and fissure reminds us of the term
“écart” employed by Merleau-Ponty in his description of the flesh (la
chair).27 This is a term which is used to describe the ontological character of
a level of being which is pre-objective. A thing is not only a compact
composition of positivities and fullness; it consists also of void and fissure.
In other words, in a thing there is a certain form of absence which is yet not
a pure absence. This is part and parcel of the texture and inner structure of
a thing. Yet this level of being is no more that of an object understood in the
sense of empirical sciences, but at a level which is underneath it while also
supporting it. The term pre-objective serves to describe this state of affairs.
Only in this way can we understand the world as a world structured by
texture and depth, and not merely as one composed of flat beings. It is
tempting to use the Merleau-Pontian term “flesh” to describe the flesh of the
ox revealed under the spiritual vision of Cook Ding. In any case, the concept
of “matter” employed by the positive sciences is unable to do justice to the
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state of affairs revealed in the description of the pre-objective order of things

of the world. Merleau-Ponty calls being at this pre-objective level “brute
being,” that is, being not yet domesticated by objective thinking. The latter
is a mode of thinking shared by objective sciences and intellectualist
philosophy; it is a mode of thinking from a bird’s-eye perspective which is a
massive view on the things of the world. This latter being consists merely of
objects of a pure spectacle laid out before our naked eyes, however, this
mode of being is ignorant of the depth of things and the depth of the world.
It is also incapable of understanding void and fissures as negative elements
constitutive of the structure of the things and of the world of the pre-
objective order. To Merleau-Ponty this level of pre-objective brute being
does not belong to materiality, but to sensibility: “the sensible (le sensible) is
the universal form of brute being.”28
It is manifest that the representational mode of thinking at the basis of
the operation of objective thought in the Merleau-Pontian sense, which
remains an act of attentive fixation on the empirical object, is far from being
able to understand the spiritual vision demonstrated by Cook Ding when his
technique of ox-dissection attains perfection. We think that Merleau-Ponty’s
concept of body-schema better captures this kind of technique as shown by
Cook Ding, which is a perfect coordination between the mind and the
different senses of the body guided by a certain non-representational
spiritual vision. Let us first look at the way Merleau-Ponty explains the term
body-schema:
If the need was felt to introduce this new word [body-schema], it was in
order to express that the spatial and temporal unity, the inter-sensorial
unity, or the sensorimotor unity of the body is, so to speak, an in principle
unity, to express that this unity is not limited to contents actually and
fortuitously associated in the course of our experience, that it somehow
precedes them and in fact makes their association possible . . . the body
schema will no longer be the mere result of association established in the
course of experience, but rather the global awareness of my posture in the
inter-sensory world, a “form” in Gestalt psychology’s sense of the word.29
There is a global form which gives unity to the different senses distributed
over the body-subject, such that these different bodily senses can coordinate
with one another to achieve the execution of an action. But how is this
global form generated? The body-subject is a subject-in-the-world who is
polarized by her tasks to be accomplished through her non-representational
body movement. “Psychologists often say that the body schema is dynamic.
Reduced to a precise sense, this term means that my body appears to me as
a posture toward a certain task, actual or possible.”30
With the concept of body-schema, not only can we understand the
possibility of basic bodily gestures, which the practical necessity of daily life
requires us to accomplish at the pre-reflective level, we can also better
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understand the execution of complicated and sophisticated bodily techniques

which are not in a state of absence of knowledge, but knowledge integrated
with bodily skills and gestures, such as that of martial arts, dance, gymnastics,
playing musical instruments, calligraphy, painting, and so forth. The
execution of bodily gestures required by these kinds of arts is motivated by
the purpose of accomplishing tasks, notably artistic tasks. They are either
below or above the level of objective thought. They have to mobilize the
body-schema as knowledge of the pre-objective order, which is a certain
form of articulation between the capacity to know and the capacity to act,
as well as integration of theory and practice. The technique of ox-dissection
at the level of perfection demonstrated by Cook Ding is an eminent example
of the realization of perfect integration of the knowing and acting capacities
of the body with the mind through the body-schema.
3.2. Further Illustration via the Story of

Wheelwright Pian
Duke Huan was reading in the upper part of his hall and Wheelwright
Pian was hewing a wheel in the lower part. Setting aside his hammer and
chisel, the wheelwright went to the upper part of the hall and inquired of
Duke Huan, saying, I venture to ask what words Your Highness is
reading? The words of the sages, said the Duke. Are the sages still alive?
They are already dead said the duke. Then what my Lord is reading are
merely the dregs of the ancients. How can you, a wheelwright, comment
upon what I am reading? asked Duke Huan. If you can explain yourself,
all right. If you cannot explain yourself, you shall die. I look at it from my
own occupation, said Wheelwright Pian. If the spokes are loose, they will
fit sweet as a whistle but the wheel is not solid. If they are too tight, you
will not be able to insert them no matter how hard you try. To make them
neither too loose nor too tight is something you sense in your hand and
feel in your heart. There is a knack to it that cannot be put into words. I
have not been able to teach it to my son, and my son has not been able to
learn it from me. That is why I’m still hewing wheels after seventy years.
When they died, the ancients took with them what they could not
transmit. So what you are reading are the dregs of the ancients!31
In this passage, what Wheelwright Pian faces is also the pre-objective

order of things which is beyond verbal expression in the sense that it cannot
be entirely objectified by linguistic means. That is why this art cannot be
transmitted in the mode of objective knowledge because the technique of
hewing wheels is on this side of objective representation. Wheelwright Pian
tries to explain to Duke Huan that the art of hewing wheels is incomprehensible
from the cognitivist or intellectualist mode of thinking. To solve his problems,
Wheelwright Pian has to mobilize a certain kind of technical knowledge
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which is best understood as arising out of his body-schema, and not from a
cognitivist or intellectualist mode of thinking, the only mode of thinking
that Duke Huan has in mind. Thus both the examples of Cook Ding and
Wheelwright Pian show the anti-cognitivist or anti-intellectualist approach
of Zhuangzi.
4. Back to Primordial Nature: Critique

of Over-Civilization, Praise for
Wild Being and Savage Spirit
Let us begin with the example of the surprising observation of Confucius on
the wild swimmer in chapter 19 (dasheng 達生):
Confucius was observing the cataract at Spinebridge where the water fell
from a height of thirty fathoms and the mist swirled for forty tricents. No
tortoise, crocodile, fish, or turtle could swim there. Spotting an older man
swimming in the water, Confucius thought that he must have suffered
some misfortune and wished to die. So he had his disciples line up along
the current to rescue the man. But after the man had gone several hundred
yards, he came out by himself. With disheveled hair, he was walking along
singing and enjoying himself beneath the embankment. Confucius
followed after the man and inquired of him, saying: I thought you were a
ghost but when I looked more closely, I saw that you are a man. May I
ask if you have a special way for treading the water? No, I have no special
way. I began with what was innate, grew up with my nature, and
completed my destiny. I enter the very center of the whirlpools and emerge
as a companion of the torrent. I follow along with the way of the water
and do not impose myself on it. That is how I do my treading. What do
you mean by began with what was innate, grew up with your nature, and
completed your destiny? asked Confucius. I was born among these hills
and feel secure among them—that is what is innate. I grew up in the
water and feel secure in it— that is my nature. I do not know why I am
like this, yet that is how I am—that is my destiny.32
This passage describes in stunning language a mode of being and a state

of mind exemplified by the wild swimmer. He is entirely at ease with the
wild Nature in which he has lived since birth. I would borrow the terms of
“wild being” and “savage spirit” from Merleau-Ponty to describe them in
order that they can be more intelligible than the term “spontaneity” used by
A.C. Graham and others. This is a mode of being and a state of mind which
remains in close contact with primordial Nature, i.e., the nature which is not
yet domesticated by civilization. The wild swimmer is unable to explain in a
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civilized language, the language of Confucius, how he acquired this capacity,

and accomplished actions and techniques unimaginable for a civilized man.
The only thing he can do is to demonstrate it in accordance with the capacity
he acquired by his close contact with primordial Nature since his birth.
Confucius is the representative of civilization at its maturity, following in
each life-situation the rituals and social norms prevalent under the reign of
Zhou. In doing so, he has lost any contact with primordial Nature. His
potentiality of being is thus immensely limited according to Zhuangzi. Here
Zhuangzi makes an implicit critique of over-civilization, a term I borrow
from the Czech phenomenologist Jan Patočka.33 There is an explicit critique
of over-civilization in the famous parable of the Emperor Hundun 渾沌 in
chapter 7 (yingdiwang 應帝王) of the Zhuangzi.34 The Emperor Hundun is
killed by the goodwill of other self-esteemed civilized emperors. This is
because the other civilized emperors think that the face of the Emperor
Hundun lacks the seven orifices which are characteristics of the face of a
civilized being, and only a civilized being is dignified enough to be an
emperor. To qualify Zhuangzi’s position as critique of over-civilization
means that he is not against any form of civilization. The examples of Cook
Ding and Wheelwright Pian show that to Zhuangzi, the techniques of self-
cultivation are essential for leading a good life. Thus the affirmation and
highlighting of some form of civilization is still important for Zhuangzi.
We are even tempted to say that if Zhuangzi can be understood as some
kind of social reformer, the social reforms he would propose necessitate a
certain form of cultural renewal. This form of cultural renewal is not the
further development of the very anthropocentric conception and practices
of human civilization, but regaining inspiration from primordial Nature,
from the “wild being” and the “savage spirit” embedded within it. In this
regard we can also find some resonances from Merleau-Ponty when he
expresses his praise of Husserl with reference to the latter’s contribution to
cultural renewal: “Willy-nilly, against his plans and according to his essential
audacity, Husserl awakens a wild world and a savage mind.”35 This wild
world and this savage mind are not yet domesticated by the classical
rationalism of objective thinking. I think the greatness of Zhuangzi is to
have revealed this wild world and savage spirit in his own way more than
two thousand years ago through stories and parables in a non-intellectualist
way, without relying on conceptual analysis as seen in Husserl, Merleau-
Ponty, and others.
6. Conclusion
In the reading and analysis exposed above, we have shown that certain
passages of the Zhuangzi text demonstrate a meticulous sense of method.
Zhuangzi emphasizes the necessary change of attitude, namely the getting
rid of prejudices and pre-reflective mundane opinions and interests in order
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to ascertain the formation of sound and true cognitive judgments. Zhuangzi

also advocates systematic execution of methodological procedures in a step-
by-step manner as a way to lead to spiritual self-transformation which is the
precondition for the learned acquisition of the Dao. These methodological
procedures begin by abstaining from any concern about mundane life
interests. The change of attitude leading to the doing away with prejudices
and abstaining from mundane life interests is Zhuangzi’s version of the
phenomenological epoché.
The Zhuangzi text also shows a great sense of faithful description of the
state of affairs belonging to the pre-objective order and the order of
primordial Nature. It is an order of things inaccessible to the intellectualist
mode of thinking of the objective positive sciences. Resuming contact with
primordial Nature will enable us to rediscover the “wild being” and the
savage spirit embedded in our originary mode of being not yet tamed by
over-civilization. Against all kinds of social conventions and institutions as
a result of over-civilization, Zhuangzi proposes the re-actualization of the
potentialities of a “wild being” and a savage mind which are the sources of
cultural renewal. Understood in this manner, the Zhuangzi is neither anti-
rationalist nor skeptic nor mysterious, but highly intelligible.
Notes
1 A.C. Graham, Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China
(La Salle: Open Court, 1989), 176.
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid., 178.
4 Ibid., 180.
5 Ibid., 186.
6 See, for example, Paul Kjellberg and P.J. Ivanhoe, eds., Essays on Skepticism,
Relativism, and Ethics in the Zhuangzi (Albany: State University of New York
Press, 1996).
7 One of the first full English translations of the Zhuangzi was published by
Herbert Giles under the title: Chuang Tzu, Mystic, Moralist, and Social
Reformer (Shanghai: Kelly and Walsh, 1889). James Legge (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1891), the other early English translator of the Zhuangzi, uses
the generic title of “The Sacred Books of China” before the specific title of
“The Texts of Daoism” in his translation of the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi.
Legge thus presented these works as belonging to religion, comparable to
works of Christianity. Martin Buber was among the few Western thinkers in
the early twentieth century to have presented Zhuangzi as a philosopher in his
own right. This is expressed in the “Afterword” to his 1910 German translation
(Leipzig: Insel-Verlag, 1910) of the Zhuangzi (Reden und Gleichnisse des
Tschuang-tse): “Zhuangzi may perhaps be compared to the entirety of Greek
philosophy, which completed that which he only adumbrated—the Greek
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philosophy which expanded the teachings from the sphere of the real life to the
sphere of the explanation of the world, of the knowable, and of the ideological
construct, and thereby indeed created something very individual and very
powerful of its own.” Buber, 103. For an in-depth discussion of Buber’s relation
to Zhuangzi, see Jonathan Herman, I and Tao: Martin Buber’s Encounter with
Chuang Tzu (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996).
8 Edmund Husserl, Logische Untersuchungen, III. “Zur Lehre von den Ganzen
und Teilen,” II/1 (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1901), 225–93. For the
English translation, see Edmund Husserl, Logical Investigations, J.N. Findlay
(trans.), vol. 2, Investigation III, “On the Theory of Wholes and Parts”
(London: Routledge, 1970), 435–89.
9 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Phénoménologie de la Perception (Paris: Gallimard,
1945), 12. For the English translation, see Maurice Merleau-Ponty,
Phenomenology of Perception, Donald Landes (trans.), (London: Routledge,
2012), 6.
10 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Signes (Paris: Gallimard, 1960), 202. For the English
translation, see Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Signs, Richard McCleary (trans.),
(Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964), 160 (translation modified).
11 Ibid.
12 Husserl himself has explained this motto in different places. In the Logical
Investigations, he writes: “Meanings inspired only by remote, confused,
inauthentic intuitions—if by any intuitions at all—are not enough: we must go
back to the ‘things themselves.’ ” Husserl, Logical Investigations, vol. 2, 252;
German original: “Bedeutungen, die nur von entfernten, verschwommenen,
uneigentlichen Anschauungen—wenn überhaupt von irgendwelchen—belebt
sind, können uns nicht genug tun. Wir wollen auf die ‘Sachen selbst’
zurückgehen.” Husserl, Logische Untersuchungen, Bd. II.1, 6. In Ideas Pertaining
to a Pure Phenomenology and Phenomenological Philosophy, First Book (The
Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1982), Husserl says: “But to judge rationally or scientifically
about things signifies to conform to the things themselves or to go from words
and opinions back to the things themselves, to consult them in their self-givenness
and to set aside all prejudices alien to them.” Husserl, Ideas, 35; German original:
“Vernünftig oder wissenschaftlich über Sachen urteilen, das heißt aber, sich nach
den Sachen selbst richten, bzw. von den Reden und Meinungen auf die Sachen
selbst zurückgehen, sie in ihrer Selbstgegebenheit befragen und alle sachfremden
Vorurteile beiseitetun.” See Edmund Husserl, Ideen zu einer reinen
Phänomenologie und Phänomenologischen Philosophie, Erstes Buch, Allgemeine
Einführung in die reine Phänomenologie (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag,
1913), 35. See Martin Heidegger, Sein und Zeit (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer
Verlag, 1927), 27. For the English translation, see Martin Heidegger, Being and
Time, John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (trans.), (New York: SCM Press,
1962), 50. See also Merleau-Ponty, Phénoménologie de la Perception, iii /
Phenomenology of Perception, 8.
13 Husserl, Ideen I, 56–7 / Ideas I, 60–1.
14 Ibid., 139–41 / Ibid., 167–70.
15 For the Chinese, see Guying Chen, ed., Modern Commentary and Annotations
to the Zhuangzi (Hong Kong: Zhonghua Shuju, 1997), 49. Although the
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translations in this chapter are my own, I have benefitted from those by Victor
Mair, A.C. Graham, Burton Watson, and Brook Ziporyn.
16 For the Chinese, see Chen, Zhuangzi, 184.
17 Ibid., 117.
18 Ibid., 205.
19 See Kwok-Ying Lau and Thomas Nenon, eds., “Aesthetic Attitude and
Phenomenological Attitude: From Zhu Guangqian to Husserl,” in Logos and
Aisthesis: Phenomenology and the Arts (Cham: Springer, 2020).
20 See Kwok-Ying Lau, Phenomenology and Intercultural Understanding: Toward
a New Cultural Flesh (Dordrecht: Springer, 2016), 56–9.
21 Edmund Husserl, Die Krisis der Europäischen Wissenschaften und die
Transzendentale Phänomenologie (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1954), 140. For the
English translation, see Edmund Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and
Transcendental Phenomenology, David Carr (ed.) (Evanston: Northwestern
University Press, 1970), 137.
22 The step-by-step sense of progression of the technique of self-cultivation
leading to enlightenment by the Dao is also shown in the following descriptive
passage in chapter 6 (dazongshi 大宗師): “Wherever did you learn all this?
asked Sir Sunflower of Southunc. I learned it from the son of Assistant Ink.
Assistant Ink’s son learned it from the grandson of Ready Reciter. Ready
Reciter’s grandson learned it from Bright Vision. Bright Vision learned it from
Agreeable Apprehension. Agreeable Apprehension learned it from Ascetic
Service. Ascetic Service learned it from Sighing Chanter. Sighing Chanter
learned it from Murky Mediation. Murky Meditation learned it from
Contemplating the Unique. Contemplating the Unique learned it from
Commencing Doubt.” For the Chinese, see Chen, 184. This step-by-step
process of progression can be retrieved in the following order: from writing
or script (fu mo 副墨) back to reading aloud (ge song 洛誦), then back to
understanding (zhan ming 瞻明), then back to apprehension by the mind
(nie xu 聶許), then back to ascetic practice (xu yi 需役), then back to chanting
admiration before the universe (yu ou 於謳), then back to meditation (xuan
ming 玄冥), then back to contemplation of Unique (can liao 參寥), then back
to the commencing doubt (yi shi 疑始). It is interesting to note that the term
“the commencing doubt” reminds us of the thaumazein, i.e., wonder and
puzzlement as the origin of the philosophical attitude in Plato and Aristotle.
23 For the Chinese text, see Chen, 95–6.
24 Paul Ricoeur, Soi-Même comme un Autre (Paris: Seuil, 1990), 137–66.
25 Ibid., 167–98.
26 For a concise presentation and critical evaluation of Ricoeur’s contribution to
the issue of personal identity, see Philippe Cabestan, “Qui suis-je? Identité-ipse,
identité-idem et identité narrative,” Le Philosophoire, 1 (2015): 151–60.
27 Merleau-Ponty, Signes, 217 / Signs, 172.
28 Ibid.
29 Merleau-Ponty, Phénoménologie de la Perception, 115–16 / Phenomenology of
Perception, 102.
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30 Ibid.
33 See Jan Patočka, “La Surcivilization et son Conflit,” in Liberté et Sacrifice:
Ecrits Politiques (Grenoble: Jérôme Millon, 1990), 99–177.
34 Chen, 228.
35 Merleau-Ponty, Signes, 228 / Signs, 180.
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Toward a New Cultural Flesh, in Contributions to Phenomenology (vol. 87),
Dordrecht: Springer.
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Lau, Kwok-Ying and Thomas Nenon, eds. (2020), “Aesthetic Attitude and
Phenomenological Attitude: From Zhu Guangqian to Husserl,” in Logos and
Aisthesis: Phenomenology and the Arts, Cham: Springer.
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. (1945), Phénoménologie de la Perception, Paris:
Gallimard.
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. (1960), Signes, Paris: Gallimard.
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. (1964), Signs, Richard McCleary (trans.), Evanston:
Northwestern University Press.
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. (2012), Phenomenology of Perception, Donald Landes
(trans.), London: Routledge.
Patočka, Jan. (1990), “La Surcivilization et son Conflit,” in Liberté et Sacrifice:
Ecrits Politiques, Erika Abrams (trans.), Grenoble: Jérôme Millon.
Ricoeur, Paul. (1990), Soi-même comme un Autre, Paris: Seuil.
36138.indb 104 03/09/2019 11:16

5
Martin Buber’s
Phenomenological Interpretation
of Laozi’s Daodejing
Eric S. Nelson
1. Introduction: Buber’s Daoism

Martin Buber’s engagement with Chinese philosophy, religion, and culture
is a significant example of intercultural encounter and dialogical exchange
in early twentieth-century philosophy.1 His early interpretations and selected
translations of the Zhuangzi 莊子 and the literary work Strange Stories from
a Chinese Studio (Liaozhai Zhiyi 聊齋誌異) of Pu Songling 蒲松齡 (1640–
1715), were informed by his own philosophical, cultural-political, and
religious context and concerns.2 His approach to Chinese thought is
structured by questions of mystical and dialogical experience, natural
spontaneity and technological mechanization, and the this-worldly corporeal
spirituality disclosed in Hasidic and Daoist sources. His intercultural
engagements in turn informed the development of his own dialogical
philosophical project, as Buber himself recognized and as is evident from
the Daoist traces visible in his classic work I and Thou (Ich und Du, first
published in German in 1923).3
Buber is primarily remembered as a thinker of Jewish religious experience,
an advocate of ethical personalism, and a philosopher of dialogical
communication. Additionally, furthermore, Buber practiced a preliminary
form of intercultural philosophizing, did not limit the sense and range of the
ethical to human persons, and interpreted communication through a
phenomenology of interpersonal and embodied encounter, engagement, and
conversation.
First, in contrast to his friend and collaborator Franz Rosenzweig, as well
as later thinkers such as Emmanuel Levinas, Buber did not explicitly reject
36138.indb 105 03/09/2019 11:16

(Rosenzweig) or casually dismiss (Levinas) Asian and other so-called “non-

Western” discourses.4 He engaged from his early to late works with mythic,
religious, poetic, and philosophical sources and what they taught and
transmitted (their teaching, Lehre) through image, word, and concept.5
Buber’s vision of “Daoism” is as a “teaching of the way” that is taught
through a full range of communicative media.6
Second, Buber’s “ethical personalism” does not rely on or entail a limited
concept of the person that only includes other humans. His experiential and
dialogical models, developed in part in relation to the Daodejing 道德經
attributed to Laozi 老子 and the Zhuangzi, encompass the “myriad things”
(wanwu 萬物): stones, trees, animals, other humans, and spiritual realities.7
Buber’s expansive model of the “thing” and the possibility of ethically
encountering it diverge from other accounts of “ethical personalism.”
Buber’s relational approach to the thing and the other are linked with his
assessment of these two early pre-Qin Daoist sources.8
Third, Buber conceives of dialogue as corporal, experiential, and
personal. It occurs through (insofar as they can be distinguished) interpersonal
and “interthingly” encounters, engagements, and exchanges. This
phenomenological and to an extent semi-Daoist description and interpretation
of communicative events continues to be a radical alternative to the abstract
formalistic paradigms that dominate the philosophy of language and
communication. Buber is not a practitioner of phenomenology understood
as following the phenomenological school and methods inaugurated by
Edmund Husserl. He does, nonetheless, practice phenomenology in the sense
of describing and interpreting what is revealed in and what exceeds
experience. These descriptions draw on his own personal experience, self-
reflection, and a variety of global philosophical and non-philosophical
sources and discourses. Of these, the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi play a
noteworthy role, particularly in the 1910s and 1920s.9
2. The Daodejing as Natural Philosophy,

Cosmology, and Ontology
Buber’s initial systematic interpretation of Daoism is articulated in his 1909
essay “The Teaching of the Dao” (“Die Lehre vom Tao”) that became part
of his afterword to his 1910 edition of the Zhuangzi.10 In this early account,
the Daodejing is portrayed as the more embryonic beginning of the teaching
of the Way, and the Zhuangzi as its communicative culmination.11 Laozi is
taken here to be a more primitive and less perfect teacher of the Way, because
the Daodejing lacks the fuller use of language and the communicative
fulfillment of the Way that Buber attributed to the Zhuangzi. However, in
discussions in 1924 (“Besprechungen mit Martin Buber über Lao-tse’s
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Buber’s Phenomenological Interpretation of L aozi 107
Tao-te-king”) and 1928 (“China und Wir”), his translation of selected

political passages into Hebrew in 1942 (“Lao Tzu al hashilton” [Laozi on
Governing]), and references in later works, it is the Daodejing that occupies
Buber’s attention.12
Buber offered a seminar devoted to the Daodejing to a private group in
Ascona in southern Switzerland from August 10 to 31, 1924. The transcripts
for this seminar were published in 2013 in volume 2.3, Schriften zur
Chinesischen Philosophie und Literatur, of the new on-going edition of
Buber’s collected works.13 The archivally accessible yet previously
unpublished 1924 manuscript has received considerably less attention than
his other writings concerning Chinese philosophy and literature. It unfolds
striking threads for elucidating Buber’s interests in Daoism and
phenomenological interpretation of the Daodejing that he based on Victor
von Strauss’s 1870 translation and commentary and, rarely in this text,
Richard Wilhelm’s 1921 edition.14
Buber commenced his philosophically oriented commentary on this
Chinese classic with an introduction that considers two reoccurring themes:
(1) the Chinese conception of heart (xin 心) identified as the feeling of taste
and sensuous contact with the external world that is both directional and
relational, in contrast to the Western notion of interiority; and (2) Laozi as
a thinker of return.15
This introduction indicates that the Daodejing is not a form of mysticism
in at least two senses: it does not maintain a radical submersion into
interiority and subjectivity, the depths and dark night of the soul, or an
otherworldly mysticism directed into a transcendent super-sensuous realm.
Instead, the Daodejing teaches the relational interconnection of heart and
world. Accordingly, in commenting on the first chapter of the Daodejing
that Strauss entitled the realization or fulfillment of the dao (“Verwirklichung
des Tao”) and Wilhelm the embodiment of sense (“Verkörperung des
Sinns”), Buber defined the Chinese word dao 道 as path (Bahn) and way
(Weg) and as change/exchange (Weschsel) and change/transformation
(Wandel).16
Already in his reading of the first chapter, Buber traces three dimensions
of Laozi’s way: (1) It is a natural philosophy of the regularity of nature, the
movement of the stars, the change of seasons, the growth of plants, and
rhythmic return; (2) It is a cosmology of the structuring whole of circles
within circles, cycles within cycles, that is a chaos of transformations and an
interconnected structured cosmic order; and (3) It is an ontological teaching
distinguishing (a) the dao that can be spoken, the dao’s finitization as
pathway and manifestation as transformation (cosmology), and (b) the
unsayable and limitless dao that exceeds it.17
It is at this point in his commentary that Buber enters into a reflection on
naming and encountering that reflects a significant topos in his own path of
thinking.
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3. Naming, Encountering, and the Thing

A standard theory of language construes names as arbitrarily designated
conventional terms that are reified when taken to indicate the actual essences
of things. This account is often applied to early Daoist texts in contemporary
philosophy, and Daoist words are classified as conventions and its philosophy
of language as nominalist. Buber, in this commentary and in I and Thou,
contests this abstract epistemological and impersonal model of language
with the counter-argument that such conventional names are not genuine
names. There is a distinction in the Daodejing between inconstant
conventional names, associated with fluctuating finite paths, and so-called
“eternal” or “constant” names (changming 常名) mentioned in chapter 1 of
the text.
Buber sketched an intriguing phenomenological interpretation of
Laozi’s “constant name.” Eternal names are those that are “not constructed
but discovered” in encounter (Begegnung) and in “the reality of the
relation.”18 The mutuality of “the thing and the I” is necessary for this
relation in which the name operates as the being-between (dazwischen) this
specific being and myself. This sense of “self” is what Buber described in I
and Thou as the relational participating self. Things search for words
through us as participatory intermediaries. The movement from things to
names requires their being encountered by me from and in themselves. There
is accordingly, Buber notes, an “interiority of the name that arises from
things themselves.”19
Buber offers a phenomenological description of the encounter with the
tree, an illustrative example that is also deployed in I and Thou.20 In the
latter classic text from 1923, he distinguishes perceiving and representing
the tree as an object, as an “it,” from encountering the tree as a relational
other, as a “thou.” “Relation is reciprocity” (“Beziehung ist Gegenseitigkeit”)
with respect to the encountered tree, and consequently other “non-human”
beings. In the Daodejing commentary from 1924, he recognized how the
tree, insofar as it is encountered as this being, is not subsumed under a
conceptual category or regarded through a nominal conventional name. On
the contrary, the tree is encountered as “this tree” and “something for itself”
“insofar as it is something for me.”21
The description of the I–thou relation between human and thing in I and
Thou corresponds in word and tone with his portrayal of the thing,
encompassing both animate and inanimate beings, in the Zhuangzi in 1910
and the Daodejing in 1924. Relation signifies an ethical relation and naming
is an ethical response to the thing’s own path and way of being itself (that is,
its self-so-ness or ziran 自然).
To draw a preliminary conclusion at this moment, one that will receive
further contextualization in what follows, Buber’s “interpersonal ethics”
draws in part on his analysis of the relationality of and responsiveness
toward things, does not exclude the “interthingly” and non-human from
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the ethical encounter and interbodily relationship, a problem that places

into question the appropriateness of other overly anthropocentric varieties
of “personalist ethics” that neglect the non-human in the ethical
encounter.22
4. Broken Words and Namelessness

Buber has been criticized by Levinas, who endeavored to distance his own
project emphasizing asymmetrical responsibility from Buber’s ostensible
idea of “symmetrical reciprocity,” for inadequately attending to the alterity,
asymmetries, and distances between self and Other in the I–thou
relationship.23 However, this critique is off the mark to the extent that Buber
appears deeply concerned with the singularity of the thing and the other in
the encounter, the asymmetries between the myriad things (including the
non-human) rather than only the human other, and indeed the non-
encounters and distances between I and thou, and between name and named.
These dimensions of Buber’s thought are apparent in I and Thou and in this
introduction to the Daodejing.
Continuing to comment on the initial verse of the Daodejing, Buber
draws on Western religious thought, such as the notion of divine glory and
human distance from it, in introducing questions of the name’s distance
from what it would name. His clarification of the mutuality of name and
thing in the Daodejing is accordingly reoriented with a reflection on human
inadequacy in each encounter with the thing and the brokenness intrinsic to
names and words. Buber specifies the limitations of naming and language
that transpire even in the modality of the encounter: “our names do not
deliver the consummate essence” of the thing and, restating the opening
lines of chapter 1 of the Daodejing, “the name that can be named is the
broken name.”24
Buber noted how: “Every image contains an element of brokenness.”25
But not only the image is broken: broken words and mutilated bodies, such
as the disfigured bodies of the Zhuangzi, reappear in Buber’s discussions of
Jewish and Chinese sources, and Buber compares Judaism to a body
disfigured by its wandering from the Orient to the Occident and persecution
in his 1915 essay “The Spirit of the Orient and Judaism.”26
Buber’s deployment of the language of fragmentation, brokenness, and
human alienation from naturalness is not the conclusion of his analysis,
as it is linked—as it is in the Zhuangzi—with transformation. Human
brokenness is a point of transition and allows a pivot from the cosmological
world of names and things to what Buber designates the ontological: “the
name is a step toward the consummate name, the many a hint of the one,
and the broken an indication of the unbroken.”27
Line four of chapter 1 of the Daodejing discloses that this transition is
interconnected with the questions of the status and appropriate role of the
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human. Buber differentiated three fundamental themes of the Daodejing

from which all the others are constructed.28 These three spheres exhibit
a process of alienation from and return to nature and the nature of things:
(1) The law (das Gesetz), the dao of heaven that consists of things happening
from themselves; (2) The human (der Mensch), as estranged from nature;
and (3) The kingdom (Reich), as the construction or formation (aufbauen)
of a realm in which natural order is recreated,29 or—as he clarified later—a
community.30 The third sphere is the sphere of the good (das Gute) to which
we will turn in the next section. In the daily renewal of creation,31
humans emerge, as evident in his other writings on Zhuangzi and Judaism,
as ethical beings who are co-creators of creation through formative
participation in it.32
The formative recovery of the natural in the third sphere is associated
with the ontological truth of the nameless. Victor von Strauss translated the
third line of chapter 1 of the Daodejing, “無名天地之始；有名萬物之母,” as
“Das namenlose ist des Himmels und der Erde Urgrund, Das Namen-
Habende ist aller Wesen Mutter.” Buber focused in his remarks on this
originary ground (Urgrund): the consummate, the one, and the unbroken
intimate the nameless originary ground that is the mother of all things
through the emergence of names—identifying rather than distinguishing the
nameless (wuming 無名) and name-having or forming (youming 有名).
The nameless exceeds all designations, thingliness, and serial causality,
including being posited as a beginning or first cause. Buber did not explicitly
mention the Chinese character shi 始 that is often translated as beginning or
origin. Following Strauss’s translation, shi 始 is interpreted as not signifying
a causal or ontic beginning or origin in any sense. Antedating Martin
Heidegger’s phenomenological elucidation of “ground,” Buber explicates
the originless “originary ground” as a necessarily non-causal ontological
truth through which name and thing, language and world, become possible.33
In the Daodejing, this ground appears as an abyssal lack of ground
(Abgrund), a swirling groundless depth (“schwingende, grundlose Tiefe”),
as indicated by the key Daoist image of water.34
Even though Buber’s depiction primarily relies on Strauss’s rendition of
the Daodejing, he did not exclusively rely on it. For instance, in his portrayal
of line four of the first chapter of the Daodejing, he rejected Strauss’s
translation of xuan 玄 as “deep,” noting that it means “dark” (dunkel)
and secret or mystery (Geheimnis).35 Wilhelm, for example, speaks of
Geheimnis and wonder in his rendition of this chapter. The German word
Geheimnis used to translate xuan means secret as well as mystery. This
deeper secret within the secret, the depth deeper than depth, Buber noted,
is the genuine gateway (Pforte). The threshold or the portal is a pivot
and point of transition. The Daodejing’s “return” (Rückkehr) is not as a
recovery of a primitive past or repetition of a previous state, but—as will be
addressed further below—the turning around (Umkehr) of transition and
transformation.36
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5. The Law, the Human, and the Kingdom

Buber presented the Daodejing in his 1924 lectures as a teaching of the law,
humanity, and the kingdom that he defined as community (Gemeinschaft).
First, the sphere of the law, as mentioned previously, is the immanent self-
regulating self-occurring of things. The thing is transformed into a mere
object of desire and use when they are broken from the encounter and taken
out of the fullness of their relational context.37
Second, the human sphere has distanced itself from the life of things. It
has alienated itself from the law (the cosmological functioning of the dao)
through non-genuine life, which includes morals, rituals, political regulations,
and other fixations. This Daodejing repeatedly problematizes ordinary
Confucian virtues and the conventional morality of good and evil: the
posited good is complicit with the evil that is necessarily co-posited along
with it, the relative good is interdependent with the bad, and the stated
propositional and moralistic good cannot adequately grasp the dao’s
originary richness and fullness.38
Buber did not conclude that this problematization of morality entails
amorality, immorality, or attitudes of ethical indifference, skepticism, and
nihilism. Such interpretations of Daoism, which have become prevalent in
contemporary Western philosophical approaches, are opposed to Chinese
commentarial transmissions as well as Buber’s assessment that the Daoism
of the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi is a radical teaching of the good. The
fullness of the dao is not opposed to the good; it is originary goodness
itself—linked with images of the mother and the feminine—in contrast to
non-genuine, broken, and partial ways of enacting it associated with the
partiality of the masculine.39
What about the third sphere? Buber designated it the kingdom, realm, or
empire (Reich), evoking Jewish and Abrahamic conceptions of the “kingdom
of God” (Hebrew: malchut ‫)תוכלמ‬. In his 1928 essay “China and Us,” Buber
contends in the face of the increasing destructiveness of modern technological
civilization and its self-assertive will to power that Western humanity needs to
relearn in its own terms and situation the Daoist teaching of “non-action.” In
this 1924 context, Buber elucidates how one cannot do the good but how the
good transpires through “doing-non-doing” (tun nicht tun, weiwuwei 爲無爲).
The holy or sagely person, through whom the good is enacted and the third
sphere of the kingdom fulfilled, neither imposes nor withdraws, and is neither
active nor passive in relation to the world. Rather, the sage is spontaneous
and responsive, responding in being called (angerufen).40
In this discussion, in addition to the 1928 essay, Daoism appears to offer
a unique and significant philosophical and religious response to the
problematic of modernity and the human condition. Hence, first, whereas
Buber portrays the Buddhist ideal as one of self-redemption, the Daoist ideal
is one of world-redemption through the happening of the dao, of the good,
which is neither in nor reducible to time and history.41 Daoism does not
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demand the denial and the de-individuation of the self (Entselbstung); it

points toward the constitutive relationality and sociality of the individual
and the individual’s fulfillment (Vollendung) in the dao.42
6. The Anarchy of the Good and the

Fulfillment of the Kingdom
Buber construed the Daoist good as fundamentally ethical and social; it is
equally both interthingly and interpersonal, as no absolute distinction can
be drawn between things, organisms, and persons.43 The good is fulfilled in
the kingdom, interpreted as a free relational community. Moreover, the
Daoist good becomes messianic (that is, it concerns the genuine king to
come) and prophetic (that is, it concerns the earthly fulfillment of the good)
in this elucidation. These are “weak,” intercultural and secularized (as
primarily ethical), delineations of the messianic and prophetic moments:
(1) The messianic is glimpsed in the figure of the sage-king (shengren 聖人)
who lets the self-generating self-relating community become itself through
weiwuwei; and (2) The prophetic is apprehended in the originary ethics of
the enactment and practice of the good.
The Daodejing’s message is neither mystical nor monistic absorption into
the totality of the one.44 It does not offer a phenomenology of experience,
consciousness, or Dasein, but suggests a different phenomenological strategy
of tracing encounters within relational reality. Buber’s reconstruction of
Daoism resonates with his own ethical and this-worldly interpretation of
Judaism, in particular in its Hassidic forms that share a more intimate affinity
with Daoism in Buber’s early works. Buber’s Hasidic Judaism and Daoism
enact the divine in everyday communicative and corporeal life. Second,
however, crucial differences remain: Buber states that Daoism teaches
through nature itself, through encountering immanent reality, what Judaism
and early Christianity attempt to teach through ethical prescriptions.45
Daoism (or at least its pre-Qin variety) is neither primitive nor pagan,
according to Buber’s response to these monotheistic criticisms in his
correspondence with Rosenzweig.46 Buber, as an intercultural theopolitical
philosopher, can recognize it as a teaching of fulfilled life, evoking the Jewish
conception of a restored world (Hebrew: tikkun olam ‫ )עולם תיקון‬that
encompasses both the natural and the human.47
Buber’s Daodejing is a teaching of the good as messianic or prophetic
anarchism.48 The social fulfillment of the good, the teaching of the kingdom
is in a non-doing and letting in which the ruler lets the people come to
themselves and to life.49 The non-coercive sage-king is a messianic figure in
embodying the authority of a teacher and an exemplary model, as well as
the “lonely one” called to responsiveness and responsibility to and for
others.50
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The distinction between authority and freedom governs Buber’s

juxtaposition of Confucius and Laozi in his depictions of the two in 1924,51
1928, and in 1951. Buber’s Confucius teaches human politics consisting of
intentional, calculative, judgmental, and moralistic ritual and justice based
on distinction (rank) and distance. In contrast to Confucius, who appears
limited in Buber’s Daoist-oriented perspective, Laozi communicates the
originary ethics of the good: the radical intentionless spontaneity of
proximity and love.52 This assessment is reconfirmed in his 1951 essay
“Society and the State.” Buber continued to distinguish between Confucian
authoritarian and statist rule by elites and the self-generating self-
organization of the people in love and proximity.53 Buber’s Daoism is
communitarian and anarchistic.
While Confucius is an educator through externally imposed prescriptive
laws and life-rules, in which the dead dominate the living, Laozi is a teacher
of the internally motivated, self-generating, and living incalculable good.
This good and its community do not occur through my own action,
deliberation, and judgment. The partial and non-relational masculine human
self damages and destroys itself and others through self-assertion.54 Absorbed
in itself and its own anxieties, calculations, and concerns, the self of the
second sphere (humanity) is estranged from the law and the kingdom. It is
in this context that the estranged self should become again like the newborn
child through non-intentional non-coerced non-doing. The good occurs
through the freedom of naturally and relationally being what one is in
doing-non-doing understood as non-assertion, non-imposition, and non-
striving.55
The Daodejing appears to intimate a utopian ideal of an ethical
community motivated by love and oriented toward the self-generating good
instead of the self-assertive willfulness and external regulations that lead to
estrangement and destruction.56 However, this is not an empty speculation
for “beautiful souls” for Buber.57 In his discussion of Daodejing chapter 20,
Laozi emerges as a prophetic witness speaking from out of the truth of the
dao in the abandonment, brokenness, and suffering of the human sphere.58
Daoism, as a consequence of this prophetic witnessing, has a social-critical
dimension to it in relation to the suffering and injustices of the present.59
7. Origin, Movement, and Fulfillment

The fulfillment of the dao transpires immanently in the midst of earthly
human life through the transition from human partialness, lack, and
deficiency to balancing in the grace and other-power of the dao.60 The dao’s
grace (Gnade) and nourishing power is taken to be “religious” in the sense
of its being independent of individual willing and willfulness.61 The dao that
nurtures and nourishes all things (sphere one) also heals (sphere three).
Playing on the etymological kinship between the German words heil
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(healing) and heilig (holy), Buber identified the “holy” with that which
heals the wound, and with a restorative becoming whole in the face of
brokenness.62
This “turning” is a process of transformation: in the movement through
negativity and opposition, there is no “return” to or pure reproduction of
the condition of the spontaneous automatic law that is enacted in things.
Buber maintained that the law’s fulfillment occurs in the genuine love and
responsiveness of the living communicative kingdom.63 Buber’s dao proceeds
from the law to love via the moment of human brokenness. The dao is an
anarchistic originary ethics of the good in and for itself.64
What is the logic of the dao’s motility? Laozi’s Daoism does not promote
a return as a reduction to the primitive in Buber’s account. The Daodejing’s
language of return is a discourse of transitions and transformations that
does not abandon humanity in the movement toward fulfillment in the dao
nor multiplicity in the return to the one.65 Given this attention to transitions
and transformation, and resting in mobility, the Daodejing offers models of
dynamic relational wholes instead of a monistic static unitary oneness.
How then should the notion of “return” be interpreted? Fan 反 (return,
reversal) only appears four times in the standard version of the Daodejing
(chapters 25, 40, 65, and 78). Due to its being identified with the movement
of the dao itself in chapter 40 (反者道之動；弱者道之用), it serves as a
central concept in interpreting the Daodejing’s logic or dialectic. As noted
previously, in Buber’s exposition return (Rückkehr) signifies turning. It is
misinterpreted when taken as a mere arrival back at a prior or previous
point in a series; it is a point of transition, a turning around (Umkehr) as
culmination.66
Thus to briefly introduce the examples of the newborn and the seed
considered in Buber’s commentary: (1) The Daodejing’s images of the
flexibility, spontaneity, and vitality of the newborn baby do not entail a
return to that initial state; and (2) Nor is it a return to the state of being
a seed in the origin. Comparing it to the primordial light (Urlicht) described
in the Talmud, “return” is a resting in the origin and the movement of the
whole relational nexus of things.67 “Return” is for that reason not a
reduction to an embryonic or primeval original condition. The movement of
the dao through reversals and returns is the formation by humans (sphere
two) of a fulfilled life in the good (sphere three) that is no longer merely law
(sphere one).
8. Conclusion: Intercultural Philosophy and

the Phenomenology of the Encounter
It is noteworthy that Buber adopted this notion of return in his intercultural
assessment of the significance of Daoism. This interpretation of turning in
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the Daodejing is employed as a model for how the West can encounter and
learn from the teaching of the dao.68 As in his other works examining early
pre-Qin Daoism, Buber repeatedly—in 1909, 1924, and 1928—connects the
Daoism of Laozi and Zhuangzi to the dilemmas of modern technological
civilization, contending that the teaching of the way addresses the
contemporary European precisely in this sense of “turning around” rather
than demanding a return to a supposedly more primitive and primordial
way of living.69
Further, as Buber noted in reflecting on chapter 29 of the Daodejing, this
“turning around” toward the thing and the other is a practical question. The
possibility of genuine community is not only confronted with individual
self-absorption and estranged separation. Buber presciently noted that it is
all the more needful given the willfulness and sickness of peoples in
nationalism and racism.70
Can classical Chinese philosophies such as Confucianism and Daoism
resolve the destructiveness of the modern West, as experienced by Buber in
the crisis-ridden Weimar Republic? Buber explicitly began “China and Us”
with the argument that they cannot.71 Nevertheless, he added, Daoist wuwei
is the teaching that Western modernity, in its willfulness and will to dominate
persons and things, lacks and is in need of learning in its own sense and
context in dialogue with this Chinese discourse.72 To this extent, intercultural
dialogue is a moment in this “turning around,” revealing previously
unrecognized paths. This is not a return, in the narrow sense of the concept,
as the path is to be encountered and enacted anew.
In addition to intercultural communication and philosophizing, a turn to
a phenomenology of the encounter and the communicative relational event
is required. Buber described in his 1924 discussion, explored in this
chapter, how the Daodejing provides a model of the encounter. This poses
us with a significant question in Buber’s analysis: how can we encounter
what the Daodejing is modeling? Buber concluded his 1928 essay with
the demand to encounter for ourselves the reality exhibited in the
Daodejing and that is indicated by expressions such as “non-doing.”73 What
is called for to “turn around” is the encounter with things and persons
themselves, and therefore a philosophy that is a phenomenology of the
encounter itself. Buber’s classic work I and Thou is such a phenomenology
of the encounter in which self and other are recognized as fundamentally
relational realities.
In conclusion, Buber’s interpretations of the Daodejing (examined in this
chapter) as well as the Zhuangzi (which was not discussed here) remain an
evocative historical example of intercultural hermeneutics. His readers
can trace how Buber honed his own unique philosophical project in
intercultural dialogue with Daoist and a diverse variety of philosophical and
religious discourses. His art of philosophy, as an interculturally informed
phenomenology of the encounter and the communicative event, can itself be
interpreted as an exemplary model to be enacted and transformed anew.
36138.indb 115 03/09/2019 11:16

Notes
1 As I demonstrated in my book: Eric S. Nelson, Chinese and Buddhist
Philosophy in Early Twentieth-Century German Thought (London:
Bloomsbury Academic, 2017).
2 Originally published as: Martin Buber, Reden und Gleichnisse des Tschuang-
Tse (Leipzig: Insel, 1910); and Martin Buber, Chinesische Geister- und
Liebesgeschichten (Frankfurt: Rütten und Loening, 1911).
3 See Martin Buber, Werke I: Schriften zur Philosophie (Kösel: Lambert
Schneider, 1962), 8. There are a number of works exploring Buber’s
engagement with Daoism and Chinese thought: Irene Eber, “Martin Buber
and Taoism,” Monumenta Serica, 42.1 (1994): 445–64; Maurice Friedman,
“Martin Buber and Asia,” Philosophy East and West, 26.4 (1976): 411–26;
Jonathan Herman, I and Tao: Martin Buber’s Encounter with Chuang Tzu
(Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996); and, in this volume,
Jason Wirth, “Martin Buber’s Dao.” On the fascination with China among
Central European Jewish intellectuals, see Shuangzhi Li, “‘Wenn ich ein
Chinese wäre’: The Austrian-Jewish Imagination of China around 1900
revisited,” Austrian Studies, 24 (2016): 94–108.
4 See Israel Aharon Ben-Yosef, “Confucianism and Taoism in The Star of
Redemption,” Journal for the Study of Religion, 1.2 (1988): 25–36; Nelson,
Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy, 213–15.
5 Nelson, Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy, 115.
6 Although Buber did not accept the artificial and ahistorical division between a
“philosophical” and “religious” Daoism, he does distinguish “early” and “late”
Daoist texts. His few remarks on later Daoist sources such as the Book of
Purity and Rest (Qingjing Jing 清靜經) indicate that he considered them
limited and narrower in their understanding of the Way and language. See
Martin Buber, Schriften zur Chinesischen Philosophie und Literatur, ed. Irene
Eber (Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 2013), 117.
7 Note that I examine these issues in the early Daoist context further, and contest
the dichotomy of humanism and anti-humanism, in: Eric S. Nelson,
“Questioning Dao: Skepticism, Mysticism, and Ethics in the Zhuangzi,”
International Journal of the Asian Philosophical Association, 1 (2008): 5–19;
Eric S. Nelson, “The Human and the Inhuman: Ethics and Religion in the
Zhuangzi,” Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 41.S1 (2014): 723–39.
8 On early Daoist notions of the thing, see the helpful analyses of David Chai,
“Meontological Generativity: A Daoist Reading of the Thing,” Philosophy East
and West, 64.2 (2014): 303–18; Sai-Hang Kwok, “Zhuangzi’s Philosophy of
Thing,” Asian Philosophy, 26.4 (2016): 294–310.
9 Nelson, Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy, 109–29.
10 See Irene Eber’s introduction in Buber, Schriften zur Chinesischen Philosophie, 23.
11 Compare Jeffrey S. Librett, “Neo-Romantic Modernism and Daoism: Martin
Buber on the ‘Teaching’ as Fulfilment,” in China in the German Enlightenment,
eds. Bettina Brandt and Daniel Purdy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
2016), 181–98.
36138.indb 116 03/09/2019 11:16

12 “Besprechungen mit Martin Buber über Lao Tse’s Tao-te-king” (hereafter,

BMB) and “China und Wir” (hereafter, CW) are published in Buber, Schriften
zur Chinesischen Philosophie; Martin Buber, “Lao Tzu al hashilton,” Hapo’el
Hatsa’ir, 35 (1942), 6–8.
13 Buber, Schriften zur Chinesischen Philosophie.
14 Victor von Strauss, Lao Tse’s Tao Te King (Leipzig: Verlag von Friedrich
Fleischer, 1870); Richard Wilhelm, Tao Te King: Das Buch des Alten vom Sinn
und Leben. (Jena: E. Diederichs, 1921).
15 Buber, “BMB” in Schriften zur Chinesischen Philosophie, 227.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid., 228.
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid.
20 Martin Buber, Ich und Du (Stuttgart: Reclam, 2002), 7–8.
22 On the concept of ethical personalism, see Cheikh M. Gueye, Ethical
Personalism (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011); for a more extensive interpretation of
the interpersonal ethics and the inhuman in Levinas, see part one of Eric S.
Nelson, Levinas, Adorno, and the Ethics of the Material Other (Albany: State
University of New York Press, 2020).
23 For Levinas’s critical assessment of Buber, see the first three chapters of
Emmanuel Levinas, Outside the Subject, trans. Michael B. Smith (Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 1994). On Levinas’s conception of asymmetry and
alterity, see Nelson, Levinas, Adorno, and the Ethics of the Material Other.
25 Ibid., 273.
26 “Der Geist des Orients und das Judentum” has been republished in volume 2.1
of the Werkausgabe: Martin Buber. Mythos und Mystik: Frühe
Religionswissenschaftliche Schriften, ed. David Groiser. Gütersloh: Gütersloher
Verlagshaus, 2013, 187–203. See my discussion of the broken body in Buber
and Zhuangzi in Nelson, Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy, 127.
28 Ibid., 230.
29 Ibid., 229–30.
30 Ibid., 259–61.
31 Ibid., 247.
32 On co-creation and nourishing life in Buber’s interpretation of Daoism and
Judaism, see Nelson, Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy, 115–17.
34 Ibid., 232, 256.
35 Ibid., 229.
36 Ibid., 263.
36138.indb 117 03/09/2019 11:16

37 Ibid., 232.
38 Ibid., 230, 270.
39 Ibid., 230, 234.
40 Ibid., 230.
41 Ibid., 231.
42 Ibid., 235.
43 Ibid., 243–4.
44 Ibid., 234.
45 Ibid., 231, 235.
46 Martin Buber, The Letters of Martin Buber: A Life of Dialogue (Syracuse:
Syracuse University Press, 1996), 275.
47 On Buber’s “theopolitics” or “political theology,” see Samuel H. Brody, Martin
Buber’s Theopolitics (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2018).
49 Ibid., 231.
50 Ibid., 254–5, 266.
51 Ibid., 255.
52 Ibid., 251.
53 Martin Buber, Pointing the Way: Collected Essays, ed. and trans. Maurice S.
Friedman (New York: Harper and Row, 1957), 163. See also Nelson, Chinese
and Buddhist Philosophy, 36.
54 Buber, “BMB” in Schriften zur Chinesischen Philosophie, 235, 238.
55 Ibid., 238.
56 Ibid., 242.
57 Ibid., 250.
58 Ibid., 242–3.
59 On Daoism and social critique, see Mario Wenning, “Daoism as Critical
Theory,” Comparative Philosophy, 2 (2011): 50–71.
60 Buber, “BMB” in Schriften zur Chinesischen Philosophie, 247, 250.
61 Ibid., 250.
62 Ibid., 257.
63 Ibid., 247–8.
64 Ibid., 250–1.
65 Ibid., 240.
66 Ibid., 263.
67 Ibid., 240–1.
68 Ibid., 263.
69 See chapter four of Nelson, Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy, for an account
of the thematic of Daoism and technology in Buber and Heidegger.
36138.indb 118 03/09/2019 11:16

71 Buber, “CW” in Ibid., 285–6.

72 Ibid., 288.
73 Ibid.
References
Ben-Yosef, Israel Aharon. (1988), “Confucianism and Taoism in The Star of
Redemption,” Journal for the Study of Religion, 1.2: 25–36.
Brody, Samuel H. (2018), Martin Buber’s Theopolitics, Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 2018.
Buber, Martin. (1910), Reden und Gleichnisse des Tschuang-Tse, Leipzig: Insel.
Buber, Martin. (1911), Chinesische Geister und Liebesgeschichten, Frankfurt:
Rütten und Loening.
Buber, Martin. (1942), “Lao Tzu al hashilton,” Hapo’el Hatsa’ir, 35: 6–8.
Buber, Martin. (1957), Pointing the Way: Collected Essays, Maurice S. Friedman
(ed. and trans.), New York: Harper and Row.
Buber, Martin. (1962), Werke I: Schriften zur Philosophie, Kösel: Lambert
Schneider.
Buber, Martin. (1996), The Letters of Martin Buber: A Life of Dialogue, Syracuse:
Syracuse University Press.
Buber, Martin. (2002), Ich und Du, Stuttgart: Reclam.
Buber, Martin. (2013), Mythos und Mystik: Frühe Religionswissenschaftliche
Schriften, David Groiser (ed.), Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus.
Buber, Martin. (2013), Schriften zur Chinesischen Philosophie und Literatur, Irene
Eber (ed.), Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus.
Chai, David. (2014), “Meontological Generativity: A Daoist Reading of the Thing,”
Philosophy East and West, 64.2: 303–18.
Eber, Irene. (1994), “Martin Buber and Taoism,” Monumenta Serica, 42.1: 445–64.
Friedman, Maurice. (1976), “Martin Buber and Asia,” Philosophy East and West,
26.4: 411–26.
Gueye, Cheikh M. (2011), Ethical Personalism, Berlin: De Gruyter.
Kwok, Sai-Hang. (2016), “Zhuangzi’s Philosophy of Thing,” Asian Philosophy,
26.4: 294–310.
Levinas, Emmanuel. (1994), Outside the Subject, Michael B. Smith (trans.),
Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Li, Shuangzhi. (2016), “ ‘Wenn ich ein Chinese wäre’: The Austrian-Jewish
Imagination of China around 1900 revisited,” Austrian Studies, 24: 94–108.
Librett, Jeffrey S. (2016), “Neo-Romantic Modernism and Daoism: Martin Buber
on the ‘Teaching’ as Fulfilment,” in Bettina Brandt and Daniel Purdy (eds.),
China in the German Enlightenment, 181–97. Toronto: University of Toronto
Press.
Nelson, Eric S. (2008), “Questioning Dao: Skepticism, Mysticism, and Ethics in
the Zhuangzi,” International Journal of the Asian Philosophical Association,
1: 5–19.
36138.indb 119 03/09/2019 11:16

Nelson, Eric S. (2014), “The Human and the Inhuman: Ethics and Religion in the
Zhuangzi,” Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 41.S1: 723–39.
Nelson, Eric S. (2020), Levinas, Adorno, and the Ethics of the Material Other,
von Strauss, Victor. (1870), Lao Tse’s Tao Te King, Leipzig: Verlag von Friedrich
Fleischer.
Wenning, Mario. (2011), “Daoism as Critical Theory,” Comparative Philosophy,
2: 50–71.
Wilhelm, Richard. (1921), Tao te King: Das Buch des Alten vom Sinn und Leben,
Jena: E. Diederichs.
36138.indb 120 03/09/2019 11:16

6
Martin Buber’s Dao
Jason M. Wirth
1. Introduction
What are we to make of Martin Buber’s (1878–1965) occasional but
enduring, although somewhat apprehensive, relationship to the Daoist
teaching of Laozi 老子 and Zhuangzi 莊子? The grounds for answering such
a question demand that we first articulate the grounds upon which we
would evaluate any of his claims.
The difficulty of doing so is unavoidable with Buber’s seminal work, Ich
und Du (1923). Are its claims true to lived experience? This approach would
relegate the issue at the heart of the book to the confines of the I–It attitude
in which an inquiring subject evaluates the veracity of a given object. “The
world as experience belongs to the grounding word [Grundwort] I-It.”1 Does
one then seek recourse to some privileged mystical access? This would ignore
the work’s trenchant critique of mystical absorption and its sublation (in the
sense of Hegel’s Aufhebung) of the I–You relationship. Moreover, nothing is
gained by replacing the experiences that govern the I–It relationship with a
special class of “mysterious” experiences. “O furtiveness without mystery
[Heimlichkeit ohne Geheimnis], o amassment of information! It, it, it!”2
Does one then have to assume some sort of fidelity to a particular religion in
order to render Buber’s approach credible, even intelligible? Buber counters
that he is speaking of a reality that no religion owns, including Judaism.
Even language itself is fraught with obstacles. “Pathetic are those who leave
the grounding word unspoken, but miserable are those who instead of that
address these ideas with a concept or a catchphrase as if that were their
name.”3 One rather can only utter the grounding word—I and You—“with
the whole of being [mit dem ganzen Wesen].”4
It is not that I experience something in particular or that I endeavor to
transcend the particularities of experience by making an effort with the
fullness of my own being. Rather, the fullness of my being stands in
36138.indb 121 03/09/2019 11:16

relationship to the bi-fold fullness of being itself. One neither sinks into this
fullness nor absorbs it. Out of the abstract petrification of the subject–object
relation emerges the intimacy of non-dual unity—not oneness, but a bi-fold
unity that, as such, is always two without resolution into a higher unity.
Although this opposition cannot be reconciled, it is not because its poles are
discrete, self-standing, and separable. They are themselves by virtue of each
other. Buber’s great work hints at and speaks from this all-encompassing
non-duality, that is always two, but also not just two, but somehow one, in
an effort to awaken the reader to its living reality and to the reality of its life.
My emphasis on a language of non-duality also intentionally evokes
major strands of Asian thought, most of which too often languish in
disciplines like religious studies or area studies and still struggle in many
circles to establish that they matter as philosophy. Buber’s own thought
exemplifies this challenge to philosophy in three ways: (1) It does not
originate in discursivity, personal experience, or the intellectual assent that
comes with religious belief; (2) As such, it is steeped in non-dual approaches,
ancient and contemporary; and (3) Standing in relationship to these
traditions, Buber’s “philosophy” challenges us to reconsider both the ground
upon which we engage non-dual traditions philosophically and what it
means to evaluate them. In what follows, I will engage this problem via a
case study: Martin Buber’s formative and lifelong relationship to the Daoism
of Laozi and Zhuangzi.
2. Approaching Buber’s Dao

Given his voluminous writings, Buber wrote relatively little about Asian
thought of any kind. His most sustained study of Daoist teaching was the
1910 essay, “Die Lehre vom Tao,”5 written in the early and still developing
stages of his thought to accompany his translation of selections from the
Zhuangzi. It appears shortly after his translations of Hassidic mystical tales
and parables, Tales of Rabbi Nahman (1906), and The Legend of Baal Shem
(1907), and belongs to what he later characterized as his “mystical” period.
Buber, like Thomas Merton after him (who also produced an edition of
the Zhuangzi6), was not a Sinologist and, admittedly, his work on the
Zhuangzi is not admissible in this respect. His Reden und Gleichnisse des
Tschuang-tse (Leipzig: Insel Verlag, 1910) was largely translated from the
English of James Legge and Herbert Allen Giles, not from the Chinese
original, although he reported in the improved 1951 edition that he had “the
help of Chinese colleagues.”7 The translation itself is tendentious and
conspicuously selective and in no way serves to produce a German version
of the Zhuangzi. Granted the legitimacy of these concerns, they do not
amount to grounds for dismissing the text. We should also remember that
Buber was a great writer, as evidenced by the fact that he was nominated for
the Nobel Prize in Literature ten times and won the Goethe Prize in 1951.
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Martin Buber’s Dao 123
This is not to imply, however, that his engagement with the Zhuangzi is a
kind of Chinese mirror in which he gazes upon his own thinking or unduly
appropriates Chinese thought for his own purposes. As Jonathan Herman
argues, “his linguistic and historical limitations do not prevent him from
evincing a tremendous sensitivity to the subtleties of Chinese thought.”8
How then do we characterize the manner of this confrontation when it is
neither an early exercise in Sinology nor an assimilation of the Zhuangzi
into Buber’s early Hassidic ontology?
3. Dao as Teaching

In the 1915 lecture-essay, “The Spirit of the Orient and Judaism,” Buber
argued that Judaism was closer to Asian traditions than to more
conventionally recognizable European ones, especially in its overcoming of
the “diremption [Entzweiung]” of self and world.9 Indeed, according to
Irene Eber, Buber “may have been first among Jewish philosophers who
appropriated ideas from Daoism and integrated these into a specifically
Jewish philosophical discourse.”10 In so doing, Buber assiduously avoids the
stereotype that Jewish religiosity is otherworldly and obsessed with
transcendence while Asian thought is saturated in immanence. As Eric
Nelson argues in his important new book on the reception of Chinese
thought in early twentieth-century German language philosophy, Buber
brings forth an “Hasidic Zhuangzi,” which “perceives in both Hasidic
Judaism and Lao-Zhuang Daoism tendencies toward the humanistic
actualization of the transcendent in the immanent, of the sacred in the
mundane, in everyday life through exemplary figures and genuine teachers
teaching the needful and the authentic life.”11
At the heart of Buber’s “Die Lehre vom Tao” is a reflection on die Lehre,
or teaching, itself. The latter is not a proposal concerning what is (as in a
science) nor is it a series of arguments about what we ought to do (as in
ethics). It is not about anything other than itself. It “proclaims what it is:
Unity as necessity.”12 This is not a metaphysical position or a philosophical
claim or any kind of “content.” It was not a position that “Jesus or Buddha
or Laozi” wanted to “express.” It is rather “der Sinn und der Grund,” the
sense and the ground, of these men.13 Their respective teachings were not
about the meaning or the content of the words they expressed, but rather
“this word’s life and this word itself in its unity.”14 Daoist proclamations are
not therefore metaphysical speculations or claims about the world and the
nature of its things. When the zhenren 真人, a compound that appears
nineteen times in the Zhuangzi to name the consummate, true, and real
person,15 speaks, she is not making a philosophical claim or otherwise
producing a philosophical argument. Were the zhenren somehow to speak
directly, she could only communicate to other zhenren. The zhenren
consequently does not explain how to become a zhenren, but rather speaks
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of and from Dao in such a way so as to awaken interlocutors and readers to

their own unrealized zhenren. The zhenren, so to speak, can only speak
zhenren to zhenren.
Furthermore, in itself, “naked unity is mute.”16 To utter it is contradictory,
an impossible mute speaking. The word has to somehow express itself in the
world without sacrificing its unity, and, in so doing, awaken the one who
receives the teaching not to its content, but to its unity. For Buber, the
zhenren therefore speaks in parables, that is, die Einstellung, the mental or
spiritual attitude or frame of mind or quality of consciousness, of “the
absolute in the world of things.”17 This is an ongoing process rather than
something that can be established once and for all—die Lehre beginnt ewig
von neuem, the teaching eternally begins anew.18
The parable expresses the duality of eternity expressing itself as new life.
The word enters the realm of things by speaking of and with things, and
hence the unified word is also multiplicity, that is, the things and persons of
which it speaks and the manners in which they are distinguished and
conveyed in language. This is the inherent paradox of the parable: one as
many and many as one; silence as words and words that speak to a silence
beyond all words. The silence that is spoken in the parable (as well as in the
later Zen koˉan) is a silence from a paradoxical time of absolute silence, in
der Stunde der Stille [an eternal silence that can only be thought in time, we
here note]. This is the time before the day—presumably here evoking Genesis
and the “time” before the “days” of creation—“wo noch kein Du ist als das
Ich,” where the I does not yet have a You or where the only You is the I.
There is only solitary discourse in the darkness from and toward the abyss.19
To speak this at all is to speak as parable (or in Laozi’s unitary utterances
that lift one out of a lopsided identification with the worldly). At the heart
of the parable—and here we already sense Ich und Du on the horizon—is
not the solitary I but rather I and others, I and creation, the abyss and the
days of coming into being. The unity can only be spoken in a two-fold
manner. The word of the parable holds together night and day, the hour of
stillness and lived time, I and You. Still, one can detect that in these early
formulations an “I” that is not yet fully also “You.” This I that is everything
but nothing in particular will also be an increasing source of trouble for
Buber as he increasingly realizes the ineluctable primacy of the two-fold I
and You. There is no pure I save for its relationship to the beings of the
world. The I can only be as You.
The zhenren does not bring anything new to teaching, but fulfills it. This
means that she raises it from the unrecognized to the recognized, from the
conditional to the unconditional. The zhenren “lives [erlebt] and experiences
[erfährt] Dao directly”;20 in the zhenren, “the unknowable and the unified
human life, the first and the last, come into contact.”21 There is no knowledge
of unity, as if unity were something to know, but rather the reverse: “unity
is knowledge [Erkenntnis]” and, as such, Erkenntnis is not knowing (Wissen)
but rather being (Sein).22 Language is inadequate; all concepts fall short; all
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values lack certainty, even though each person tends to falsely assume the
universality of their own language and considers their own concepts and
values to be the concepts and the values. The zhenren does not look at the
ten thousand things as various things, but rather regards them from the
unity of Erkenntnis, from the non-discriminating lens of the Dao-Lehre or
Dao-teaching. It elevates each thing that it “contemplates [betrachtet] out of
its appearance [Erscheinung] and into being [Sein].”23
Such contemplation is an all-embracing love and affirmation, above
and beyond all contradictions and oppositions. Beyond the partiality and
deontological obedience of justice and ethical commands, the zhenren’s
“love” spontaneously, effortlessly, and inclusively affirms the whole of
being out of its own shared unity. It is “entirely free and unrestricted”
and knows “no choice,” and, as such, is unbedingt.24 The complex
deployment of the latter term merits brief embellishment. One detects three
interlocking threads in Buber’s use of this standard term from German
Idealism: (1) in the conventional sense, we can say this is unconditional
love,” ἀγάπη, love that loves without restriction; (2) it does so because it is
unconditioned, that is, absolute, love; it is not love that emerges from
human motives or from conditional appearances; it loves the conditioned
from an unconditioned perspective; in a different idiom, we could say that
it loves the world the way God loves the world; and (3) it is literally a love
that has not been turned into a thing (Ding) and, as such, it incipiently
anticipates Ich und Du where love absolutely loves all beings (Wesen)
intimately and relationally, that is, not as things and not in an I–It relationship.
Love is not a motivated activity, but rather the wuwei 無爲 of unity where
all beings (Wesen) are affirmed intimately and spontaneously both in their
unknowable depths and in their dynamically evolving manifestations. Love
absolutely and without action affirms the ten thousand—all Wesen—as
expressions of Dao.
4. Dao as Relation

Although Buber in Ich und Du will distinguish (mystical) love as
“identification” from love as “relation,”25 that is, the “responsibility of an I
for a You,”26 he continues to distinguish love from a feeling or an experience
(experience remains in the realm of the I–It). It is rather ein welthaftes
Wirken, acting within the confines of the world to open it up to the I–You.
It cannot be blind for that would mean that “it does not see a whole being
[Wesen].”27 Only hatred can be blind because only hatred is selective,
demanding not the whole, but the parts that it loves and the parts that
it rejects. As Herman argues, rightly in my view, although Ich und Du
represents a maturation and refinement of Buber’s earlier so-called “mystical”
perspective, it nonetheless remains intimately intertwined with the early
Dao-Lehre:28 “Buber argues that Dao is a singular and ineffable cosmic
36138.indb 125 03/09/2019 11:16

principle that is accessible in the form of an obliterating oneness that

nevertheless provides an ontological basis for the transformation of things,
which is an ongoing process of renewal and recreation, an ongoing repetition
of successive cosmogonic moments.”29
Nonetheless, Buber articulated some serious reservations about his
“mystical” embrace of Dao. Almost four decades later in a 1957 Foreword
to Pointing the Way, a collection of essays assembled by Maurice Friedman,
Buber argued that the zhenren
loses the sure knowledge of the principium individuationis, and

understands this precious experience of his unity as the experience of
the unity. When this man returns into life in the world and with the world,
he is naturally inclined from then on to regard everyday life as an
obscuring of the true life . . . he constantly flees from it into an experience
of the unity . . . he thereby turns away from . . . the existence into which
he has been set, through conception and birth, for life and death in this
unique personal form . . . in the “lower” periods he regards everything
as a preparation for the “higher.” But in these “higher hours” he no
longer knows anything over against him: the great dialogue between I
and Thou is silent; nothing else exists than his self, which he experiences
as the self.30
Buber nonetheless regarded this essay as important enough to include it

in the English collection of essays, as well as the earlier German collection,
Hinweise: Gesammelte Essays, the 1953 collection from which Pointing the
Way is drawn. It is also included in the 1951 reissue of the translation.
Friedman includes the essay with other early essays in the same chronological
order that they appeared in Hinweise, but drops the 1913 essay on the
Finnish mythic founding epic, the Kalevala, and then dubs the subsection of
essays, “Towards Authentic Existence.” Buber called this necessary “stage I
had to pass through,” the “mystical” in the sense of a “belief in the unification
of the self with the all-self, attainable by humans in levels or intervals of
their earthly life.”31 And if one holds Buber to the letter of his word, he is not
associating this characterization of a necessary but not sufficient mystical
stage with either the Laozi or Zhuangzi per se, but with the 1910 Dao-
Lehre essay. This particular reading of the Zhuangzi, as well as the principle
of selection that governed which “sayings and parables” he “translated,” is
what is simultaneously indispensable yet immature. Indispensable and
immature with regard to what? Buber’s own thinking, of course. One could
and should not hold Buber responsible for not thinking what he freely
confesses he was unable to think at the time.
It is also critical to insist that Buber is not criticizing the Dao-Lehre from
the outside, opposing it with a superior position. He is thinking within a
living unity, exploring and clarifying and rethinking the relations between
its elements. One could even say that he is thinking in and between the Dao
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and the ten thousand, that is, refining not only their non-duality, but also the
manner of their unified duality. He does this in at least two critical ways: a
criticism of mystical immersion and an ontological engagement with the
problem of good and evil.
5. Beyond Mystical Immersion

Given the tenor of his 1957 self-criticism of his “mystical” reading of the
Dao-Lehre, namely, that the zhenren regards “everyday life as an obscuring
of the true life” and therefore “constantly flees from it into an experience of
the unity,” we can see that this is precisely Buber’s critique of “mystical
immersion” in the third part of Ich und Du. Here Buber warns against
obscuring the I–You relationship in the “religious act” of Versenkung, which
he clarifies as die Einwandlung in das Selbst.32 Versenkung is to sink down
into something, like a ship going down at sea. More metaphorically, it is to
get lost in an activity, as when one is immersed in a film or a book or even
driving. One is no longer aware of oneself: there is only the activity.
Versenkung might describe Buber’s implicit understanding of Cook Ding
from chapter 3 of the Zhuangzi, and his versatility with the cleaver—there
is no Cook Ding, just the unobstructed activity of cleaving. One also speaks
of a contemplative, prayerful, or mystical Versenkung. Ecstatic prayer or
Buddhist samādhi would be examples.
Einwandlung is archaic: to transform or change or even transubstantiate.
It is here the transubstantiation of the two-fold, of I and You, into the single
self before creation, into the 1910 Dao-Lehre’s time “wo noch kein Du ist
als das Ich,” where the I does not yet have a You. Buber distinguished the
two ways in which this Versenkung can come about: either the opposition
between I and You is dialectically sublated (in the Hegelian sense of
Aufhebung) into the You or into the I. Either the I disappears altogether—
some kind of mystical ecstasy where there is no me, just the pure, originary
You—or one ascends to the One Great Self beyond all beings like Atman
rising to Brahman—I am now the unity. “Both maintain a beyond of the I
and You . . . Both sublate [aufhebt] the relationship. The first does so
dynamically, so to speak, through the becoming swallowed up of the I by the
You so that there is no longer even a You, but rather that which alone has
being [das Alleinseiende]. The other does so statically, so to speak, as the I
dissolves into the Self of the knowing, which alone has being [das
Alleinseiende Erkennen].”33 This is not unity but rather “annihilation
[Vernichtung].”34 Buber’s Buddha, whom he calls the “consummate”35 one,
recalling his characterization of the zhenren in 1910, wants to resolve
duh.kha by dissolving into the Great Self. Hence in its “innermost,” it tends
toward the sublation of the You, indeed the sublation of the very ability to
say “You” (Dusagenkönnen).36 Samādhi sinks out of the two-fold into the
pure I.
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In the I–It relationship, I am separated from the world and regard it

objectively, as mere things. I am my own thing, an Eigenwesen, and, as such,
opposed to all other things. In Versenkung, however, the chrysalis of the I–It
relationship does not let the butterfly of the I–You relationship emerge, but
rather misses the mark and mystifies our relationship with the intimacy of
the world. Losing one’s self in the One (the pure “You” or the pure “I”) is to
lose one’s own actuality. To lose the world in the One is to sacrifice its
actuality. “Let us love the actual in all its dread, which does not want to be
sublated. Let us just dare to embrace it with the arms of our spirit: and our
hands will meet the hands that maintain it.”37
Buber’s criticism of the dangers of Versenkung is powerful and salutary,
although it is less clear that his alignment of the Buddha, the zhenren, and
Atman-Brahman with the sublation of the I into “the Self of the Knowing,
which alone has being” is fair to these traditions. It is certainly fair to his
reading of these traditions and, as such, the confrontation with Versenkung
is critical to the evolution of Buber’s own discourse on unity. We might
here recall the famous tat tvam asi, you are that, from the Chandogya
Upanishad, which Buber cites as an example of the You being sublated by
the Great Unitary Self. Certainly, there is a tendency, even within Hindu
spirituality, to confuse Atman-Brahman with the dissolution of all beings
into the Great Self. Yet much of the tradition also runs counter to this.
Śaṅkara dismissed bliss as an addiction and lived happily and compassionately
in the world. The Ox Herding pictures in Chinese Chan Buddhism do not
conclude with the overcoming of the bull and the self, but with the return to
the market to “teach the withered trees to bloom.” The consummate activity
of Cook Ding in the Zhuangzi is not at all immersed in the Dao, but more
intimately present to the versatile way of things now and here. The zhenren
detaches from a world that is already being kept at a distance through
abstraction, the over-determination of conceptualization, and a parochial
sense of values, in order to reaffirm it in its immediacy, intimacy, and
dynamism. Nāgārjuna—perhaps the greatest of all Buddhist philosophers—
claimed in his masterpiece, the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā,38 that the view,
prapañca (hypostatization or reification), of emptiness turns that which is
designed to rid one of all prapañca into the worst prapañca of all: “those for
whom emptiness is a prapañca have been called incurable.”39 Those who
hypostasize the Buddha, he later argues, are “deceived” and “fail to see the
Tathāgata.”40 One jumps out of the pot and into the fire when one
hypostasizes emptiness and loses the intimate dependent co-origination of
all beings. “Emptiness misunderstood destroys the slow-witted, like a serpent
wrongly held or a spell wrongly executed.”41 The great Japanese Rinzai
reformer Hakuin warned Zen practitioners against a Zen malady that he
called emptiness sickness (Jp. kūbyoˉ), an attachment to śūnyatā or emptiness
at the cost of the lived world. In a sense, this is all just to say that Buber
belonged to these “teachings” at their depths more intimately than he
realized.
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6. Dao of Good and Evil

Tellingly, although Buber banished this early essay on Daoism to the
threshold of his mature position, he did not consequently abandon his
interest in Daoist thought. In his 1928 address to the China Institute in
Frankfurt-am-Main, “China and Us,” he respectfully distances himself from
the Confucian heritage as, for better or worse, unlikely to make inroads into
European culture, but he turns decisively to Daoist thought as being able to
transmit something “in a living manner,” namely, its teaching of wuwei.
Unlike the Chinese sages who learned it through a transformative and
positive experience, however, Europe would learn it first through the failure
of its own culture. “We have begun to doubt the significance of historical
success, i.e., the validity of the man who sets an end for himself, carries this
end into effect, accumulates the necessary means of power and succeeds
with these means of power: the typical modern Western man.”42 The ravages
of Western self-assertion—slavery, the genocide of indigenous peoples and
cultures, colonialism and imperialism, white male supremacy, two world
wars, technological voracity and its logical conclusion, the impending
ecological ruin of life as we know it—bears witness to Buber’s prescience.
Although he wrote these words before the Shoah, the fate of his people in
the following two decades adds further poignancy to this prescience.
As this culture, built on the relentless logic of the I–It relationship, a
relationship where every being, human or otherwise, is an “it” and, as such,
at the disposal of the I, threatens to collapse, then the contemporary West
can receive the transformative and living Daoist heritage. This is “the
teaching that genuine effecting is not interfering, not giving vent to power,
but remaining within one’s self. This is the powerful existence that does not
yield historical success, i.e., the success that can be exploited and registered
in this hour, but only yields that effecting that at first appears insignificant,
indeed invisible, yet endures across generations and there at times becomes
perceptible in another form.”43 Alas, the collapse still has not happened and
the world order continues to congratulate itself, despite the unfathomable
wreckage of modern history and increasingly dire warnings about a global
ecological catastrophe as the culmination of Western ideology. The West—
perhaps we should now say the global world—will not first receive ancient
Daoist wisdom as a confirmation of its own wisdom, but rather as the
exposure of its folly. The West has tasted the Dao “in the bitterest manner;
indeed, in a downright foolish manner.”44
A year after the decisive appearance in 1923 of his mature masterpiece,
Ich und Du, Buber lectured on Laozi’s Daodejing in Ascona, Switzerland.
From the unpublished manuscript of these discussions, we see plenty of
evidence of Buber’s horror at the New World Order. For example, in Soviet
Russia, “a person is . . . not seen in his relationship to others, or the life of
the community, but as a cog in a vast, brutal, and senseless machine.”45 In
1942, as the Second World War raged and genocide loomed, Buber translated
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into Hebrew chapters 17, 29, 30, 31, 57, 58, 66, and 67 of the Daodejing,
chapters that eschew the use of violence in governance.46
From this we can already detect Buber’s second refinement, namely, his
efforts to suggest what he called in 1952 “the foundation of an ontological
ethics.”47 Robert Allinson argues that Buber’s Hasidic perspective that “one
should right wrongs” points to “what is lacking in all Daoist ones: One must
include the other in the unity, then one has a good influence on him.”48 Just
as love cannot be blind, only hate can, and just as the I–You relationship
cannot be partial, only the I–It one can, the good is born of a recuperation
of the unity of I–You. Buber did not regard anything as intrinsically evil, nor
is ethics a simpleminded dedication to doing good things and avoiding evil
things. “Evil is lack of direction,”49 born of the abundance of human
contingency and possibility. Good is the directionality of actions. From the
Daoist perspective, one could say that it is to love the ten thousand things
just as they are and, as such, to take responsibility for them, even to enter, as
the mature Buber does, into dialogue with both them and Dao itself. From
the Buddhist perspective it is suchness, things just as they are, and hence a
calling to embrace and illuminate them as such. From the Hindu perspective,
every Atman expresses Brahman and hence is precious and worthy of
cherishment and care.
7. Conclusion
The directionless plight of Adam and Eve in the Garden, of the little minded
ones before the zhenren, or the somnolence of the Buddhist marketplace, is
however not yet radical evil. This happens when flowing water freezes and
we take ownership of ourselves and lock the world into the I–It in order to
put it at our disposal. The unitary spiritual ethicality of Daoism, of
Heraclitus, of Advaita Vedanta, of Buddha Dharma, yields not only to the
directionless confusion of the marketplace, but more deeply to the radical
evil of sophistry. Soon, humans, as Protagoras infamously held, are the
measure of all things, and Thrasymachus’s world where might makes right
begins to hold sway.50 This is the great lie at the heart of radical evil: to
knowingly and willingly bear false witness to being. As we teeter on the
verge of ecological collapse, what better description of the prevailing global
order than Buber’s reflections on Psalm 12:51 “they spin a way of thinking
for them which they themselves do not follow . . . Liars as it were manufacture
a special heart, an apparatus which functions with the greatest appearance
of naturalness, from which lies well up to the ‘smooth lips’ like spontaneous
utterances of experience and insight . . . Their tongues maintain them in
their superiority.”52
In response to our irresponsibility to each other and the Earth itself,
Buber hints at the wuwei at the heart not only of his exploration of what is
living in Daoist teaching, but in world philosophy itself.
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Notes
1 In general, I have relied on existing translations, although sometimes I slightly
emend them. Buber’s language is quite singular and poetic and nowhere is this
more prevalent than in Ich und Du. It is easy to lose the force of his singular
locutions and so for this work I have relied on my own translations, and have
used the original edition: Martin Buber, Ich und Du (Leipzig: Insel Verlag,
1923), 12.
2 Buber, Ich und Du, 12.
3 Ibid., 21.
4 Ibid., 9.
5 Martin Buber, “Die Lehre vom Tao,” Hinweise: Gesammelte Essays (Zürich:
Manesse Verlag, 1953), 44–83. There are at least three versions of this essay in
English translation: Jonathan Herman’s I and Tao: Martin Buber’s Encounter
with Chuang Tzu; Maurice Friedman’s 1957 edition of Pointing the Way:
Collected Essays, drawn from the 1953 collection, Hinweise: Gesammelte
Essays; and the version found in Martin Buber, Chinese Tales, Zhuangzi:
Sayings and Parables and Chinese Ghost and Love Stories, trans. Alex Page
(New Jersey and London: Humanities Press International, 1991). I cite the
Page translation, often with emendations and alterations, followed by the
German citation.
6 Thomas Merton, The Way of Zhuangzi (New York: New Directions, 1965).
Merton called his own efforts “free interpretive readings.” See Merton, 9.
7 Buber, Chinese Tales, 3.
8 Jonathan R. Herman, I and Tao: Martin Buber’s Encounter with Chuang Tzu
(Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996), 127–8.
9 Irene Eber, “Martin Buber and Taoism,” Monumenta Serica, 42 (1994): 454.
10 Ibid., 464.
11 Eric S. Nelson, Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early Twentieth-Century
German Thought (London: Bloomsbury, 2017), 117.
12 Buber, Chinese Tales, 86; Buber, “Die Lehre vom Tao,” 52
13 Ibid.; Ibid.
14 Ibid.; Ibid., 53.
15 Laozi tends to speak of the shengren 聖人 or sage. Zhuangzi’s zhenren was
also later used to translate arhat, a Buddhist awakened person. I think it
imprudent to suggest a great gap between shengren and zhenren and to hold
the former as somehow more grounded.
16 Buber, Chinese Tales, 84; Buber, “Die Lehre vom Tao,” 50; also, Buber, Chinese
Tales, 89; Buber, “Die Lehre vom Tao,” 57
17 Ibid., 84; Ibid., 49.
18 Ibid., 85; Ibid., 51.
19 See Buber, Chinese Tales, 89; Buber, “Die Lehre vom Tao,” 57. I here differ
from the Page translation, which elides the presence of an utterly solitary I
(before its division into I and You) before the days of creation.
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20 Ibid., 95; Ibid., 68.

21 Ibid., 97; Ibid., 71–2.
22 Ibid., 98; Ibid., 74.
23 Ibid., 99; Ibid., 75.
24 Ibid., 100; Ibid., 78.
25 As Phil Huston characterizes this moment in Buber’s thinking: “This
knowledge embraces all things in its being, that is, in its love . . . There is no
distinction here between one person and another; there is no relation.” Phil
Huston, Martin Buber’s Journey to Presence (New York: Fordham University
Press, 2007), 87.
27 Ibid., 23.
28 “It is, however, my contention that the fundamental ingredients of the I-Thou
relation—the primacy of the existential sphere, the integrity of particular
entities necessarily bound through interaction and relation, and the potential
presence of the absolute within each coming together—are in fact already
present within Buber’s encounter with Chuang Tzu, although they have
admittedly not yet coalesced or found articulate expression.” Herman, I and
Tao, 163. Herman finds the seeds of the I–You relationship already at play in
the zhenren. “It should be noted that it is never anything less than a oneness
that is maintained in such a state of relation; it is clearly appropriate to
characterize this as a ‘proto-dialogical unity’, where the voice of relation is in
dialectical tension with the voice of monism.” Ibid., 162.
29 Herman, I and Tao, 154.
30 Martin Buber, Pointing the Way: Collected Essays, ed. and trans. Maurice S.
Friedman (New York: Harper and Row, 1957), ix–x.
31 Ibid., ix.
33 Ibid., 99.
34 Ibid., 104.
35 Ibid., 105.
36 Ibid., 108.
37 Ibid., 110.
38 Nāgārjuna’s Middle Way (Mūlamadhyamakakārikā), ed. and trans. Mark
Siderits and Shoˉryū Katsura (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2013).
39 Ibid., 145.
40 Ibid., 250.
41 Ibid., 274.
42 Buber, Pointing the Way, 124.
43 Ibid., 125.
44 Ibid. Eric Nelson rightly notes that Buber’s embrace of wuwei anticipates
Heidegger’s turn to Gelassenheit in the age of technology, a term that
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Heidegger repurposes from Meister Eckhart, one of Buber’s earliest passions.

See Nelson, 123–8.
45 Eber, “Martin Buber and Taoism,” 462.
46 Ibid., 462–3. See, also, Martin Buber, “Lao Tzu al hashilton,” Hapo’el Hatsa’ir,
35 (1942): 6–8.
47 Martin Buber, Good and Evil (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1953),
foreword.
48 Robert Allinson, “Zhuangzi and Buber in Dialogue: A Lesson in Practicing
Integrative Philosophy,” Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy, 15.4
(2016): 558.
49 Buber, Good and Evil, 130.
50 See Martin Buber, “Religion and Ethics,” trans. Eugene Kamenka and Maurice
S. Friedman, Eclipse of God: Studies in the Relation Between Religion and
Philosophy (New York: Harper, 1952), 101.
51 Especially salient is the first half of Psalm 12: Help, Lord, for no one is faithful
anymore; those who are loyal have vanished from the human race. Everyone
lies to their neighbor; they flatter with their lips but harbor deception in their
hearts. May the Lord silence all flattering lips and every boastful tongue—those
who say, “By our tongues we will prevail; our own lips will defend us—who is
lord over us?”
52 Buber, Good and Evil, 10.
References
Allinson, Robert. (2016), “Zhuangzi and Buber in Dialogue: A Lesson in Practicing
Integrative Philosophy,” Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy, 15.4:
547–62.
Buber, Martin. (1923), Ich und Du, Leipzig: Insel Verlag.
Buber, Martin. (1942), “Lao Tzu al hashilton,” Hapo’el Hatsa’ir, 35: 6–8.
Buber, Martin. (1952), “Religion and Ethics,” in Eugene Kamenka and Maurice S.
Friedman (trans.), Eclipse of God: Studies in the Relation Between Religion and
Philosophy, 83–99, New York: Harper.
Buber, Martin. (1953), “Die Lehre vom Tao,” Hinweise: Gesammelte Essays,
44–83, Zürich: Manesse Verlag.
Buber, Martin. (1953), Good and Evil, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Buber, Martin. (1957), Pointing the Way: Collected Essays, Maurice S. Friedman
(ed. and trans.), New York: Harper and Row.
Buber, Martin. (1991), Chinese Tales, Zhuangzi: Sayings and Parables and Chinese
Ghost and Love Stories, Alex Page (trans.), London: Humanities Press
International.
Eber, Irene. (1994), “Martin Buber and Taoism,” Monumenta Serica, 42: 445–64.
Huston, Phil. (2007), Martin Buber’s Journey to Presence, New York: Fordham
University Press.
36138.indb 133 03/09/2019 11:16

Merton, Thomas. (1965), The Way of Zhuangzi, New York: New Directions.
Nāgārjuna. (2013), The Middle Way (Mūlamadhyamakakārikā), Mark Siderits and
Shoˉryū Katsura (ed. and trans.), Boston: Wisdom Publications.
36138.indb 134 03/09/2019 11:16

7
The Dao of Existence:
Jaspers and Laozi
Mario Wenning
Karl Jaspers’s in-depth engagement with non-European traditions has had

surprisingly little impact. While there have been a number of studies focusing
on Heidegger’s hidden Asian sources, Jaspers’s extensive, nuanced and open
dialogue with the East remains largely unexplored.1 This oversight is
surprising, given Jaspers’s radical curiosity and cosmopolitan vision. An
exception among twentieth-century philosophers, Jaspers almost single-
handedly expanded the scope of what was considered worthy of serious
philosophical reflection by systematically turning to and engaging with East
Asian thinkers, traditions, and philosophical concerns. The omission of
Jaspers in most recent discussions about East–West philosophical encounters
reflects a more general trend to underestimate Jaspers’s contributions to
engaging in intercultural philosophy from an existential-phenomenological
perspective. If at all, Jaspers is mostly remembered for his political
engagement in postwar Germany while his metaphysical conception of
human existence seems outdated in the context of current post-metaphysical
trends.2 He has been largely forgotten among major twentieth-century
thinkers associated with what he called at times philosophy of existence and
reason and later characterized as cosmopolitan, global-, geo- or world-
philosophy (Weltphilosophie).
Jaspers adopts the phenomenological pursuit of the things themselves.3
However, the method of bracketing the world as part of an eidetic reduction
proposed by Husserl, as well as the existential analytic developed by
Heidegger, defies the inherently world-oriented and dialogical ethos of
engaging in cosmopolitan philosophy. The theoretical reflection on eidetic
essences precluded the fact that humans are primarily historically situated
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beings who exist in a shared world that is increasingly shaped by multiple

philosophical and religious traditions, which are in need of being included
in a global conversation.
In the context of the present volume’s focus on a productive encounter
between Daoism and phenomenology, Jaspers deserves a central position.
His well-informed, systematic and original engagement opens up a radically
new perspective that serves as a productive intervention in the philosophical
dialogue between East and West. In what follows, this chapter will: (1) recall
the motivations and outlines of the project of a world-philosophy; (2) show
how, at its core, the axial age hypothesis of a shared origin overcomes the
distinctive philosophical traditions East and West; (3) illustrate in what way
Daoism is an axial age tradition by drawing on Jaspers’s interpretation of
Daoist mysticism in Psychologie der Weltanschauungen; (4) focus on
Jaspers’s discussion of the personality of Laozi as a “metaphysician who
thinks from the origin” in Die großen Philosophen as a test case for the axial
age hypothesis; (5) conclude by anticipating potential objections to the
project of world-philosophy thus conceived.
1. Jaspers on the Way to World-Philosophy

Jaspers saw his unfinished attempt to integrate different philosophical
traditions into a new systematic framework that he called “Weltphilosophie,”
world-philosophy, as his lasting achievement.4 The importance Jaspers
attributed to the attempt to dig up and reconstruct non-European
philosophical origins of philosophy is documented in the concluding
sentence of his auto-obituary: “he [Jaspers] wished to participate in the task
of the times, i.e., to find the way from the end of European philosophy to
a world-philosophy [Weltphilosophie] to come.” In analogy to Goethe’s
concept of world literature, world-philosophy is committed to a cosmopolitan
spirit that transcends particular cultural boundaries.5 The term
“Weltphilosophie” appears for the first time in an unpublished lecture
Jaspers gave on Nietzsche in 1916. World-philosophy is distinguished from
the philosophy of humans (Menschenphilosophie). While the latter is
focused on human concerns, world-philosophy arises from a perspective on
the world that transcends particular human perspectives. “Weltphilosophie”
appears again in a radio lecture presented in 1951. Giving an account of his
“way to philosophy,” Jaspers states:
We would like to participate in the transition to a new, still unknown,

quickly advancing world—as individual birds in the mass of those who
fly to a new age, peeking, searching. We are on the way from the glowing
sunset of European philosophy through the twilight of our time to the
glowing sunrise of world-philosophy.6
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The Dao of Existence: Jaspers and L aozi 137
Hegel had infamously identified the progressive movement of spirit in

analogy to the sun’s movement from East to West. The coming of age story
of how reason moves from its infant stage in China and India (where one is
free) through its adolescence in Greece and Rome (where some are free) to
its culmination in modern Europe (where all are free) was outdated.
Similarly, the view that philosophy, symbolized for Hegel by the owl of
Minerva, appears after history has come to an end was unsatisfactory.
Jaspers radically revises and transforms this imagery. History has not been
finished and freedom has not been realized. The philosophical as well as
political task consists in overcoming the narrow focus of the European
tradition if philosophy is to live up to its global vocation. At a time when it
was not yet common to criticize the exclusive focus on Western philosophy
at the expense of other traditions, Jaspers turned to the East in a gesture that
both recovers history’s diverse origins and points to the possibility of a
global conversation in preparation of a future world-philosophy. World-
philosophy combines a revised conception of nonlinear and nonteleological
universal history with a radically cosmopolitan ethos.
The self-attributed significance of the turn to the East has been expressed
in Jaspers’s letters. The intensive engagement with the Chinese tradition
dates back to 1937. Jaspers writes to Heinrich Zimmer, an Indologist who
had introduced Jaspers to Asian sources, that “the singular nobility of
Chinese Daoism” was of particular interest to him. This nobility, he
continues, represents a “nobility of the soul.” Jaspers acknowledged in
Chinese philosophy more generally, and in Daoism in particular, an
alternative to the “mad eccentricity of those wild metaphysicians” in India
and to the “barbarian insensitivity of the aristocracy against pain” in Japan.7
In 1940 Karl Jaspers writes to the classicist Erich Frank, “There is much—
very much—that we need to understand in India and China. My respect for
what has been thought there grows continuously. The question remains
what we have abandoned in the Occident in order to make possible our
grand and horrible history and what it is that could have, contrary to our
situation, freely unfolded there, in the East.”8 While Jaspers’s colleague
Frank had escaped Nazi Germany by emigrating to the United States, Jaspers
reluctantly stayed in Heidelberg and lived through a period of academic
hibernation. During his internal exile, he was banned from teaching and
publishing. While being prohibited from participating in public academic
life, Jaspers was forced to enter an increasingly solitary period. While his
home country grew increasingly foreign and hostile, he developed a “strong
need for the infinitely distant, whose roots are yet familiar to us.”9 In China,
Jaspers discovered “a reflection on the human condition in general” which
became “almost a second home.”10 Rather than giving up philosophical
work during times of political totalitarianism, he expanded his reflective
grasp beyond an exclusive focus on a Europe which increasingly resembled
a philosophically narrow and politically imploding cave.
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Jaspers was not only deeply interested in reaching beyond Europe in a

mode of Oriental admiration for the exotic other as generations of German
thinkers had been in a romantic idealization of the East.11 His interest in the
traditions of China and India was one of authentic philosophical respect. He
elaborated a mode of communication that anticipated a phenomenology
and hermeneutics of the culturally other who makes a claim on oneself.12
The underlying motivation for turning to the East was the attempt to
unearth non-European traditions that were both significantly alien from
those traditions shaping European intellectual history while pointing to
common human possibilities. Under the impression of political
authoritarianism and two world wars, Jaspers turned to East Asia, not to
flee Europe, but to engage in a conversation that promised to overcome
Western forms of nationalism in favor of a cosmopolitan spirit that
would advance the task of fostering a global conversation. It was during
his turn to the East that Jaspers also developed the framework for a
philosophy of limitless communication in a series of lecture courses
on logic, published in his magnum opus Von der Wahrheit (1947).
The achievement of communication depends on a “loving struggle” that
seeks commonality without ignoring real differences. Truth is not the
property of individual convictions or standpoints, but is a relational
value, which only emerges in open-ended communication that does not shy
away from expressing disagreements. The engagement with Asian and
especially Chinese traditions, which extends the logic of communication to
the level of cultures, is enriching for the project of putting Europe into
perspective since, Jaspers contends, certain dimensions of human existence
could develop in Asia while they have not done so in societies influenced
by Occidental rationality. Jaspers’s engagement with the East is primarily
existential rather than historical although it has been developed in terms
of a reflection on global history. He traces the cultural origins that
are the preconditions and enduring reference points in relation to which
human beings can orient themselves in a common world and exercise
their freedom. This focus on the communication of free individuals
between and across cultural boundaries breaks with a scientific and value-
free philological approach to foreign texts that has guided traditional
conceptions of hermeneutics. Rather than aiming to understand a text’s
meaning or author’s original intention, existential hermeneutics of the
(culturally) other focuses on the horizon in which human beings can be
free in an increasingly intercultural world by unearthing the cultural
reservoirs that have given shape to the infinite potentials of human existence.
For Jaspers, this horizon was constituted in terms of the assumption of a
common ground that needed to be uncovered and thereby regained in
a cosmopolitan philosophy of history. Such a cosmopolitan framework
would break with the Eurocentric assumption of necessary historical
progression that had guided Hegelian and Marxist conceptions of historical
progression.
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2. The Retrospective Construction

of the Axial Age
The central concept of Jaspers’s world-philosophy is that of the axial or
pivotal age (Achsenzeit).13 The self-set task triggering Jaspers’s radical turn
to the East consisted in responding to the political and cultural crisis of
Europe. In contrast to Husserl or Heidegger, who posited that philosophy
started exclusively in ancient Greece and who suggested that a rethinking
would have to return to this origin, Jaspers emphasizes the existence of
multiple parallel and yet independent philosophical beginnings in China,
Europe, and India. A cognitive breakthrough (Durchbruch) occurred in the
period of 800–200 bce in these three cultural centers and is expressed in the
lives and teachings of the sages, the paradigmatic founding figures of the
traditions that continue to shape our conceptions of what it means to
conduct one’s life as a human being. For Jaspers, the roughly simultaneous
lives of Buddha, Confucius, Laozi, Zoroaster, and Socrates constitutes a
mystery (Geheimnis). The axial age theorem is not a historical truth claim,
but a normative approach to reconstructing history from the perspective
of the present. One ought to acknowledge and reveal the independent
co-emergence of the above three cultural centers as a mystery rather than try
to reduce it to a number of historical and sociological conditions such as the
emergence of city states, favorable climatic conditions, or advances in
agriculture and knowledge. The latter conditions might be able to explain
how the breakthrough was possible, but not why it happened and why the
sages lived and thought in a parallel manner about the vexing questions
concerning human existence.
In spite of its phenomenological repercussions, it is not precise enough
to characterize Jaspers’s discovery of the axial age traditions with a broadening
of horizons or a history of distinctive origins of cultures. The philosophical
project of identifying and reconstructing the diverse philosophical foundations
is more fittingly captured by the metaphor of philosophical construction
work. Jaspers set out to uncover a foundation that was both deep and wide
for the purpose of constructing an enduring world-philosophical edifice that
would be supported by a number of distinctive cultural columns. As a
philosophical archeologist, architect, and engineer, he not only dug vertically
to temporarily distant sources, but also horizontally—or laterally—to
culturally remote regions. Digging to the origins of the European tradition
was thus complemented with the recovery of other origins, which had
developed in an independent and yet parallel manner. These axial origins had
to be connected with a diversity of subterranean tunnels, and entry and exit
points, in such a way that human beings could inhabit and move between
them freely. Revealing the mysteriously parallel cultural origins of the
philosophical tradition meant transcending the narrow nationalisms that led
to the negative climax of an imploding Occidental history. The philosophical
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motivation was thus no longer to get to the things themselves, as the rallying
cry of the phenomenological movement had proclaimed, but to transcend
one’s cultural origin and reach out to the culturally diverse origins of those
universal “things” which, for Jaspers, pointed to global potentials of human
existence.
While Husserl and Heidegger responded to the crisis of the European
sciences by turning to the origin of Western metaphysics, Jaspers’s pursuit
is more radical and self-critical.14 He digs to the roots of the reflection on
the human condition in the three cultural realms of China, India, and the
Mediterranean, to broaden the scope of human possibilities and transcend
cultural provincialism. However, it would be a mistake to reduce Jaspers’s
reach beyond the traditional focus on Europe to be limited to the specific
war and postwar disillusionment in Europe. Unearthing European as well as
non-European origins presents nothing short of a methodological revolution
or paradigm shift. From the perspective of comparative philosophizing,
Jaspers’s approach offers important insights for an intercultural philosophy
that is historically informed and normatively sound. The starting point for
this quest was not primarily archeological curiosity or the sense of Oriental
exoticism that has often guided the turn to Asia for European philosophers.
The systematic study of the traditions of Asia—especially Buddhism,
Confucianism, and Daoism—was guided by a genuine philosophical interest
with a double purpose.
First, this interest was aimed at discovering a new perspective on the
limits of Europe. In many respects, Jaspers was a precursor to the ongoing
process of provincializing the narrow set of categories and experiences that
have influenced the development of Europe and contributed to its arrogance.
As Aleida Assmann has argued, “the axial age has the same meaning for the
history of mankind as the ‘limit situation’ has for an individual’s life span.”15
A focus on non-European cultural origins allows one to first become aware
of the constitutive limits and thereby the very meaning of one’s particular
historical conditions. Decentering European philosophy from its alleged
singular beginnings in Greek antiquity and its pretension to absoluteness
allows the exposure of the claim to singularity of Occidental rationality as
an unwarranted imposition. Jaspers was convinced that this cosmopolitan
project would lead to a better understanding of Europe and pave the way
for a peaceful and liberal world order, a project that is timely at a historical
moment where countries and cultural spheres are claiming their distinctive
moral identities against such cosmopolitan approaches. Tracing the
methodological origin and impact of the axial age theorem to his conception
of limit situations, Aleida Assmann also exposes the limits of Jaspers’s
project. In particular, Jaspers singles out only three cultural centers and
ignores other potential candidates (Egypt, Mesoamerican cultures, etc.).
He also adopts certain Hegelian assumptions in considering the axial
breakthrough as a progress over pre-axial cultures. Moreover, according to
Jaspers’s historico-existential ontology, Assmann diagnoses, “the cultural
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human has to be stripped of his traditions and conventions before he can

appear as an existential human being.” She continues to contend that “(t)he
concept of ‘existence’ aims at this human core, which needs to be stripped
off completely by radically extinguishing all protective constructs and
fictions.”16 While Assmann’s interpretation reveals blind spots in Jaspers’s
universal history, there is no doubt that, for Jaspers, transcending one’s
cultural axis does not preclude belonging to a distinctive cultural context.
While Asia, as we have mentioned above, became for Jaspers “almost a
second home (Heimat),” he emphasizes in the lecture on “The European
Spirit” presented in 1946 that, in spite of the “indispensable” task of a
dialogue with the “spiritual worlds of China and India,” “each return from
dealing with Asian works to the Bible and to our classical texts brings us
the feeling of homeliness (des Heimatlichen),” which he equates with the
“freedom of spirit.”17 There are natural limits to distancing oneself from
one’s cultural background. Jaspers anticipates François Jullien’s argument
that it is by way of a detour through a foreign culture that one gains access
to one’s own culture.18 If it is not to lead to a trans-historical form of
relativism, such a detour by way of self-distancing within world-philosophy
is only possible to a degree and proceeds from a distinctive time and place.
Cosmopolitan philosophizing always begins from culturally marked starting
points. The task is to make these conditions as explicit as possible.
In addition to making explicit one’s cultural commitment to one’s “home”
culture in light of its relationship to other cultures, reaching beyond Europe
represented, secondly, the attempt to develop a broader system of references
with multiple rather than one source of philosophy. Positively stated, the
conception of the axial age opened up the possibility of a humanity that,
while rooted in distinctive origins, became aware of what is shared and
distantly familiar in this diversity. Jaspers’s concern for Asia was not limited
to a focus on the key thinkers and their philosophical teachings. He turned
to Asian cultures as holistic phenomena that included philosophy, literature,
and the arts. The program of an archeological excavation is constructive in
that it aims at connecting the diverse origins that captured the spirit of a
culture to thereby expose the unity of humanity in the diversity of its
manifestations.19 Jaspers conceives of this common origin as a ground
sustaining the possibility of human existence:
If the sense of security of the in-itself connected philosophy from Parmenides

to Hegel has been lost, it is still only possible to do philosophy from the
one deep ground of being human, from which this thinking emerged in
some sense from the passed millennia in the occident. To become aware of
this ground in a different manner, we are also directed to India and China,
i.e., the two other original ways of philosophical thinking.20
Jaspers’s search was a quest for a common ground that enabled

communication across different cultural traditions, however elusive the
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search for such a ground has become after the end of classical metaphysics.
He continues in a prophetic tone of voice:
Instead of sliding into nothingness when millennia decay, we want to

sense an unshakable bottom. We want to capture historically as one
that which opens the possibility as a single unitary phenomenon so that
our descendants will ground the substance in a deeper way than has
ever been achieved. The alternative “nothing or everything” stands as a
spiritual question concerning the destiny of being human in front of
our age.21
The project of both recovering and constructing the groundwork for a

future world-philosophy was never concluded; from its inception, it was
conceived of as an infinite task that remained a guiding project for modernity.
The Egyptologist and thinker of cultural memory, Jan Assmann, fittingly
interprets the conception of the axial age as a “founding myth of modernity.”22
The assumption of a polygenetic cultural revolution was initially discovered
by the founder of Persian Studies, Abraham Anquetil-Duperron, in 1771
and further developed fifty years later by the first sinologist at the Collège de
France, Jean-Pierre Abel Rémusat, who emphasized the rational dimension
of Daoism and points to parallels between Laozi, Plato, and Pythagoras
(1823). The axial age hypothesis was only systematically developed by
Jaspers in The Origin and Goal of History, originally published in 1949. For
Jaspers the normative (rather than historico-descriptive) implications of the
axial age hypothesis are most essential. Assmann summarizes the project as
follows: “Jaspers’ axial humanity is a retrospective construction whose
legitimation rests exclusively on the self-conception of the epoch reflecting
backwards, the epoch which perceives in the axial age its true past, its true
classical age in the sense of a normative past, which is to provide a present
with values, norms and orientation.”23 After being ignored for twenty years,
the heuristic device of the axial age has been the focus of debate in a variety
of disciplines including sociology, religious studies, history, and cultural
studies since the mid-1970s without truly entering discussions in philosophy.
In contrast to Assmann’s approach, which is informed by cultural studies, it
is essential to highlight the philosophical background that Jaspers, drawing
on both Kant and Weber, perceived in the both mysterious and apparent co-
evolution of cultures postulated in the axial age hypothesis. This philosophical
dimension consists in postulating a breakthrough to universal human
potentials.24 By extension, in contrast to the adaptation of the axial age
hypothesis in an attempt to diagnose the existence of “multiple modernities,”25
for Jaspers, the goal was to discover (or construct) unity in the midst of
diversity. The cognitive breakthrough achieved by axial age traditions
consists in a combination of a variety of universal developments such as: (1)
an emergence of self-awareness of individual human beings, including an
awareness of one’s own limits; (2) a reflection on one’s agency together with
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the emergence of historical consciousness; (3) the coexistence of different

schools of philosophy and modes of living; (4) a capacity for critique;
and (5) the emergence of speculative metaphysics aiming at the ultimate
ground and totality of reality.26 While scholars have primarily focused on
Confucianism as an example of an axial age ethical tradition in classical
China,27 Daoism also presents an intriguing test case: the Daoist sage
depicted in Laozi’s Daodejing 道德經 is highly individuated; Laozi is aware
of the limits of language, communication, and human agency, and praises
non-action (wuwei 無為) as a form of agency; Daoism conceives of historical
civilization in critical terms as having fallen away from (and as being in need
of return to) Dao 道. Yet, Daoism is also highly critical of (Confucian)
conceptions of cultivation; and Daoism develops a complex metaphysics.
Let us now trace Jaspers’s interpretation of Laozi by turning to his early
depiction of Laozi as a solitary mystic during the axial age with normative
implications for the present.
3. Laozi’s Solitary Mysticism

While Jaspers integrated Indian and Chinese thinkers in his seminar on
the history of philosophy in the 1920s, and studied them systematically
starting in 1937, the beginnings of his engagement with the East date back
to his first philosophical publication, which is also the first formulation of a
philosophy of existence. In Psychologie der Weltanschauungen (Psychology
of Worldviews), Jaspers discusses Daoism as a form of mysticism. In
a typology of different modes of existence or ways of conducting one’s
life (Lebensführung) in light of the limit situations (Grenzsituationen)
characteristic of human existence (suffering, sin, fate, struggle, etc.), Jaspers
contrasts “the way of mysticism” and “the way as idea.” He cites a lengthy
passage from chapter 20 of the Daodejing to demonstrate the experience
that an individual undergoes when facing masses of people who have lost
the way or “the root of the absolute.” Here is the passage in question,
rendered into German by Richard Wilhelm:
Was aber alle verehren, das darf man nicht ungestraft beiseitesetzen. O
Einöde, habe ich noch nicht deine Mitte erreicht? Die Menschen der
Menge sind strahlend wie bei der Feier großer Feste, Wie wenn man im
Frühling auf die Türme steigt: Ich allein bin unschlüssig, noch ohne
Zeichen für mein Handeln. Wie ein Kindlein, das noch nicht lachen kann!
Ein müder Wanderer, der keine Heimat hat! Die Menschen der Menge
leben alle im Überfluß: Ich allein bin wie verlassen! Wahrlich, ich habe
das Herz eines Toren! Chaos, ach Chaos! Die Menschen der Welt sind
hell, so hell: Ich allein bin wie trübe! Die Menschen der Welt sind so
wißbegierig: Ich allein bin traurig, so traurig! Unruhig, ach, als das Meer!
Umhergetrieben, ach, als einer der nirgends weilt! Die Menschen der
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Menge haben alle etwas zu tun: Ich allein bin müßig, wie ein Taugenichts!
Ich allein bin anders als die Menschen: Denn ich halte wert die spendende
Mutter.28
We can translate it as follows:
That which everyone praises one may not set aside without punishment.
O solitude, have I not reached your center yet? Men of the crowd are
radiant as if celebrating a great festival, as if climbing the towers in the
spring: I alone am undecided, yet without a sign for my action. As if being
a child, which is not yet capable of laughing! A weary wanderer without
a home! Men of the crowd all live in abundance: I alone am as if deserted!
Truly, I have the heart of a fool! Chaos, oh chaos! Men of the world are
bright, so bright: I alone am as if obscure! Men of the world are so thirsty
for knowledge: I alone am sad, so sad! Anxious, oh, as the ocean. Drifting
around like someone who never rests. Men of the crowd always have
something to do: I alone am idle like a good-for-nothing. I alone am
different from men: because I hold dear the nourishing mother.
It is easy to see why this passage appeals to Jaspers. In a mode of existential

solitude, Laozi expresses a sense of alienation from others. The passage
combines existential solitude and unrest, which Jaspers perceives—and
condemns—as a common existential mode during the axial age, as well as
in modern mass society.29 The “weary wanderer without a home” is taken in
by the existential sadness over the separation from the crowd or, in modern
terms, mass anonymity and isolation. In Wilhelm’s translation, Laozi
articulates a sense of profound existential melancholy. He sees his solitude
as a legitimate punishment for not respecting the kind of valorization of
distinctions that everyone appreciates and which create social cohesion.
But the passage does not stop here. The self-proclaimed foolish solitaire
underscores his individual uniqueness when compared to the indiscriminate
masses who are imagined to be free from such feelings because they seem to
pursue their lives cheerfully and at ease. Laozi engages in radical self-doubt.
And yet, in a dialectical twist, the passage culminates by expressing a sense
of superiority of the singular person (i.e., the sage) with regard to the masses.
In his solitude, the lonely author feels as if belonging to, using Jaspers’s
Weberian terminology, an aristocracy of the spirit. While being detached
from others, he is connected to the cosmic Dao. The mystic feels superior to
the leveling morality of ordinary discriminations since he alone acknowledges
the “nourishing mother” (i.e., Dao).
In Jaspers’s existential rendering, this Daoist passage paradigmatically
reveals the attitude of a mystic. Daoist mysticism, understood as a way
of conducting one’s life, is presented here in terms of the estrangement
felt with regard to the community and the psychic mechanisms such self-
ascribed solitude and madness give rise to. The solitary individual, Jaspers’s
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existential-psychological interpretation contends, has not reached the

wholeness of human existence. He is at once part of those masses by
acknowledging that one should value what and how they value; and yet, he
also has a sense of being in some sense superior to their world and modes of
valorization. His profound melancholy surpasses their superficial joys. The
mystic claims to be the only one who is authentically in touch with the Dao,
the nourishing mother. His self-ascribed madness works like a protective
shell, a cocoon that, for Jaspers, ultimately threatens to undermine a capacity
for communication and taking on responsibility within the world and
human society.
The mystic is trying to reach beyond communication. It is only in
communication though that human beings have the capacity of taking on
responsibility for their actions in a shared world in which truth and meaning
only emerge within communication. In a letter to Heidegger, Jaspers
mentions Laozi as an example of someone who is confronted with existential
solitude. In contrast to the previous critique of irresponsible and inconsistent
experience of mystic solitude in Psychology of Worldviews, Daoist solitude
is now interpreted as standing “outside of the alternative of communication–
noncommunication.”30 The Dao is not unnamable as if it would stand
completely outside of the realm of meaningful communication. Rather, it
transcends the division of what can and cannot be named from within
communication. Turning to the Dao can foster communication, a form of
transcending communication that does not take what can be said—or what
cannot be said—to be fully determined or determinable: “I agree with you
that the authentic (das Eigentliche) and essential is always ‘beyond’
communication and non-communication, subject and object, thinking and
Being, etc.—and in that all of our thinking becomes groundless and diffuse
if it loses this relation.” Communication relates to the inexpressible ground
and becomes meaningful precisely if it abandons the Scylla of silence and the
Charybdis of the illusion of being able to fixate meaning by way of language
once and for all. Humans are bound by experiencing the world according to
subject–object distinctions. For this reason, Jaspers rejects Heidegger’s
poetic evocation of silence: “We can only speak—and communicate—within
these opposites, within the appearances of what is finite.”31 For Jaspers, the
philosopher of communication, it is essential that, in spite of all obstacles,
we must speak and cannot, as responsible human beings, escape and hide in
a mode of appealing to poetic silence or revelatory experiences of a mystic
union with the divine (or Dao) beyond communication.
Jaspers emphasizes the ambivalence of mystical modes of solitary
existence. An essential reason for this ambivalence arises from the
valorization of passivity and non-action that is expressed in chapter 29 of
the Daodejing. Non-action consists in a mode of conducting one’s life in
such a way that one not artificially privilege either the subjective or the
objective dimension of an action. Experience and action depend on an
absolute, which can never be identified or grasped as an object, including by
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way of linguistic denotation, since it is both prior and beyond the subject–
object distinction. This absolute is, Jaspers claims in a rather indiscriminate
manner echoing Richard Wilhelm, referred to as God or Dao. It cannot be
fabricated or even evoked or followed at will. The mystic cultivates non-
action in order to break the spell of willful action. For Jaspers, this emphasis
on non-action and passivity is problematic when it is being absolutized and
is being transformed into a method. Adopting passivity as a method leads to
an irresponsible combination of escapism and quietism that is expressed in
the mystic’s conscious or unconscious, taking leave from logic, and revealed
in his insincere attitude toward existential dissonance and self-contradictions:
If the mystic . . . becomes untrue to himself, if he becomes inconsistent,

this just shows that God’s ways are new ones. The world, understood as
something that needs to be considered, that matters, does no longer exist
for him. It may perish, whatever could happen or rather God’s will shall
be realized. The mystic does not contribute anything because he does not
intervene. He thereby essentially believes to perform the greatest effects,
even if he withdraws into himself. His authentic life is outside of the
world and manifests itself in states of prayer to the point of ecstasies.32
This failure of the mystic to remain consistent and his connected

incapacity to commit to following through with concrete tasks and paths of
action in the world that is reduced to a blind process of transformation or a
product of divine will finds expression in paradoxical and indirect images.
Mystical teachings are formulated negatively in order to transcend finite
forms of reasoning and acting.
The mystical attitude or “the way of mysticism,” thus conceived, is a
universal human possibility. Mysticism is not unique to Asia, but can be
discovered in structurally analogous forms in different cultural and historical
contexts. Jaspers discusses Daoism as a paradigmatic illustration of this
mystical attitude in that the Daoist rejects the distinction between subjectivity
and objectivity and embraces non-action. For Jaspers, the Daoist mystic is
engaged in an “irrational way of conducting his life”33 in that he takes leave
from the life of the masses while at the same time experiencing melancholy
due to his isolation. He thus both considers himself to be independent of the
masses and suffering from not being part of the community. Jaspers thus
sees the mystic in an existential tension that cannot be easily resolved. The
mystic does not reach the level of mature selfhood and relegates responsibility
to a divine dimension that is beyond his reach and possible control.34 At the
same time, Jaspers refers to “the idea of a true and fulfilled mysticism”35
which emphasizes a spiritual dimension as well as freedom. In the last
instance, though, all mystics, for Jaspers, share a formal deficiency:
That they do not invoke reasons, principles, and tasks and that, therefore,
no discussion is possible with them . . . Rather they invoke a real
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community with God as well as God’s will, which reveals itself to them in
an incomprehensible way . . . The mystic does not develop, he suspends
development in favor of timelessness.36
In this early work, Jaspers already emphasizes the normative ambivalence

and logical inconsistency of the axial age tradition of Daoism. Mysticism is
being introduced as a polar opposite of the (equally problematic) ideal-
driven attempt to realize one’s plans in the world. It embraces passivity
at the price of succumbing to an irresponsible and irrational submission to
a higher will or a subjection to a fateful process. In spite of his critique,
Jaspers’s own philosophical path reveals a proximity to mysticism that
attempts to rescue its insights into existential solitude and the limits of
communication and action without ignoring its constitutive blind spots.
In spite of this critique, one can perceive a “mystical tendency” in Jaspers’s
thought.37 His critique of mysticism is a redemptive critique. The mystic’s
tendency to flee the world of communication is ideally abandoned in favor
of a rational, communicative, this-worldly, and yet mystical insight into the
limits and potentials of human existence.
In Jaspers’s early engagement with Laozi, we already see that he does not
subscribe to a simplistic view of juxtaposing Orient and Occident and
refrains from interpreting Asia as the wholly or radical other. Jaspers
concedes that the difference between Europe and Asia is an “original
polarity,”38 which is, however, not to be transformed into a metaphysical
principle. For Jaspers, this polarity is a “profound, historical mystery,”39
which is reflected in the historical dynamics between the Greeks and Persians,
the division of the Roman Empire into an Eastern and Western part, the
Occident and Islam, etc. The reflection about the polarity of Europe and
Asia has entered into the historical development of each of these poles.
Rather than situating Daoism as an incommensurable form of mysticism,
Jaspers interprets different modes or types of mysticism to be present in
different cultural settings. What different forms of mysticism have in
common is the emphasis on the limits of communication as well as the
valorization of non-action. The originality of Jaspers’s approach consists in
seeing these similarities without thereby leveling difference.
Daoist motifs are also present in Jaspers’s magnum opus Von der Wahrheit
(Of Truth). What Jaspers conceives of as “Das Umgreifende” (the
encompassing) has unmistakable similarities to the Dao. Like the Dao, the
encompassing cannot be identified or captured in isolation. It transcends
concrete phenomena yet permeates them. It includes all of reality and is
manifest in each part, which it also transcends. It can be known and spoken
about only indirectly with different provisional names (in addition to “Dao”
Jaspers mentions “Pneuma”).
Jaspers refers to the study of the encompassing as “periechontology” to
distinguish it from traditional metaphysics and ontology, which could not
perceive of the open-ended and dynamic relations of what is. In a section
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titled “The Consciousness of Being in Nonaction,” willing is presented as

inherently paradoxical: “I cannot will what I authentically (eigentlich) will.
The ground of my will lies in the depth of that which is neither willing nor
unwilling, in that which is hit upon always only indirectly in willing. If I will
it directly, I disable it.”40 Analogously, true action is only possible when it is
being performed indirectly by not focusing on intended outcomes. What
non-action enables, in contrast, is “responsible self-transformation, opening
up in inward action and self-realization.”41 The mode in which the
encompassing is being experienced is a form of being receptive and trusting
for what has been and is being presented as a gift. The richness of words
taken from foreign languages is that they go beyond mere signs referring to
a specific object or denoting a determinate meaning. Foreign words evoke
an atmosphere or a mood (Stimmung) that opens up a kind of transcendence
for a mysterious, enigmatic truth dimension: “Words always retain a residue,
which is the true enigma. Their sound is not indifferent, and yet they are not
sufficiently characterized in terms of their sound nor through the associations
they evoke. Words from the most distant languages communicate a mood
(like tabu, totem, mana, Dao, wuwei, atman).”42
4. Laozi as a “Metaphysician Who

Thinks from the Origin”
Jaspers’s most extensive engagement is developed in the discussion of Laozi
at the end of Die großen Philosophen (1957). The entry to world-philosophy,
for Jaspers, consists in the study of its most significant exemplars. In the
architecture of Die großen Philosophen, Laozi is grouped together with
Anaximander, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Plotinus, Anselm, Spinoza, and
Nagarjuna. Because their thinking aims at what is perennial and thus beyond
all history, Jaspers diagnoses a cross-cultural affinity (Verwandtschaft)
among them. For Jaspers, the entry into world-philosophy through the
personal dimension of these sages is important because it is their personality
which draws people into the philosophical orbit they open up. Moreover,
Jaspers was convinced that it is more likely to imagine a communication
between these sages rather than a conversation about the dogmatic legacies
that later schools of thought have developed.43 Jaspers’s interpretation of
Laozi is interspersed with original quotations and interpretation that closely
follows the commentary and translation of Victor von Strauss who
introduced the axial age theorem to German academic circles.44 Jaspers
focuses on the metaphysics, cosmogony, ethos, as well as the politics of
Laozi, but also emphasizes that this academic mode of differentiated
discussion is rooted in a categorization that is somewhat foreign to the
holistic spirit of Daoist thinking and the underlying metaphysics of oneness.
Jaspers identifies Dao explicitly with the encompassing.45 Those
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metaphysicians who are capable of thinking from the origin “enable an

encounter with the ground of being. It secures the foundational knowledge,
which is capable of carrying the human being who thinks in such a way
every day.”46 Laozi is a “metaphysician who thinks from the origin” while
the Dao is the origin that cannot be grasped by linguistic or sensuous
means, and yet is present in each phenomenon and can appear in each
individual existence whenever non-intentionality (Absichtslosigkeit) is being
achieved.
While Laozi is not considered one of the paradigmatic humans
(massgebende Menschen)—Jesus, Socrates, Confucius, Buddha—he does
have a prominent role on the stage of world-philosophy. Jaspers focuses on
the “life and work” of Laozi to thereby highlight existential features of his
personality. Well aware of the controversies concerning the authorship of
the Daoist classic, for Jaspers there is no doubt that the Daodejing has been
created by a real human being, “a personality of the highest rank,”47 and
that this historical personality belonged to the tradition of great philosophers.
It is precisely the mystery surrounding the legendary author that adds to the
emphasis on the ultimately mysterious occurrence of the axial age. Laozi
combines a proto-existentialist tone of voice with a metaphysical worldview
into a form of proto-existential metaphysics.
Laozi first enters the stage of great philosophers as the critic and
interlocutor of Confucius. Jaspers sees philosophical debate as crucial and
interprets the relationship between Confucius and Laozi in analogy to the—
for the development of European philosophy at least—critical encounter
between Plato and the Sophists. Laozi objects to the focus of Confucius on
the idealization of the past, book learning, and on ethical principles at the
expense of the naturalness of following the Dao. Arguably the most original
aspect of Jaspers’s interpretation of the “legendary conversations”48 between
Confucius and the older and critical Laozi is that Jaspers does not treat these
two positions, Confucianism and Daoism, as irreconcilable opposites as they
are frequently presented by their respective followers, but as being engaged
in what Jaspers, in a different context, refers to as a “loving strife.”49 The
polemical and partisan reception of these two thinkers clouds their true
dialogical relationship. The emphasis on the origins, and the original thinkers
in particular, is a critique against any form of ideological or dogmatic
belonging to schools of thought, any “isms.” Confucius prior to Confucianism,
and Laozi prior to Daoism, were in many respects two remarkable thinkers
engaged in a conversation that revealed each other’s respective blind spots.
While Confucian teaching is presented as a moralistic fixation of virtues and
prohibitions by Laozi, Confucius reveals the impossibility of following
nature at the expense of engaging with the world of political responsibility,
as proclaimed by Laozi. In spite of the appearance of an irreconcilable
opposition, Confucius and Laozi resemble each other in a number of respects.
Confucius, like Laozi, espouses forms of non-action and has an “inclination
for world flight;”50 Laozi, like Confucius, also offers advice to rulers.
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The image of an irreconcilable struggle between opposing schools of

thought was, according to Jaspers, only established after their death and
characterizes the transformation of the original ideas of these personalities
into dogmatic teachings. Their human traits get lost when they are being
transfigured into quasi-divine founding figures of increasingly one-sided
philosophical schools. The partisan confrontations between Confucianism
and Daoism is at odds with the dialogical strife and the philosophical
polarity of Confucius and Laozi. They signal the two poles that express
possibilities of human existence. A key aspect of axial civilizations is that
they provide multiple visions of the good life without leading to the
partisanship and ideological confrontation that is historically, for Jaspers,
closely bound to the division of orthodox and heterodox discourses.
In China this ossification of discourses happened after the Warring States
period (475–221 bce) and accompanied the formation of imperial China.
The instrumentalization of Laozi’s teaching, for Jaspers, started when the
first emperor, Qin Shi Huang, adopted not only Legalist, but also Daoist
forms of subjugation, and used those for the suppression of Confucian
influence. This instrumentalization of philosophy by political elites was later
reversed by the adoption of Confucianism as the orthodox imperial ideology.
As Jaspers emphasizes in the second volume of his Philosophie, which is
dedicated to an elucidation or illumination of existence (Existenzerhellung),
the philosophical focus on great personalities is intended to replace the
category of political empires with that of an empire of spirits (Geisterreich)
in which great personalities are engaged in unbounded or unlimited
communication (uneingeschränkte Kommunikation).51
Jaspers is highly critical of what he interprets as a subsequent decay in
the reception of these personalities. The followers of Confucius became
self-interested bureaucrats while the Daoists escaped from the world of
political responsibility, engaged in alchemy, and pursued magical practices.
As Jörn Kroll has recently shown, Jaspers has been surprisingly one-sided in
his dismissal of Laozi’s most famous successor, Zhuangzi 莊子, who is
characterized as a witty poet rather than a serious philosopher. “Laozi’s
atmosphere,” Jaspers writes, “is peaceful while that of Zhuangzi is polemical,
full of arrogance and mocking contempt.”52 Zhuangzi’s ironic prose is
edifying in Jaspers’s judgment, but misses the profound suffering and the
metaphysical depth of Laozi. Zhuangzi’s ironic, arrogant, and superficial
stories can therefore not be considered an authoritative interpretation of
Laozi, the metaphysician who thinks from the origin.
For Jaspers, the followers of both Confucius and Laozi betrayed the
dialogical ethos and transformed great but ordinary human beings into
deities. The insight into their complementarity and inner relation has thus
been lost: “Laozi and Confucius are polar opposites, but such, which belong
together and necessitate each other.”53 Jaspers does emphasize that, in spite
of the misleading legacy of these great humans, it remains a constant
possibility to live up to the human potentials they have opened up. The
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possibility of preserving what binds Laozi and Confucius together survives

even after their followers have at times transformed their teaching beyond
recognition into a polemical battle. These polar opposites have not been
integrated into a systematic philosophy, but: “The unity of both has been
repeated in China by great personalities, not through a philosophy, which
systematically encompassed both, but in the Chinese wisdom of a life, which
illuminates itself through thinking.”54 In spite of his overall constructive
reconstruction of the “great philosopher” Laozi, Jaspers sees the limit of
Laozi (and “Chinese spirit” more generally) in the absence of certain
“intermediary stages” (Zwischenstufen) to the transcendence toward Dao
or the encompassing. These stages include a sense of justified ethical
indignation, an understanding of tragedy and sin, as well as the “cypher of
a demanding and angry, a striving God who wants strife.”55
5. Conclusion
By way of conclusion and outlook, let me anticipate likely objections to
Jaspers’s engagement with Laozi as it has been laid out in this chapter. It
could be argued that Jaspers’s view of the limits of Laozi indirectly exposes
the limits of Jaspers’s own philosophical faith in the possibility of world-
philosophy. In their greatness—as well as in their ultimate failure—these
human sages appear as distant yardsticks of a mysterious past, which is
presented by Jaspers as an eternal present and future. The axial age is thereby
situated beyond time and space. Equally detached from concrete historical
conditions and from the effective history the received texts have given rise
to, these paradigmatic sages are also infinitely distant from the contemporary
reader who, Jaspers suggests, is nevertheless to consider them as contemporary
interlocutors. Indeed, Jaspers’s evocation of a communication in an empire
of solitary spirits can be perceived as an ahistorical and transcultural form
of philosophical elitism. The gates to the empire of spirits threaten to remain
closed for ordinary men and women who can, at best, peek through them
and admire these geniuses from afar and in awe.
One may also object that Jaspers is indebted to some of the Eurocentric
assumptions his cosmopolitan project intends to overcome, or at least put
into perspective. Not only does he apply Judeo-Christian, ancient Greek,
and existentialist categories in his evaluation of classical Chinese texts and
authors; the philosophical approach developed in The Origin and Goal of
History is hardly imaginable outside of an eschatological view of a history
with a clear beginning and end that is foreign to classical China. Moreover,
sinologists are likely to contend, Jaspers’s idealization of the historical
personality of Laozi and the emphasis on the legendary account of his
conversation with Confucius separates the imagined authors writing in their
name from actual historical fact, and ignores a complex textual corpus and
the receptive history it has given rise to.
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In spite of these legitimate concerns, Jaspers’s turn to the East, especially

his “loving struggle” with Confucius and Laozi, presents an original,
systematic, and visionary attempt to prepare for a philosophical conversation
at eye level, a conversation that is relevant for the future. Such a conversation
is addressed at the imagined global community of possible human existence.
As Jaspers remarks in a letter to Arendt, his perhaps foolish aim is to
“rescue him (Confucius) not only from the banal presentations he has
suffered even at the hands of sinologists but also because I found him so
fruitful for us.”56
Notes
1 While it is frequently mentioned that Heidegger attempted to translate the
Daodejing 道德經 with the Chinese student Paul Shih-Yi Hsiao (Xiao Shiyi 蕭
師毅), he eventually dismissed this plan due to what he considered to be an
unbridgeable linguistic gap. Heidegger rejected the transformative potential of
a philosophical turn to and engagement with the East in an interview with Der
Spiegel in 1966: “Only in the same place where the modern technical world
took its origin can we also prepare a conversion (Umkehr) of it. In other
words, this cannot happen by taking over Zen-Buddhism or other Eastern
experiences of the word.” See Martin Heidegger, “‘Only a God Can Save Us’:
The Spiegel Interview (1966),” in Heidegger: The Man and the Thinker, ed.
Thomas Sheehan (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2010), 62. In
contrast, Jaspers emphasizes in a letter to Heidegger that he (Jaspers) considers
the opening up to the East essential in spite of barriers to “knowing very well
that I cannot truly (eigentlich) penetrate, but am inspired in a mysterious way
from there.” See Martin Heidegger and Karl Jaspers, Briefwechsel 1920-1963
(Frankfurt: Klostermann, 1990), 178. On Heidegger’s relationship to Asian
philosophy in general and Daoism in particular, see: Graham Parkes, ed.,
Heidegger and Asian Thought (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987);
Reinhard May, Heidegger’s Hidden Sources: East-Asian Influences on His
Work, trans. Graham Parkes (London: Routledge, 1996); Guenter Wohlfahrt,
“Heidegger and Laozi: Wu (Nothing): On chapter 11 of the Daodejing,”
Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 30.1 (2003): 39–59; Lin Ma, Heidegger on
East-West Dialogue: Anticipating the Event (New York: Routledge, 2007); Bret
W. Davis, “Heidegger and Asian Philosophy,” in The Bloomsbury Companion
to Heidegger, eds. François Raffoul and Eric S. Nelson (New York: Bloomsbury
Academic, 2013), 459–71; David Chai, “Nothingness and the Clearing:
Heidegger, Daoism and the Quest for Primal Clarity,” The Review of
Metaphysics, 67.3 (2014): 583–601; and Mario Wenning, “Heidegger and
Zhuangzi on the Nonhuman: Towards a Transcultural Critique of (Post)
Humanism,” in Rethinking the Non-Human, eds. Chloë Taylor and Neil Dalal
(New York: Routledge, 2014), 93–111. Noteworthy exceptions to the general
omission of Jaspers’s engagement with Daoism include Young-Do Chung, “Karl
Jaspers und Laotse: Parallelen zwischen den Begriffen Transzendenz und Tao,”
Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Karl-Jaspers-Gesellschaft, 11 (1998): 28–43;
Jean-Claude Gens, “Jaspers’ Begegnung mit und sein Verhältnis zu China,” in
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Cross-Cultural Conflicts and Communication: Rethinking Jaspers’ Philosophy

Today, ed. Andreas Cesana (Würzburg: Königshausen and Neumann, 2016),
161–71; and Jörn Kroll, “Open Sky, Open Society: Zhuangzi and Jaspers on
Understanding and Communicating without Closure,” Existenz (forthcoming).
2 If mentioned, Jaspers tends to be treated as a marginal figure in twentieth-
century existentialism. This was not always the case. During the 1960s, Jaspers
was the most widely read philosopher in Germany—exceeding Heidegger and
Adorno. He contributed and often initiated public debates concerning pressing
issues including the question of German guilt, the atomic bomb, reunification
and the rebuilding of the University system (see Thomas Meyer, “Mit leichter
Hand,” Zeit, available online). This political engagement might have
contributed to Jaspers’s image of being a popular writer and public intellectual
rather than an original philosopher. For an attempt to recover Jaspers as a
philosopher, see Chris Thornhill, Karl Jaspers: Politics and Metaphysics (New
York: Routledge, 2002).
3 Karl Jaspers. Rechenschaft und Ausblick: Reden und Aufsätze (Munich: Piper,
1951), 327–8.
4 See Hans Saner, “Jaspers’ Idee einer kommenden Weltphilosophie,” in Karl
Jaspers Today. Philosophy at the Threshold of the Future, eds. Leonard Ehrlich
and Richard Wisser (Lanham: University Press of America, 1988), 75–92;
Genoveva Teoharova, Karl Jaspers’ Philosophie auf dem Weg zur
Weltphilosophie (Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2005).
5 The term “Weltphilosophie” also resonates with Kant’s distinction of a world
philosophy and a school philosophy. While the term of world philosophy is
never defined clearly, Jaspers considered it to be the necessary groundwork for
a historically-informed and future-directed vocation to be continued by others.
6 Jaspers, Rechenschaft und Ausblick, 331.
7 Karl Jaspers and Heinrich Zimmer, “Briefe 1929–1939,” Jahrbuch der
Österreichischen Karl-Jaspers-Gesellschaft, 6 (1993): 24–5. Jaspers was
particularly fond of Asian art, especially painting. He traces the transformation
of Chinese aesthetic and philosophical motifs in different Asian contexts. When
Arendt presented Jaspers with the “awfully heavy” book on Chinese painting
for his birthday, Jaspers expressed his gratitude and his admiration for the
“philosophical thinking of the painters.” He maintains that the Chinese,
“philosophizing within artistic creation and the attentive reflection on this
philosophy,” (see letters 204 and 205 in Jaspers, “Briefe,” 245–9) finds a
parallel in the occident only in Leonardo Da Vinci. He considered Da Vinci to
be the philosopher among painters. See Karl Jaspers, “Lionardo als Philosoph,”
in Philosophie und Welt: Reden und Aufsätze (Munich: Piper, 1963), 211–72.
Chinese philosophy, and Daoism in particular, was perfected in later Japanese
painting, especially inkbrush landscape painting.
8 Karl Jaspers, Dominic Kaegi, and Reiner Wiehl, eds., Korrespondenzen,
(Göttingen: Wallstein, 2016), 294.
9 Jaspers in a letter to his sister; see Gens, Jean-Claude., “Jaspers’ Begegnung mit
und sein Verhältnis zu China,” in Andreas Cesana (ed.), Cross-Cultural
Conflicts and Communication: Rethinking Jaspers’ Philosophy Today, 161–71
(Würzburg: Königshausen and Neumann, 2016), 162.
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10 As stated in a letter Jaspers wrote to Hannah Arendt on January 8th, 1947. See
Hannah Arendt and Karl Jaspers, Briefwechsel: 1926–1969 (Munich: Piper,
2001), 108.
11 For a nuanced reconstruction of the reception of Chinese philosophy in early
twentieth-century Germany, see Eric S. Nelson, Chinese and Buddhist
Philosophy in Early Twentieth-Century German Thought (London:
Bloomsbury Academic, 2017). For the specific transformation of Daoist motifs
in Western philosophy see J.J. Clarke, The Dao of the West: Western
Transformations of Daoist Thought (London: Routledge, 2000).
12 See Emmanuel Levinas, Le temps et l’autre (Montepellier: Fata Morgana, 1979);
Theo Sundermeier, Den Fremden verstehen: Eine praktische Hermeneutik
(Göttingen: Vandenhoeck, 1996); and Bernhard Waldenfels, Grundmotive einer
Phänomenologie des Fremden (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 2016).
13 Hannah Arendt calls the axial age “the great historical discovery” and the
“foundation” of Jaspers’s philosophy of history. See Hannah Arendt, “Laudatio
auf Karl Jaspers,” in Menschen in finsteren Zeiten, ed. Ursula Ludz (Munich:
Piper, 2002), 109. For an overview of research perspectives invoking the axial
age, see Hans Joas, Was ist die Achsenzeit? Eine Wissenschaftliche Debatte als
Diskurs über Transzendenz (Basel: Schwabe, 2014); Johann Arnason, S.N.
Eisenstadt, and Björn Wittrock, eds., Axial Civilizations and World History
(Leiden: Brill, 2005); Robert Bellah and Hans Joas, eds., The Axial Age and its
Consequences (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012); Mario
Wenning, “Vom Ursprung und Ziel der Zweiten Achsenzeit”, Jahrbuch der
Österreichischen Jaspers Gesellschaft, 30 (2017): 111–29; and Jan Assmann,
Achsenzeit: Eine Archäologie der Moderne (Munich: Beck, 2018).
14 On Husserl’s and Heidegger’s eurocentrism, see Nelson, Chinese and Buddhist
Philosophy, chapters 5 and 6.
15 Aleida Assmann, “Einheit und Vielfalt in der Geschichte: Jaspers’ Begriff der
Achsenzeit neu betrachtet,” in Kulturen der Achsenzeit, ed. S.N. Eisenstadt
(Frankfurt: Suhrkamp), vol. 2: 334.
16 Ibid., 337.
17 Jaspers, Rechenschaft und Ausblick, 237–8.
18 See François Jullien, Detour and Access: Strategies of Meaning in China and
Greece (New York: Zone Books, 2004).
19 This is a slight variation of Jürgen Habermas’s (1988) description of Jaspers’s
project as a search for “the unity of reason within the diversity of its voices.”
20 Jaspers, Rechenschaft und Ausblick, 340.
21 Ibid.
22 Assmann, Achsenzeit, 165.
23 Ibid., 281.
24 One attempt to build on Jaspers’s conception of the axial age is that of Jürgen
Habermas’s recent work in which he, drawing on Jaspers, reconstructs the
normative preconditions for a post-secular world society. See Jürgen
Habermas, Nachmetaphysisches Denken II: Aufsätze und Repliken (Berlin:
Suhrkamp, 2012).
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25 See Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt, “Multiple Modernities,” Daedalus, 129.1 (2000):

1–29.
26 The axial age hypothesis has been characterized as a breakthrough to
transcendence by, among others, the sinologist Benjamin Schwartz (1975). For
Jaspers, the above-mentioned five criteria were the most essential and he does
not explicitly mention the role of transcendence in his discussion of the moral
and cognitive breakthrough during the axial age. Arguably, the emphasis on
universality and critique includes a notion of context-transcendence though,
and transcendence is a major concern in Jaspers’s other work.
27 See Heiner Roetz, Die chinesische Ethik der Achsenzeit: Eine Rekonstruktion
unter dem Aspekt des Durchbruchs zum postkonventionellen Denken
(Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1992).
28 Karl Jaspers, Psychologie der Weltanschauungen (Berlin: Springer, 1919),
455–6.
29 Jaspers interprets the “domination by the crowd” (Herrschaft der Masse) as
one of the main obstacles to individual human freedom in his Die geistige
Situation der Zeit, (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1999), 34–7.
30 Martin Heidegger and Karl Jaspers, Briefwechsel 1920–1963 (Frankfurt:
Klostermann, 1990), 183.
31 Ibid., 184.
32 Jaspers, Psychologie der Weltanschauungen, 454.
33 Ibid., 456.
34 Young-Do Chung proposes to conceive of Dao in analogy to Jaspers’s
understanding of a fugitive philosophical God who remains obscure and is
distinct from the God of revelation. See Young-Do Chung, “Karl Jaspers und
Laotse: Parallelen zwischen den Begriffen Transzendenz und Tao,” Jahrbuch
der Österreichischen Karl-Jaspers-Gesellschaft, 11 (1998): 42. One reason why
this proposal is problematic is that, in contrast to Jaspers, the early Daoists
were not aware of revealed religion and thus saw no need to distinguish
themselves from it.
35 Jaspers, Psychologie der Weltanschauungen, 458.
36 Ibid., 459.
37 Nakayama, drawing on Hajime Tanabe, identifies a “mystical tendency” in
Jaspers’s thought. See Tsuyoshi Nakayama, “Jaspers und die Mystik,” in Karl
Jaspers’s Philosophy: Rooted in the Present, Paradigm for the Future, eds.
Richard Wisser and Leonard Ehrlich (Würzburg: Könighausen and Neumann,
1998), 179–84.
38 Karl Jaspers, Von der Wahrheit (Munich: Piper, 1947), 94.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid., 180.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid., 403.
43 See Mario Wenning, “Jaspers on Exemplary Individuals,” in Studi Jaspersiani:
Rivista Annuale della Società Italiana Karl Jaspers, 6 (2018), 151–67.
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44 While he initially used Wilhelm’s translations of the Chinese classics, Jaspers

grew increasingly fond of Viktor von Strauß and Torney’s commentary on and
translation of the Daodejing. Von Strauß was also one of the precursors of the
Axial Age theorem. See Assmann, Achsenzeit, chapter 6.
45 Karl Jaspers, Die großen Philosophen (Munich: Piper, 1957), 520.
46 Ibid., 621.
47 Ibid., 904.
48 Ibid., 181.
49 Karl Jaspers, Philosophie, vol. 2 (Berlin: Springer, 1956), 65–6.
50 Jaspers, Die großen Philosophen, 180.
51 Jaspers, Philosophie, vol. 2, 395.
52 Jaspers, Die großen Philosophen, 935.
53 Ibid., 181.
54 Ibid., 180.
55 Ibid., 937.
56 Hannah Arendt and Karl Jaspers, Correspondence 1926–1969 (San Diego:
Harvest, 1993), 324.
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Neumann.
Wohlfahrt, Guenter. (2003), “Heidegger and Laozi: Wu (Nothing): On chapter 11
of the Daodejing,” Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 30.1: 39–59.
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PART THRE E
Mature
Encounters:
A Forest of Ideas
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8
Heidegger and Daoism:
A Dialogue on the Useless Way

of Unnecessary Being
Bret W. Davis
1. Introduction
The intent of this chapter is to unfold—to bring to light and further
develop—the largely implicit dialogue that Heidegger began with the two
foundational texts of Daoism, the Daodejing 道德經 and the Zhuangzi 莊
子. Heidegger’s familiarity with these Daoist texts goes back to at least the
1920s. In fact, one of the key expressions of Being and Time (1927), “In-
der-Welt-sein” (being-in-the-world), was coined not by Heidegger but by the
German translators of Okakura Kakuzo’s The Book of Tea,1 a copy of
which Heidegger reportedly received in 1919.2 In a chapter entitled “Daoism
and Zennism,” Okakura wrote that “Chinese historians have always spoken
of Daoism as the ‘art of being in the world,’ ”3 a phrase that Marguerite and
Ulrich Steindorff rendered into German as “Kunst des In-der-Welt-Seins.”4
Heidegger revealed his familiarity with Martin Buber’s 1910 edition of the
Zhuangzi in 1930 when in conversation he referred to the story of the happy
fish in chapter 17 of the Zhuangzi in order to explain his understanding of
being-with (Mitsein) others.5
As interesting as such evidence of early contact may be, Heidegger’s
dialogue with Daoist thought really gets underway in the pages—even
if kept mostly between the lines—of Country Path Conversations (Feldweg-
Gespräche), a set of three dialogues Heidegger composed at the end of
the war (1944–45).6 Country Path Conversations is a pivotal text in
Heidegger’s path of thought; in it one finds Heidegger critically rethinking
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the basics of his earlier hermeneutical phenomenology. In particular, in

Country Path Conversations more than anywhere else, one witnesses
Heidegger’s turning away from associating thinking with willing—an
association he had himself explicitly embraced in the first half of the 1930s—
and his development of the critique of technology central to his later
thought.7
A year after he composed Country Path Conversations, Heidegger
endeavored to co-translate the Daodejing. Yet the Daodejing’s resonance
with and influence on his thought can be clearly discerned already within
Country Path Conversations itself. Daoism’s critique of willful artifice and
call for a return to natural and non-coercive action (wuwei 無為) accord
with Heidegger’s critique of the “will” (Wille) and his alternative
comportment of “releasement” (Gelassenheit) introduced in Country Path
Conversations. Moreover, Heidegger’s notion of “path” or “way” (Weg),
which appears not only in the title but also throughout the text of Country
Path Conversations, clearly reverberates with the central Daoist notion of
dao 道. The final resonance between the Daodejing and Heidegger’s later
thought to be discussed in the first half of this chapter pertains to the limits
as well as delimiting power of language.
The second half of this chapter pursues convergences and, in the end,
divergences between Heidegger’s later thought and the second foundational
text of Daoism, the Zhuangzi. This will be done initially by way of examining
Heidegger’s startling quotation of a passage from this text at the very
conclusion of Country Path Conversations, a passage on “the use of the
useless” (wuyong zhi weiyong 無用之為用) or, in Heidegger’s rendering, “the
necessity of the unnecessary” (die Notwendigkeit des Unnötigen). This
quotation is especially significant given that Heidegger wrote to his wife at
the time that the notion of “the unnecessary” that he found in this ancient
Chinese text “is what I mean by ‘Being.’ ”8
After returning once again to convergences between Heidegger and
Daoism regarding the limits and delimiting power of language, this time
with reference to the Zhuangzi, the chapter ends by flushing and fleshing
out some crucial divergences between the “fundamental attunements”
(Grundstimmungen) of Heidegger and the Zhuangzi. Whereas, starting in
the 1930s, Heidegger speaks in somber terms and tones with the poet
Hölderlin of the need for a “holy mourning” of the loss of the old gods in
order to anticipate a new arrival of the divine, and of the fundamental
attunement of “reticence, shock, and diffidence” as being proper to our
transitional times at the end of the Occidental history of metaphysics as we
prepare for a leap into another way of being, the Zhuangzi speaks in
irreverent and playful terms and tones of “leaping into the boundlessness”
of the ubiquitous Way, and of “free and easy wandering” in its “unbordered
vastness.” Regardless of which of these attitudes the reader ends up finding
more compelling, by explicating Heidegger’s largely implicit and still nascent
dialogue with Daoism, in this chapter we venture a few steps down the path
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Heidegger and Daoism on Unnecessary Being 163
of what Heidegger once called “the inevitable dialogue with the East Asian
world.”9
2. Venturing into the Inevitable

East–West Dialogue
On only a very few occasions did Heidegger attempt to write in the form
of dialogues or conversations.10 The first of these attempts was Country Path
Conversations, a set of three dialogues written at the end of the war that
Heidegger called, in a letter to his wife, his “Plato book.”11 These dialogues
marked the end of nearly a decade of intensely solitary and often cryptic
manuscripts, beginning with Contributions to Philosophy: Of the Event.12 It
is as if, in these imaginary conversations, Heidegger is preparing not only to
share the most intimate and far-reaching dimensions of his path of thought
but also to develop that path in conversation with others—and, moreover,
given the implicit and, in the end, explicit references to Daoism, with other
traditions of thought.
During the decade leading up to Country Path Conversations, in addition
to writing his volumes of private manuscripts and notebooks, in his public
lectures Heidegger carried out a somewhat more exoteric dialogue with
ancient Greek and modern German philosophers and, importantly, with
Hölderlin’s poetry. We also know that, during this time, Heidegger intensified
his covert conversations with East Asian texts and scholars. These
conversations had been underway since the early 1920s, yet they had waned
in the mid-1930s when Heidegger—aligning his philosophy for a time
with his own unorthodox vision of “the inner truth and greatness” of
National Socialism,13 a vision that rejected biological racism yet was at
times reprehensibly anti-Semitic and at bottom resolutely ethnocentric.14 In
1936 Heidegger was still xenophobically concerned with “the protection of
the European peoples from the Asiatic.”15 In the late 1930s, however, his
interest in East Asian thought was evidently rekindled, notably through
his contact with Nishitani Keiji (1900–90), a Kyoto School philosopher
who was studying in Freiburg between 1937 and 1939, whom Heidegger
invited to his home on the weekends to teach him about Zen.16 Heidegger
broke the silence on his decades-long dialogues with various Japanese
thinkers when, occasioned by a visit from the literary scholar Tezuka Tomio
(1903–83), in 1955 Heidegger composed “From a Conversation on
Language (1953–4): Between a Japanese and an Inquirer.”17 It is not difficult
to surmise the need Heidegger felt to compose this particular text in the
form of a dialogue; it is, after all, a dialogue concerned with the very
possibility of dialogue between two radically different traditions, two
radically different languages or “houses of being,” in only one of which did
Heidegger feel at all at home.
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In the course of his “From a Conversation on Language,” Heidegger

suggests that the “entirely different” Western and East Asian linguistic
“houses of being” may ultimately “well up from a single source,”18 and the
conversation ends by calling for a shared attunement to an originary
silence.19 Radical cross-cultural dialogue would, it is suggested, need to be
accompanied by an even more radical diasigetics, a conversing through
silence.20 Perhaps we might say, in light of Heidegger’s claims that the
Japanese understood his references to “the nothing” (das Nichts) better
than did his fellow Europeans,21 that the dialogue in question is between
two different linguistic houses of the same “nothing” that makes way for
the disclosure of linguistically determined beings by withdrawing its
indeterminate abundance. As Heidegger suggests in Country Path
Conversations, the paths on which we humans walk and talk afford us, at
best, simple “vistas”—or “clearings”—that reveal “just a bit of the
abundance” of the surrounding “self-veiling expanse” that abides in the
“forest.”22
Having elsewhere examined the resonances (and some dissonances)
between Heidegger’s conception of the nothing and that of the Zen thinkers
of the Kyoto School,23 here I shall explore the resonances (and some
dissonances) between some of Heidegger’s key thoughts, such as Gelassenheit,
Weg, and das Unnötige, with key Daoist notions such as wuwei, dao, and
wuyong. Before discussing these connections, however, some further
reflections on hermeneutical questions of influence and translation are
called for.
Although presented in a somewhat prosecutorial manner, Reinhard
May’s Heidegger’s Hidden Sources: East Asian Influences on His Work,
together with Graham Parkes’s valuable supplementary essay, “Rising Sun
over Black Forest: Heidegger’s Japanese Connections,” well document the
influence that Heidegger’s study of Daoism and Zen exerted—mostly
tacitly—on his thought. Beyond the scholarly question of whether Heidegger
should have better cited his sources, however, is the philosophical question
of how we should understand such influences. In this regard we should
attend to a statement Heidegger once made about influence:
It is the prerogative of great poets, thinkers, and artists that they alone
are capable of letting themselves be influenced . . . Whatever the Greats
give they do not have by way of their originality, but rather from another
origin [Ursprung], one that makes them sensitive to the “influence” of
whatever is originary in other Greats.24
The context of this remark is Hölderlin’s “ability to be influenced by

Pindar and Sophocles—and that now means, to listen in an originary and
obedient manner to whatever is originary in the foreign from out of his own
origin.”25
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In this context Heidegger also speaks of translation. “Tell me what you

think of translation,” he remarks, “and I will tell you who you are.”26
Heidegger goes on to tell us what he thinks:
“Translating” [“Übersetzen”] is not so much a “trans-lating” [“Über-

setzen”] and passing over into a foreign language with the help of one’s
own. Rather, translation is more an awakening, clarification, and
unfolding of one’s own language with the help of an encounter with the
foreign language. Reckoned technically, translation means substituting
one’s own language for the foreign language, or vice versa. Thought in
terms of historical reflection, translation is an encounter with a foreign
language for the sake of appropriating one’s own language.27
Specifically, Heidegger is speaking here of the need for the Germans to

“learn the Greek language so that the concealed essence of our own historical
inception can find its way in the clarity of our word.”28 It is Hölderlin who
taught Heidegger that “the free use of one’s own” becomes possible only by
way of an encounter with the foreign. Hölderlin claimed that in order for
the Germans to freely use what is proper to them, namely “the clarity of
presentation,” they must also learn what is natural not to them but to the
Greeks, namely “the fire from heaven” or “holy pathos.”29
Following Hölderlin, Heidegger was concerned first and foremost with
the dialogue between the ancient Greeks and the modern Germans. However,
Heidegger also states that this “dialogue with the Greek thinkers and their
language . . . remains for us the precondition of the inevitable dialogue with
the East Asian world.”30 Thus we can speak of an arc spanning the twin
dialogical orientations of Heidegger’s thinking—an arc that extends back to
the Greeks and then over to East Asia.
Gadamer, who has said that “Heidegger studies would do well to pursue
seriously comparisons of his work with Asian philosophies,” suggests as a
reason for the sparsity of explicit references to Asian thought in his texts
that a German scholar of Heidegger’s stature would be hesitant to refer to a
thought he could only read in translation.31 Heidegger himself, in his letter
to the director of the conference held at the University of Hawaii in 1969 on
the theme of “Heidegger and Eastern Thought,” after stating that “again and
again it has seemed urgent to me that a dialogue take place with the thinkers
of what is to us the Eastern world,” wrote that “the greatest difficulty in this
enterprise always lies, as far as I can see, in the fact that with few exceptions
there is no command of the Eastern languages either in Europe or in the
United States.”32 As the present volume exemplifies, this situation has
fortunately improved over the past few decades.
Heidegger reportedly once claimed in conversation that “for the process
of the encounter between Occident and Orient I suppose 300 years [is
needed].”33 If he meant for the process itself, this is not an unreasonable
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estimate. One thinks of the centuries it required for the radically different
traditions that stem from Athens and Jerusalem to be interwoven in Europe,
and for the Indian tradition of Buddhism to be appropriated by the Chinese.
To be sure, advances in transportation and communication technologies
have drastically sped up the pace of cross-cultural encounters. But speed and
ease are hardly any guarantee of depth; in fact, they may well be inimical to
it. As Heidegger would say, technological facility can make cross-cultural
encounters facile, and geographical proximity is no guarantee of genuine
nearness.
In any case, Heidegger did not only cautiously approach but on a number
of occasions boldly ventured into dialogue with East Asian thought. Most
explicitly in “From a Conversation on Language,” and mostly implicitly in
texts such as Country Path Conversations, we find Heidegger not just
preparing for but actually engaging in what he called “the inevitable dialogue
with the East Asian world.”
Heidegger’s longstanding interest in Daoism led to his collaboration with
a Chinese scholar who had translated the Daodejing into Italian. After
meeting Heidegger in 1942, Paul Shih-Yi Hsiao (Xiao Shiyi 蕭師毅) recalls
having “Now and then . . . handed him parts of my translation of the
[Daodejing] into Italian,” and during the summer break of 1946, their plans
to work on a collaborative translation of the Daodejing into German
materialized when Hsiao “met [with Heidegger] regularly every Saturday in
his cabin on top of Todtnauberg.”34 They began to translate the “chapters
concerning the [dao],” but only managed to translate eight such chapters,
and unfortunately their translations have not been recovered. Years later,
Heidegger reportedly said that it was Hsiao who did not want to continue.
This may have been because of what Hsiao referred to as “a slight anxiety
that Heidegger’s notes might perhaps go beyond what is called for in a
translation.”35
Heidegger himself wavered on whether to venture to translate or to
respect the untranslatability of terms such as dao. At one point in his later
writings Heidegger refers to dao—alongside logos and his own Ereignis—as
an example of a “guiding word” that cannot be translated.36 Yet elsewhere
Heidegger is not only willing to translated dao as Weg, he even goes so far
as to say that “The Dao could thus be the Way that moves everything [der
alles be-wëgende Weg], that from which we might first be able to think what
reason, mind, meaning, logos properly—i.e., from their own essence—mean
to say.”37 In the word dao, Heidegger seems to have heard, on the cusp of an
originary silence, an indication of what he calls in his “From a Conversation
on Language” the “single source” that makes dialogue and translation
among even the most different languages possible.38
For our part, triangulating between the sibling languages of German
and English on the one hand and Chinese, a language belonging to a very
different language family on the other, we need to take care that we remain
hermeneutically attuned to both the perilous pitfalls and fecund possibilities
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of translation and cross-cultural dialogue. Venturing further down the path

of a dialogue between Heidegger’s thought and Daoism, we must take care
to be neither too timid nor too rash.
3. Weg and Dao: Heidegger’s (Largely

Implicit) Conversation with the Daodejing
Let us begin by examining the resonances with—and unmistakable influences
from—the Daodejing that are implicit in Country Path Conversations and
sometimes made explicit elsewhere in Heidegger’s corpus.
It is highly significant that Heidegger’s interest in the Daoist classics is
rekindled precisely during his turn away from understanding the relation
between human being and being in violent and voluntaristic terms, namely
in terms of a militant bringing to a stand of the overpowering onslaught of
being,39 and his concomitant turn toward understanding this relation in
terms of a non-willful releasement (Gelassenheit) to a letting-be (Seinlassen).40
While he borrows the term Gelassenheit from Meister Eckhart, Heidegger’s
stress on non-willing (Nicht-Wollen) in Country Path Conversations, and
his understanding of Gelassenheit as a kind of “higher activity” that in fact
lies beyond the very “distinction between activity and passivity” defined by
the “domain of the will,”41 bear unmistakable affinities with the notion of
wuwei—non-doing or non-coercive activity—in the Daodejing.42 Another
common theme to be explored is that of a movement of returning to rest in
a “Way” (Weg, dao). For both Heidegger and the Daodejing, this Way is not
a transcendent being that lords its Will over us, but rather a natural self-
unfolding or “enregioning” (Vergegnis) of a surrounding “open-region”
(Gegnet) that lets us be as we release ourselves unto its middle-voiced
occurrence.43
To begin with, let us look at the obvious, though unacknowledged,
connection between Heidegger’s discussion of the emptiness of a jug and
chapter 11 of the Daodejing. In the latter we read: “One molds clay to make
a vessel. Yet the vessel is useful because of what is not there . . . Thus while
we profit from what is there, it is useful because of what is not there.”44 In
Country Path Conversations we read: “This nothingness of the jug is really
what the jug is.”45 This nothingness or emptiness that is the essence of the
jug is in turn said to be brought to abide in the expanse of the whole
gathering involved in the event of drinking, that is, in the expanse of “the
festival,” which in turn belongs to the open-region—that free expanse that
gathers all gatherings.46
A few years later, in the 1949 lecture “The Thing,” the emptiness of the
jug again plays an important role in Heidegger’s thought.47 In fact, already
in Contributions to Philosophy (1936–8) Heidegger had spoken of the
“hollow middle” of the jug as “what determines, shapes, and bears the
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walling action of the walls and their surfaces. The walls and surfaces are
merely what is radiated out by that original open realm.” Setting it on par
with Plato’s cave allegory, and in place of “the guiding notion of light,”
Heidegger uses the emptiness of the jug as a way to speak not just of the
essence of a thing but of “the openness of the open” as a “clearing for self-
concealment.”48 Here the emptiness of the jug is used as an allegory for the
recessive yet vital dimension not just of a being (ein Seiendes) but of the
open-region of being (Sein) or, as Heidegger writes using an archaic spelling,
of beyng (Seyn). In order to emphasize being’s difference from beings,
Heidegger sometimes refers to it as “the nothing” (das Nichts).49 The nothing
is not a nihilistic privation of being but rather, as Heidegger writes in
Contributions to Philosophy, “the essential trembling of beyng itself and
therefore is more than any being.”50
In order to emphasize the temporally dynamic character of being,
Heidegger sometimes refers to it as “the way.” Daoists also understand the
dao in terms of an indeterminate nothingness or emptiness that engenders
and harbors determinate beings. In the Daodejing we are told that “beings
are engendered by the nothing [you sheng yu wu 有生於無],” and that “the
dao is an empty vessel [chong 沖], yet use can never fill up its abyssal depth.”51
Among the many other references to the dao in the Daodejing, let me
single out two more passages for their resonances with Heidegger’s later
thought:
The Great Way flows everywhere, able to move left and right. The ten
thousand things depend on it for their existence and it does not reject
them. It accomplishes its work while remaining anonymous. It clothes
and nourishes the ten thousand things, without becoming their master
[zhu 主].52
The Way never coercively does anything [wuwei], and yet it leaves nothing
undone. If princes and kings can abide by this, the ten thousand things
will naturally develop of their own accord.53
Let us now look at some resonant passages from Heidegger’s Country

Path Conversations and other texts. The notion of path or way (Weg), as we
have said, appears not only in the title but also frequently in the text
of Country Path Conversations. For example, in the second conversation,
after emphasizing that “from everywhere we must continually turn back to
where we properly already are,” the Tower Warden asks: “Do you not notice
that we are already walking on the ever reliable country path?”54 In the
first conversation, the Guide speaks of “the silent course of a conversation
that moves [bewegt] us,” and the following exchange ensues:
scholar: Which indeed means that it brings us onto that path which
seems to be nothing other than releasement [Gelassenheit] itself.
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guide: And yet releasement is something like rest.

scholar: From this it has suddenly become clearer to me how
movement on a way [Be-wegung] comes from rest and remains
engaged in rest.
guide: Then releasement would not just be the way [Weg], but rather
the movement (on a way) [Bewegung].
scholar: Where does this strange way go, and where does the
movement befitting it rest?
guide: Where else than in the open-region, in relation to which
releasement is what it is?55
The repose of Gelassenheit is not a quietism in the sense of a refraining

from action. Rather, there is a stillness, a rest, that is not opposed to action
but, like the eye of a storm—or, to use images that occur both in the
Daodejing and in the Zhuangzi, the empty “hub of a wheel” (gu 轂) or
“hinge of the dao” (dao shu 道樞)56—that is the heart and hearth of action
done naturally, without artifice or coercion (wuwei). Heidegger writes: “Rest
here does not mean the cessation of activity . . . Rest is a grounded repose in
the steadfastness of one’s own essence.”57 Indeed, this “rest is the hearth and
reign of all movement.”58
One may be reminded of Aristotle’s energeia, the state of being-at-work
of something that has attained to its essence.59 Yet Heidegger is critical of
the notion of “work,” especially of the modern ethos of “work and
achievement” where work has come to be seen as the positive, with leisure
or rest as the negative. This is a reversal, he says, of the understanding of the
ancients, “for whom all work was only the interruption, and that means the
negation, of leisure, neg-otium.”60
What is at issue is thus a movement that rests in an emergence from and
return to that dynamic matrix in which all things belong.
Guide: Things rest in the return to the abiding-while of the expanse of

their self-belonging.
scholar: Then can there be a rest in the return, which is after all a
movement?
Guide: Indeed there can, if the rest is the hearth and the reign of all
movement.61
In this way the open-region “bethings” (bedingt) things and “enregions”

(vereignet) humans.62 The restful movement of the latter is what is called
“releasement” (Gelassenheit).
Guide: Releasement comes from the open-region, because releasement

properly consists in the human remaining released to the open-region,
and doing so by means of the open-region. The human is released to it
in his essence, insofar as he originally belongs to the open-region. He
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belongs to it, insofar as he is inceptually a-propriated to the open-

region, and indeed by the open-region itself.63
Once again we can hear unmistakable resonances with the Daodejing:
Attain to the extremity of emptiness [xu 虛] by steadily maintaining

stillness. The myriad things creatively arise, and I watch them turn
back. Having grown and flourished, each one returns home to its
root. Returning to the root is what is called stillness [gui gen yue jing
歸根曰靜].64
Daoist sages are able to see the movement of returning to stillness that is
the way-being of beings because they have attuned themselves to the stillness
that is at the heart of this movement.
At the end of the second of the Country Path Conversations, the Teacher
says: “We have long been moving ourselves [uns . . . bewegen] on a between-
field [Zwischenfeld],” and the conversation continues:
guest: You mean between fields on the country path [Feldweg]?

Teacher: That would be splendid.
Tower Warden: But it is not so; to walk on the country path [auf dem
Feldweg gehen] does not yet necessarily mean to celebrate this path
[diesen Weg begehen]—
Teacher: such that it moves us.65
What is the “it” which moves us? Evidently it is the field-path of the
open-region. Yet if we understand this path or this region as a being, perhaps
as the highest being, then we are still thinking in terms of an ontic opposition
of beings and thus in terms of the activity or passivity of one being vis-à-vis
another. What is at stake is not a matter of obeying the Will of the Way—
as if it were a transcendent subject who lords its will over us—but rather a
matter of attuning ourselves to and thus participating in its spontaneous
movement.
Heidegger accordingly distances his notion of Gelassenheit from the use
of this term in Christianity, where its sense remains within “the domain of
the will.” For German Christian mystics, Gelassenheit signifies the serene
state of mind attained through a releasement from one’s own egoistic
self-will and a corresponding releasement unto the Will of God. Even
Meister Eckhart, according to Heidegger, thinks of Gelassenheit within the
domain of the will.66 The Scholar in the first of Heidegger’s Country Path
Conversations says that “what we are calling releasement evidently does not
mean the casting off of sinful selfishness and the letting go of self-will in
favor of the divine will.”67 He later asks, “but how is releasement related to
what is not a willing?” and the following exchange ensues:
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sage: After all that we have said of the bringing to abide of the abiding
expanse, of the letting rest in the return, and of the regioning of the
open-region, the open-region can hardly be spoken of as will.
scholar: That the open-region’s enregioning and bethinging
essentially exclude themselves from all effecting and causing already
shows how decisively all that pertains to the will is foreign to them.68
Heidegger attempts to think that in which the movement of things and

humans rest, not as a transcendent being, but rather as a surrounding open-
region, an abiding expanse that is not a static space but rather a dynamic
way that affords us our meandering field-paths.
In a later text, Heidegger explicitly mentions dao in his attempt to express
this most central of his thoughts.
[T]he way belongs in what we are here calling the region. Intimatingly
said, the region is the regioning of the clearing that frees, wherein all that
is cleared and freed, and all that conceals itself, together attain the free
expanse. The freeing and sheltering character of this region is the way
making movement [Be-wëgung] that yields those ways that belong to the
region . . . The region is first a region in that it provides ways. The region
moves [us] along a way [Sie be-wëgt] . . . The word “way” probably is a
primordial word [Urwort] of language that speaks to the meditative mind
of humans. The guiding word in the poetic thinking of Laozi is Dao and
means “properly” way . . . The Dao could thus be the Way that moves
everything [der alles be-wëgende Weg] . . . the Way that draws everything
onto its path. All is Way.69
The Daodejing tells us that all beings depend on the Way and yet, “being
always without desire [wuyu 無欲],” it “does not become their master.”70
Insofar as one is “capable of non-coercive action [wuwei],” we are told, one
is able to “lead without lording over.”71 In doing so we are following the
manner of the dao, whose movement is compared with the inconspicuous
power of water that “benefits the ten thousand things without contending
with them.”72 People are to model themselves on the Earth, which in turn
models itself on Heaven, which in turn models itself on the Way. The Way,
for its part (which is not in fact a part but rather the dynamic whole in
which everything else participates), models itself only on its own “natural
spontaneity” (ziran 自然).73
For Heidegger, in order to return to an attentive attunement to the
natural movement of this non-willful Way, one has to let go of the will
(Wille). As a transitional step toward this releasement of and from the will,
one must paradoxically “will non-willing.” That is to say, one must move
through and beyond “willfully renouncing willing” in order to release
oneself to a mode of being that “does not at all pertain to the will.”74
Analogously, the Daodejing says that “sages desire to be without desire” in
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order to return to the Way that is “always without desires.”75 In this freedom
from desire, the sage returns to a state of “unhewn wood [pu 樸].”76 “Without
desire one attains peaceful tranquility, and the world settles itself of its own
accord.”77
Yet this peaceful tranquility does not issue in an inactive quietism. Rather,
as we have seen Heidegger say, this “rest is the hearth and reign of all
movement.”78 By attuning ourselves to this hearth of stillness in the midst of
movement, we can stir up a different kind of motivation. By returning to the
root, the empty hub of the wheel of the Way, we can allow our desires to
stem from and be guided by that movement of the Way which is itself
without desire. The opening chapter of the Daodejing, after saying that the
nameless dao is the beginning of Heaven and Earth—i.e., of the primal
distinction that opens up a world of differences—says that the named dao is
the mother of the myriad things. It then tells us that whenever we are
“without desire we observe its mystery,” and whenever we are “with desire
we observe its delimited manifestations.”79
The crucial questions for practice as well as thought are: How can we
move among the Way’s manifestations without masking over its mystery?
How can we remain attuned to the heart of stillness that allows for the most
efficacious movement? In the words of the Daodejing that Heidegger
especially asked to be written out in decorative calligraphy: “Who can,
settling the muddy, gradually make it clear? Who can, stirring the tranquil,
gradually bring it to life?”80 How can we act without a subjective will and
without subjecting ourselves to a transcendent Will? How can we let
ourselves into an engagement (Sicheinlassen) with a letting-be (Seinlassen)
that, it turns out, is the very source of our releasement (Gelassenheit)? How
can we let our desires stem from and remain rooted in that which is without
desire? In refining such questions and thereby intimating answers, both the
Daodejing and Heidegger’s path of thought bring us, step by step and again
and again, to the limits of what we are able to think and say; in other words,
to the limits as well as to the delimiting power of language.
4. The Limits and the Delimiting

Power of Language
This brings us to a final resonance between the Daodejing and Heidegger’s
later thought. It is noteworthy that Heidegger’s explicit references to the dao
are found in his collection of essays entitled On the Way to Language.
Eventually giving his entire Collected Edition the motto “ways—not works,”
Heidegger must have been intrigued by fact that dao can mean both “way”
and “to say.”
The character dao is often used as a verb to mean “to tell” in the sense of
“to show the way,” to explain how to do something or how to get somewhere.
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Historically, the Daoist sage has been described as a member of the daojia
道家, that is, one who belongs to the school, family, or house of the dao.
Only one who houses and is housed by, embodies and inhabits the Way is
able to serve as a guide to others. A guide is intimately familiar with a way
and thus can lead others down it, as distinct from a “scholar” who studies
pathways traveled by others or a “scientist” who follows an established
method of knowing and measuring things objectively. Heidegger uses the
term Weiser in the first of the Country Path Conversations in the sense of
a “guide” rather than its typical meaning of a “wise man” who possesses
wisdom (Weisheit). Heidegger’s Weiser is someone who can show (weisen)
the way, the manner (Weise) of doing something, in this case the manner of
proceeding down a path of thought that leads into unknown regions.81
In contrast to previous and contemporaneous uses of the term dao to
mean a method of achieving some end, whether it be a method of farming
or of cultivating virtue, the Daoists used the word somewhat ironically
to indicate that which cannot be reduced to a set method to achieve a
preconceived end. The ultimate Way precedes and exceeds our human
intentions to contrive and control. How, then, can the Way be known or
shown when it is not a specific method for achieving a definite end? Like
Heidegger’s Weiser, the Daoist sage does not seek to objectively know and
definitively name the ultimate Way, but rather to “go-into-nearness” to it
and let it guide our thought and action.82
The Daodejing famously begins by saying that “the dao that can be said
[literally dao-ed] is not the abiding dao.”83 This inceptual text of Chinese
thought begins, in contrast to the Gospel of John, with the self-effacing
claim that in the beginning was not the Word, that the Way and the Life
cannot be identified with the Logos. And yet, the opening chapter of the
Daodejing goes on to say, this nameless origin of the primal distinction
between Heaven and Earth, when named, is the mother of the ten thousand
things. Language allows things to be; but language itself springs from
something nameless, something that can only be named with a pseudonym,
such as “dao.”
There is something nebulous yet whole, born before Heaven and Earth.
Tranquil and void, it stands alone, unchanging. Going around everywhere,
it is never exhausted or endangered. It may be regarded as the mother of
all under Heaven. I do not know its name. Sheltering it with a pseudonym,
I call it dao.84
Is Heidegger’s being more closely wedded to language than is the dao of

the Daodejing? To be sure, language plays a crucial role in Heidegger’s
thought. Heidegger calls on us to remain “on the way to language.” And yet,
the path of Heidegger’s thought leads us not only to appreciate the delimiting
power of language but also to peer beyond its limits. For Heidegger, while it
is language that discloses the being of beings, it is silence that attunes us to
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the concealed dimension of being (or beyng, Seyn) which enables that
linguistic disclosure to eventuate in the first place.
In the “Essence of Language,” Heidegger meditates on Stefan George’s
lines: “So I renounce and sadly see: Where word breaks off no thing may be
[So lernt ich traurig den verzicht: Kein ding sei wo das wort gebricht].”85 It
is language that allows things to be. Language is the house of being. Poetry
is the temple in the center of the “precinct” (Bezirk, templum) wherein
the determinations of a clearing of unconcealment are first marked off
(bezirkt, temnein, tempus) by the word.86 Language, in other words,
domesticates being; it allows the world to be meaningful and thus
makes our lives livable. But what about the wider field, the open-region,
in which the poetic precinct is marked off and the linguistic house of
being is built? What about what Maurice Merleau-Ponty calls “the wild
region” (la région sauvage) that frees one from being a prisoner in one’s
own culture and enables one to communicate with other cultures?87
If “language is the house of being,”88 as Heidegger claims, a house is a
home, replies the Zen philosopher Ueda Shizuteru (1926–2019), only in the
process of leaving and returning to it; otherwise it is a bird cage or a prison
house.89
Heidegger, in fact, does not simply equate language with being. Language,
he says, is “the language of being like clouds are the clouds of the sky.”90 The
clouds in this image are like visible, delimited configurations of the wide
open—and in itself invisible—sky. The blueness of the sky is, as it were, a
trace, a subtle determination, that hints back into the pure openness of
the sky, the sky that withdraws from all perception, like the darkness of a
starless and moonless night. The poet can name being only because he or she
“reaches sooner into the abyss” of this starless night. “The poet could never
go through the experience he undergoes with the word if the experience
were not attuned to sadness [die Trauer], to the mood of releasement
[Gelassenheit] into the nearness of what is withdrawn but at the same time
held in reserve for an originary advent.”91
In the final paragraph of the first of his solitary manuscripts, Contributions
to Philosophy, Heidegger writes: “Language is grounded in silence.”92 Near
the beginning of that text he writes: “Words fail us; they do so originally and
not merely occasionally.” And yet, he goes on to say, “this failing us is the
inceptual condition for the self-unfolding possibility of an original (poetic)
naming of being.” He then asks himself: “When will such a time come?”93
Some eight years later, in a note included in the supplements to the first of
the Country Path Conversations, he writes: “Of all goods the most dangerous
is language, because it cannot keep safe the unspoken—(not because it veils
too much, but rather because it divulges too much).”94 Language is the house
of being; it domesticates a world for us. But in doing so it covers over the
originary ground of silence; speaking inevitably betrays the unspoken. And
yet, in an adjacent note Heidegger writes: “Where else could the unspoken
be purely kept, heeded, other than in true conversation.”95
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In the third of the Country Path Conversations, Heidegger suggests that

“logos originally means gathering,” such that the essence of the human as
zōon logon echon “consists in being in the gathering, namely, the gathering
toward the all-unifying One,” which is “the divine itself.”96 This all-unifying
One, however, is not “the monotonous homogeneity of the indistinct,” but
rather: “What is selfsame can only be what is different; indeed the purest
selfsame rests in the most different. I would almost like to assert the reverse:
The different rests in the pure selfsame.”97
We can thus surmise that it is through conversation between those who
are most different that we can re-attune ourselves to the One that gathers all
in such a manner that lets us be in our differences. Can we not infer that it
is by way of East–West philosophical dialogue that we are best able to
attune ourselves to the formless open-region that surrounds all of our
culturally and linguistically formed horizons, to the dao as “the Way that
moves everything . . . the Way that draws everything onto its path”?98
5. Zhuangzi’s Use of the Useless and

Heidegger’s Necessity of the Unnecessary
We will return to the topic of language and silence later on. For now, let
us turn our attention to the end of Country Path Conversations, where
Heidegger suddenly and quite unexpectedly quotes a passage from the
Zhuangzi on “the necessity of the unnecessary.” The quotation is particularly
surprising insofar as it caps off a discussion of the special historical role to
be played by the Germans as “the people of poets and thinkers” who “in the
noblest manner wait” upon the coming of the word, the word that would
determine anew the essence of humanity. The Germans purportedly must set
out again on the patient path of becoming who they truly are, having been
led astray into a devastating nationalism that self-assertively “wills,” rather
than nonwillfully “waits” on, its essence.99 The German Volk is said to be
able to
squander its essence purely on the unnecessary. For what is more

unnecessary than the waiting that waits on the coming? What is more
necessary than getting down to business with the given facts, remaking
what is present at hand, and moving forward what has existed heretofore?100
The conversation continues as follows:
Older Man: In other words, that factual sense of reality which they
claim lets humans first stand with both feet squarely on the ground.
Younger Man: That sense which drives peoples to secure a place for
themselves on the earth, a place on which they can stand fast and
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create close to the facts in order to be effective and validated. And

yet, nonetheless, this necessary matter [Nötiges] of theirs can never be
without the unnecessary [das Unnötige].
Older Man: Such that the necessity of the unnecessary [die
Notwendigkeit des Unnötigen] would remain to be thought.101
The unnecessary is not what we need in the manner of all the daily
necessities that drive us about in the business and busyness of our lives in a
world of predetermined meanings and goals. Rather, “the unnecessary
requires us and our essence like the sound . . . requires the instrument which
gives it off.”102 It would be the calling of the Germans to “learn to know the
necessity of the unnecessary and, as learners, teach it to the peoples [den
Völkern] . . . And for a long time this may perhaps be the sole content of our
teaching: the urgent need and the necessity of the unnecessary.”103
It is thus all the more striking that, in this context of speaking of the
special historical endowment and task of the German people, the Older
Man concludes the conversation by quoting a conversation he claims to
have copied down in his student days from “a historiological account of
Chinese philosophy”:
The conversation goes like this:

The one said: “You are talking about the unnecessary.”
The other said: “A person must first have recognized the unnecessary
before one can talk with him about the necessary. The Earth is wide and
large, and yet, in order to stand, the human needs only enough space to
be able to put his foot down. But if directly next to his foot a crevice were
to open up that dropped down into the underworld, then would the space
where he stands still be of use to him?”
The one said: “It would be of no more use to him.”
The other said: “From this the necessity of the unnecessary is clearly
apparent.”104
The conversation retold here can be found in chapter 26 of the Zhuangzi.105

Brook Ziporyn translates it as follows:
Huizi said to Zhuangzi, “your words are useless!”

Zhuangzi said, “it is only when you know uselessness that you can
understand anything about the useful. The Earth is certainly vast and
wide, but a man at any time only uses as much of it as his two feet can
cover. But if you were to dig away all the earth around his feet, down to
the Yellow Springs, would that little patch he stands on be of any use to
him?”
Huizi said, “it would be useless.”
Zhuangzi said, “then the usefulness of the useless [wuyong zhi weiyong
無用之為用] should be quite obvious.”106
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The Zhuangzi frequently refers to a huge twisted tree as both an example

and an analogy for the usefulness of being useless. “It is precisely because it
is so useless that it has lived so long.”107 “The lacquer tree is useful and thus
it is cut down. Everyone knows how useful usefulness is, but no one seems
to know how useful uselessness is.”108 Only the “spirit man” is said to know
how to rely on the same worthlessness as such a worthless tree.109
At the end of the first chapter of the Zhuangzi, in another dialogue with
his logician friend Huizi, Zhuangzi is told: “I have a huge tree which people
call the Stink Tree. The trunk is swollen and gnarled, impossible to align
with any level or ruler. The branches are twisted and bent, impossible to
align with any T-square or carpenter’s arc . . . and your words are similarly
big but useless.” Zhuangzi responds:
Why not plant it in our homeland of not-even-anything [wu heyou

zhi xiang 無何有之鄉], the vast wilds of open nowhere [guang mo zhi
ye 廣莫之野]? Then you could loaf and wander there, doing lots of
nothing there at its side, and take yourself a nap, far-flung and unfettered,
there beneath it. It will never be cut down by ax or saw. Nothing will
harm it. Since it has nothing for which it can be used, what could entrap
or afflict it?110
We generally attend only to the limited ground directly under our feet at
this moment, that is, only to what is deemed useful or necessary in our
current horizon of understanding; and we understand and use things
according to their position in the network of meanings, according to the role
they play in our concerned dealings with things. But “is it not absurd to
judge [the tree] by whether it does what is or is not called for by its position,
by what role it happens to play?”111
According to the early Heidegger of Being and Time, we understand
beings first and foremost as “equipment” (Zeuge) in a world, that is to say,
in a “totality of significations” structured by a chain of “in-order-to” links
leading to an ultimate “for-the-sake-of-which” (Umwillen), the life-project
projected by our will (Wille).112 However, in Country Path Conversations,
having turned away from the voluntaristic undertones of his earlier thought
to a fundamental attunement of Gelassenheit, in implicit consonance with
the Daoist wuwei and with explicit reference to a passage from the Zhuangzi,
Heidegger now stresses that without the surrounding undisclosed and
apparently “useless” and “unnecessary” expanse of earth113—the “open-
region” or “open nowhere”—we could not move, that is to say, we
could not look out beyond our current horizons to open up new ways
of understanding and experiencing the world. And this includes new
ways of seeing trees. Rather than first and foremost seeing the forest as
“timber,”114 the later Heidegger calls on us “for once to let [the tree]
stand where it stands . . . Because to this day, thought has never let the
tree stand where it stands.”115 Where it stands, Zhuangzi would say, is not
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in a world centered on us and structured by our pragmatic concerns and

technological teloi, but rather, like us, it originally stands in its and our
“homeland of not-even-anything, the vast wilds of open nowhere.”
In “Wege zur Aussprache” (1937), Heidegger writes that philosophy
involves a kind of
knowing the essence of things, which is always concealing itself anew, by

leaping ahead and opening up new domains and viewpoints for inquiry.
Precisely for this reason this knowing is never directly useful. It only ever
has an indirect effect, in that philosophical meditation prepares new
perspectives and standards for all our comportments and decisions.116
In this sense, all our scientific and everyday dealings with “facts,” with
things as they are disclosed within our current horizons of understanding,
depend on philosophy’s wider outlook, which must remain ever attuned to
the usefulness of the useless. Lost in the rat race of managing apparent
necessities, we cover over the more profound need we have of “the
unnecessary.” “Running around amidst beings” (Umtrieben an das
Seiende),117 we remain oblivious of our primal relation to being (Sein).
Around the time he was writing Country Path Conversations (the last
conversation bears the date May 8, 1945), Heidegger wrote to his wife, in a
letter dated March 2, 1945: “On the essence of the unnecessary (which is
what I mean by ‘Being’) I recently found the short conversation between
two Chinese thinkers that I’m copying out for you.”118 On June 27 of that
year, just before departing Messkirch and Wildenstein to return to what had
become occupied Freiburg, Heidegger gave a talk entitled “Poverty” (Die
Armut) to a small audience, a talk in which he developed further the idea of
the necessity of the unnecessary by way of interpreting the following two
passages from Hölderlin’s essays:
For us everything is concentrated upon the spiritual, we have become

poor in order to become rich.119
Neither from himself alone, nor solely from the objects that surround
him, can the human being have the experience that more than a mechanical
course, that a spirit, a god, is in the world. But he can indeed experience
this in a more lively relationship, exalted above pressing needs, in which
“he” stands with that which surrounds him.120
The gist of Heidegger’s speech is conveyed in the following lines:
To be truly poor means to be such that one is deprived of nothing except

what is unnecessary . . . To be truly deprived means not to be able to be
without what is unnecessary and thus immediately and exclusively
belonging to what is unnecessary . . . What is unnecessary is what does
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not arise out of a necessity or need [Not], that is, what does not arise out
of compulsion [Zwang], but out of what is free and open [das Freie] . . .
What is freed is what is released into its essence and protected from the
compulsion of necessity. What frees in freedom averts or overturns in
advance necessity. Freedom is that which [in this sense] turns necessity
[Das Freiende der Freiheit wendet zum voraus die Not ab oder um. Die
Freiheit ist das die Not Wenden] . . . Freedom means averting or
overturning necessity [Not-Wendigkeit], insofar as what frees is not
necessitated by a need and is thus what is unnecessary . . . Now, beyng is
what lets each and every being be what it is and how it is, and is thus
precisely that which frees, that which lets each being rest in its essence,
thus safeguarding it.121
This talk on “Poverty” is a rich supplement to the end of Country Path

Conversations. What is of particular importance to us here is the convergence
that occurs between Heidegger’s interpretations of Hölderlin and the
Zhuangzi. This convergence, mediated by Heidegger’s own thinking, is surely
a remarkable event of intertraditional cross-fertilization. What is especially
remarkable is that, at the end of Country Path Conversations, the usual
pattern of Heidegger’s text is reversed, such that it is the Chinese source that
appears on the surface while Hölderlin remains in the background. It also
appears that, in this case, given that the talk on “Poverty” was presented a
month and a half after the third conversation was completed, Heidegger’s
reading of the Zhuangzi may have informed his reading of Hölderlin rather
than, or at least as much as, the other way around.
6. Heidegger’s Somber vs Zhuangzi’s

Playful Attunement
Of course, we should not merely celebrate convergences without also
taking into account divergences. We cannot simply conclude that the
Zhuangzi and Hölderlin have been synthesized in Heidegger without also
engaging in a diairesis that shows how this resonating sameness also implies
dissonant difference. Genuine dialogue, after all, entails not only a
Horizontverschmelzung but also, at the same time, an Auseinandersetzung
or at least a clarification of the alterity of different ways of thinking and
experiencing. Since fully staging a critical dialogue between the Zhuangzi
and Heidegger’s thought is beyond the scope of what can be done here, I
will have to restrict myself to sketching, in broad and bold strokes, a few
indictors.122 Indeed, given the limited space I have remaining to venture into
this vast topic, I will need to proceed somewhat recklessly. As Zhuangzi
says, “I’m going to try speaking some reckless words. How about listening
just as recklessly?”123
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Let us return to the issue of language before turning to the issue of

temperament and tone. At the end of chapter 26 of the Zhuangzi—the
chapter from which Heidegger quotes at the end of Country Path
Conversations—Zhuangzi asks: “Where can I find a man who has forgotten
words so I can have a few words with him?”124 Here, I would like to suggest,
we find intimated both the proximity to and the distance from Heidegger.
First the proximity: Both agree that language occurs as a movement between
silence and speech. The speaking of language, we might say, takes place in a
wider field of silence, just as useful things require a wider field of uselessness.
For Heidegger, primordial speech, poetic naming, stems from a silent
attunement to “the peal of stillness [das Geläut der Stille].”125 Determinate
things come to presence and are preserved in words; yet words devolve into
“idle chatter” when their silent origin—the withdrawing or self-concealing
indeterminate fullness of being—is forgotten.
Analogously, in the Zhuangzi we are told:
When the Way is seen clearly, that just means that it has not really been
encountered, so debate about it is no match for silence. The Way cannot
be learned, so hearing about it is no match for plugging up your ears . . .
The Way cannot be heard; whatever is heard is not it. The Way cannot be
seen; whatever is seen is not it. The Way cannot be spoken; whatever is
spoken is not it. Know that what forms has no form. The Way corresponds
to no name.126
The Way, the dao, as we have seen both the Daodejing and Heidegger say,
is a provisional name for the unspoken “mystery of mysteries” that allows
“thoughtful saying.” Hence, what is at issue is a circulating movement
between silence and speech or, as the Zen philosopher Ueda Shizuteru puts
it, an irreducible movement of “exiting language and exiting into language.”127
The Daodejing says that “inversion [fan 反] is the movement of the dao,”128
and in the Zhuangzi we read of “the Great Return [da gui 大歸]”: “The
formless goes into form; the formed goes back into the formlessness.”129
This circulating movement characterizes the relation between silent
attentiveness to the nameless and nebulous dynamic whole of the dao and
linguistic determinations of its provisional parts.
According to the Zhuangzi, words ensnare us; in using them we all too
easily end up getting used by them, caught in our own trap. “A fish trap is
there for the fish. When you have got hold of the fish, you forget the trap . . .
Words are there for the intent. When you have got hold of the intent, you
forget the words.”130 This is why Zhuangzi wants to have a few words with
a man who has forgotten words. His emphasis is on the forgetting of the
words in order to return to the fluidity of the dao, in order to freely move
with and within the movement of the world. Words come and go as a natural
part of this spontaneous process, but in holding on to them they end up
holding us up.
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Now, while the Daoist understanding of the movement between going

forth into the linguistic delimitations of form and silently returning to
a formless wellspring of possibilities resonates, as we have seen, with
the thought of Heidegger and the poetry of Hölderlin, I think there is
also a difference in stress, a difference in predominant orientation, and,
especially with regard to the Zhuangzi, a difference in tone and fundamental
attunement. Whereas Heidegger and Hölderlin mourn the loss of originary
words and reverently wait upon the arrival of new ones, the Zhuangzi both
playfully undermines old ossified words and impishly innovates new and
unusual ones.
In The Event, a private manuscript written in 1941/2, Heidegger suggests
that the orientation of the thinker and the poet are opposite and
complementary. Whereas “thinking is a becoming at home in being un-
homelike,” poetizing is a “becoming at home out of being un-homelike.”131
The thinker opens us up to the silent abyss (Abgrund); the poet grounds it
with a new name. Heidegger’s thinker anticipates and defers to the poet; the
thoughtful journey into the abyss is for the sake of a poetic return. On the
whole, one could say that the tandem movement between Heidegger’s
thinker and poet accords with the twin comportments toward language
found in the Zhuangzi.
However, the fundamental attunement Heidegger claims is appropriate
to our Occidental onto-historical epoch is strikingly different from that of
this ancient Chinese text. The fundamental attunement of the other inception
(der andere Anfang) of post-metaphysical thinking, Heidegger writes in
Contributions to Philosophy, entails “restraint [die Verhaltenheit], shock
[das Erschrecken], and diffidence [die Scheu],”132 and elsewhere he says that
the fundamental attunement of Hölderlin’s poetry is “holy mourning [heilige
Trauer],” understood as a “resolve to renounce the gods of old” that is at the
same time a “resolute readiness for awaiting the divine” to return.133 For
Heidegger, in short, both the thinker and the poet are needed in a time of
need, and they respond to the necessity of the unnecessary with “pain” and
“suffering” in an “attunement of a holy mourning in readied distress.”134 For
Heidegger, the journey along the path of thought and poetry is a sober
occasion. “Sobriety,” he writes in an essay on Hölderlin, “is the sensibility
that is always ready for the holy.”135 And in Country Path Conversations we
are told that thinking is “the festival of sobriety.”136 The Zhuangzi, on the
other hand, in order to explain the manner in which the sage “harbors
himself in naturalness [cang yu tian 藏於天]” such that nothing can harm
him, uses the analogy of a drunken man who falls from a cart but remains
uninjured.137 For the Zhuangzi, moving in tune with the Way is not a matter
of sobriety, pain, suffering, or mourning, but rather, as the title of its first
chapter announces, a playful process of “free and easy wandering” (xiaoyao
you 逍遙遊).
Not unlike the later Heidegger, the Zhuangzi calls for a freedom that
would come from a letting go of the will and a return to that in which we
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belong, a return to our place of participation in the natural movement of

a Way, the fundamental or rather abyssal character of which cannot be
ultimately fathomed or reduced to fixed formulas. But the mood of
Zhuangzi’s recovery of freedom is very different; it is playful, ironic, and
often audacious. Not only would Zhuangzi readily accept Heraclitus’s
invitation to find the divine in the kitchen, to a reverent inquirer wanting to
know where to look for the dao he ends up irreverently saying: “It is in the
piss and shit.”138
The authors of the Zhuangzi call for a return to a primordial naturalness
covered over by what is seen as the artificiality of Confucian culture. The
problem is not that we lack words that let things be; the problem is that
words have become rigid borders that separate things from each other and
from us. The problem is not that we need “grounders of the abyss [Gründer
des Abgrundes]”;139 the problem is that the creative abyss has been covered
over and stifled with too much grounding.
Both Heidegger and Zhuangzi compare thinking and language to
cultivating fields, but the different manners in which they speak of this is
revealing. Heidegger ends his “Letter on Humanism” with the following
lines: “With its saying, thinking lays inconspicuous furrows in language.
They are still more inconspicuous than the furrows that the farmer, slow of
step, draws through the fields.”140 Zhuangzi’s contemporary Mengzi 孟子
(Mencius) spoke of cultivating the innate goodness of the human heart with
a similar metaphor: The farmer cannot get sprouts to grow faster by pulling
on them; he has to “let” them grow in an attentive manner that is neither
simply active nor simply passive.141 Among Confucians, Mencius is closest
to the Daoist preference for naturalness over human artifice. But even he is
still too Confucian, too cultivated, too ritualistic, for Zhuangzi.
Zhuangzi speaks of the cultivated field of language in the following
manner. “The Way has never had sealed borders, and words have never had
consistency. It is due to [the establishment of a definition of] ‘this’ [as
opposed to ‘that’] that there are [now] rigid boundaries.”142 The word
translated here as “rigid boundaries” is zhen 畛, which literally indicates the
ridges in rice paddies. What Zhuangzi apparently laments is the
overcultivation of the field, which covers over and rigidifies the original
fluidity of the dao and of language.
Like so much of the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi, this can be understood
as a critique of Confucianism, whose Way involves methods of cultivating
the moral traits of benevolence (ren 仁), righteousness (yi 義), and ritual
(li 禮). The Daodejing speaks of the decline from the spontaneously natural
Way into artificial Confucian morality as follows: “When dao is lost, then
there is virtue. When virtue is lost, then there is benevolence; when
benevolence is lost, then there is righteousness; when righteousness is lost,
then there is ritual.”143 The first half of the traditional version of the
Daodejing is accordingly focused on the dao, and the second half on virtue
(de 德). “Virtue” can be used as a translation of the Daoist de insofar as we
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understand it in its literal meaning of “power,” here the native power

effortlessly displayed by a thing or person when it remains in accord with
the Way that generates and flows through all things. “The dao generates
beings and de nourishes them . . . The dao is revered and de is valued not
because this is commanded but rather always just spontaneously so.”144 The
Daodejing accordingly calls not for forward progress in the elaboration and
cultivation of moral virtues, but rather for a radical return to the virtuosity
that naturally issues from dwelling in accord with the Way.
In a similar manner, the Zhuangzi proclaims that “the ancients” returned
all the way to a point prior to the establishment of artificial boundaries
between things.
The understanding of the ancients really got all the way there. Where had
it arrived? To the point where, for some, there never had existed so-called
things . . . Next, there were those for whom things existed but never any
definite boundaries between them. Next were those for whom there were
boundaries but never any rights and wrongs. When rights and wrongs
waxed bright, the Way began to wane.145
It is important to point out that, although there are “primitivist” strands

in some later chapters of the Zhuangzi, the author(s) of the “Inner
Chapters” and the later chapters written in their vein are not simply
nostalgic for a bygone age. Even when they strategically employ primitivist
tropes, the predominant voices of “Zhuangzi” and his surrogates in the
text, it seems to me, do not simply want to return people and fields to the
wild and to forbid farming and cultivation. Rather, they suggest that their
(and they would surely also say our) society has gone too far in the direction
of artificial cultivation such that people need to return, not to a static and
silent state of formlessness, but rather to the very movement of going forth
into form and returning to formlessness. After all, it is this ceaseless
movement of inversion between speech and silence, form and emptiness,
that is the dao.
The Zhuangzi is especially critical of the Confucian doctrine of the
“rectification of names” (zhengming 正名), according to which names
should be fixed, by the ruler, in order to clearly indicate distinctions,
relations, and duties. This doctrine was championed by Xunzi 荀子, the
Confucian counterpart of Mengzi and sharp critic of the Daoists. Xunzi
thought that human nature was naturally bad and in need of artificial
rectification. His preferred metaphor was not agricultural but rather
technological, namely forcefully “steaming and bending . . . wood straight
as a plumb line into a wheel.”146
The Zhuangzi, on the other hand, agrees with the Daodejing in thinking
that humans should emulate the dao, which models itself only on its own
natural spontaneity.147 It also agrees that this natural spontaneity of the dao,
while providing the power of naming, cannot itself ultimately be named.
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According to the Zhuangzi, it is the rigid distinctions we make between

“this” and “that,” solidified through unequivocal linguistic codifications,
that alienate us from the fluid movement of the dao and the ability to freely
respond to the situation at hand by way of balancing perspectives. “Thus the
sage uses various rights and wrongs to harmonize with others and yet
remain at rest in the middle of Heaven the Potter’s Wheel [tian jun 天鈞].”148
“Heaven” (tian) in the Zhuangzi means the natural Way of things, and the
sinograph for “Potter’s Wheel” (jun), Ziporyn points out in a footnote, also
means “equality.” “The two meanings converge in the consideration of the
even distribution of clay made possible by the constant spinning of the
wheel.”149 The constant spinning of the wheel refers to the fluid assumption
of various perspectives as appropriate to shifting circumstances. In a related
metaphor for finding the pivotal empty center of flexible response-ability,
the Zhuangzi says: “When the hinge is fitted into the socket, it can respond
endlessly.”150
Let us now imaginatively ask: What would Heidegger say to Zhuangzi,
and how would Zhuangzi respond to Heidegger? After all, thinking about
what they would say to each other can help us think about what they have
to say to those of us who read them both. Heidegger would presumably
say that Zhuangzi does not understand that we in the modern West and
Westernizing world are living in a time of urgent need (Not)—a need
ironically evinced precisely in our apparent lack of need (die Not der
Notlosigkeit)151—a time of distress in the face of the flight of the gods and
the abandonment of beyng, a time when originary language is reticent to
speak. For Heidegger, the proper relation to the unnecessary is, after all, one
of distressful need; modern humans in particular urgently need to learn to
let language speak so as to ground the abyss of the unnecessary.
Zhuangzi, on the other hand, wrote at a time when, he felt, too much had
already been said; too many established names had already been used and
had covered over the creative wellspring of the nameless and useless. And
he would probably think that a Gesamtausgabe of more than a hundred
volumes is too much to write in any circumstance, especially if what really
matters is, as Heidegger himself claimed, “simple saying.”152 Zhuangzi
would probably think that Heidegger’s concern with grounding the abyss is
still captive to the will to fathom and found the ground of things that
Heidegger himself criticizes.153 Heidegger’s thought prepares for a leap
(Sprung) into another inception, an inception that is thought to require a
grounding of the abyss. Yet Zhuangzi would playfully prod: Why not just let
go into the abyss? In other words: “Leap into the boundless [wujing 無竟]
and make it your home!”154
Zhuangzi would probably think that Heidegger is holding himself back
from unreservedly letting go into the natural Way of the great expanse of
the “open-region.” In Country Path Conversations Heidegger writes: “The
expanse carries us to what is objectless, and yet also keeps us from dissolving
into it.”155 And later on: “In waiting, the human-being [das Menschenwesen]
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becomes gathered in attentiveness to that in which he belongs, yet without

letting himself get carried away into and absorbed in it.”156 For Zhuangzi,
however, one need not fear dissolving or being absorbed into the Way,
insofar as it is the creative source as well as the solvent of provisional
distinctions and fluid identities.
“Having emptied my will,” Zhuangzi says, “I have no destination and no
idea of where I have arrived at . . . I ramble and relax in unbordered vastness
[panghuang hu pinghong 彷徨乎馮閎].”157 In this leap into a “playful
wandering in the great void [you hu taixu 遊乎太虛],”158 would one lose
oneself, one’s humanity, one’s linguistic and ethnic identity, even one’s very—
and very Western, especially American, insistence on—individuality? Is this
what it would mean to become what the Zhuangzi calls “the Consummate
Person [who] has no fixed identity, the Spirit Man [who] has no particular
merit, [or] the Sage [who] has no fame”?159 It would seem not since, after
all, we meet the most colorful array of strikingly unique characters
throughout the Zhuangzi. It seems that, in wandering freely through the
dense forests and vast beaches of the open-region, we would not simply
come to disdain or avoid the horizonal places that give our lives meaning
and the borderlines that provide us with personal and political identities—
but we would gain the freedom to use all these markers of identity without
being used by them, to draw these lines in the sand rather than set them in
stone, to casually camp out rather than willfully wall ourselves up in our
current cultural clearings.
Perhaps one would then become more genuinely capable of entering into
a dialogue between traditions of thought and language, having found one’s
true home in a never-ending journey of going forth and returning—not to a
land determined by blood, soil, language, or tradition, but rather to the
unbordered vastness of the open-region, the formless nothing that we all
share in common as the nameless wellspring of all our different ways of
being and speaking.
Let me end with that suggestion, and with some corresponding questions.
The Zhuangzi was, to be sure, written in a very different time and place. But
does that mean that it is decidedly less, or potentially more significant for us?
It apparently means that it is less useful, less necessary. After all, we don’t
need to read an ancient Chinese text to go about our business in the modern
Western and Westernizing world. But might doing so help awaken us to the
necessity of the unnecessary, the usefulness of the useless? If we want to
attune ourselves to the all-encompassing open-region, should we not look as
far as possible beyond our current horizons? If we want to understand the
universe—the unbordered vastness—that we all share in common, should
we not engage in a conversation with what is most different? Such has been
the intent of this chapter, which has attempted to nurture the nascent
dialogue between Heidegger and Daoism, and in particular to show how
together—across great distances and differences—they have much to teach
us regarding the Useless Way of Unnecessary Being.
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Notes
1 Kakuzo Okakura, Das Buch vom Tee (Leipzig: Insel-Verlag, 1919).
2 Tomonobu Imamichi, In Search of Wisdom: One Philosopher’s Journey,
(Tokyo: LTCB International Library, 2004), 123.
3 Kakuzo Okakura, Cha no hon / The Book of Tea (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1998),
92–3. “Taoism” has been changed to “Daoism.” The Japanese translator of
Okakura’s English text renders this phrase as yo ni sho suru no jutsu 世に処す
るの術, a Japanese parsing of the Chinese-Japanese (kanbun 漢文) phrase
Okakura presumably had in mind, sho sei jutsu 処世術.
4 Okakura, Das Buch vom Tee, chapter 3; accessed online at: http://gutenberg.
spiegel.de/buch/das-buch-vom-tee-9294/4. See Dennis Hirota, “Okakura
Tenshin’s Conception of ‘Being in the World’,” Ryūkoku Daigaku Ronshū , 478
(2011): 11. Hirota claims that the phrase chushi 處世 (Japanese: shosei; note
that 処 is the modern Japanese simplification of 處) can be found in chapter 9
of the Zhuangzi, but I have been unable to find it there or indeed anywhere
in the Zhuangzi. It seems to have first appeared in later texts such as
the Huainanzi (second century bce). See https://ctext.org/pre-qin-and-
han?searchu=處世. David Chai informs me that the term subsequently
appeared in many of the traditional commentaries on the Zhuangzi, starting
with Cheng Xuanying 成玄英 (fl. seventh century).
5 Heinrich Wiegand Petzet, Encounters & Dialogues with Martin Heidegger
1929–1976, trans. Parvis Emad and Kenneth Maly (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1993), 18.
6 Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 77; Martin Heidegger, Country Path
Conversations, trans. Bret W. Davis (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
2010).
7 On this crucial turn in Heidegger’s path of thought, see Bret W. Davis,
Heidegger and the Will: On the Way to Gelassenheit (Evanston: Northwestern
University Press, 2007); and Bret W. Davis, “Returning the World to Nature:
Heidegger’s Turn from a Transcendental-Horizonal Projection of World to an
Indwelling Releasement to the Open-Region,” Continental Philosophy Review,
47.3 (2014): 373–97. For an introduction to this topic, see Bret W. Davis, “Will
and Gelassenheit,” in Martin Heidegger: Key Concepts, ed. Bret W. Davis (New
York: Routledge, 2014), 168–82.
8 Martin Heidegger, Letters to His Wife: 1915–1970, ed. Gertrud Heidegger,
trans. R.D.V. Glasgow (Cambridge: Polity, 2008), 187.
9 Martin Heidegger, Vorträge und Aufsätze (Pfullingen: Neske, 1994), 43; Martin
Heidegger, The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays, trans.
William Lovitt (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), 158. For an attempt to
concisely present the relevance of Heidegger’s thought to cross-cultural
philosophy, and vice versa, see Bret W. Davis, “East-West Dialogue after
Heidegger,” in After Heidegger?, eds. Gregory Fried and Richard Polt (London:
Rowman & Littlefield, 2018), 335–45.
10 Other than Country Path Conversations and “From a Conversation on
Language (1953/54): Between a Japanese and an Inquirer” (Martin Heidegger,
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Gesamtausgabe, vol. 12, 79–146; Martin Heidegger, On the Way to Language,

trans. Peter D. Hertz [New York: Harper and Row, 1971], 1–54, translation of
the title modified), the only other text in this form is “Das abendländische
Gespräch: 1946/1948” (Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 75, 57–196),
an unfinished dialogue written in the wake of Country Path Conversations.
11 Heidegger, Letters to his Wife, 187.
12 Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 65; Martin Heidegger, Contributions
to Philosophy (From the Event), trans. Richard Rojcewicz and Daniela
Vallega-Neu (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2012).
13 Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 40, 152; Martin Heidegger,
Introduction to Metaphysics, trans. Gregory Fried and Richard Polt (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 2014), 122.
14 On Heidegger’s ethnocentrism in the 1930s and beyond, and on his turn (or
return) to an interest in East–West dialogue starting in the late 1930s, see Bret W.
Davis, “Heidegger on the Way from Onto-Historical Ethnocentrism to East-West
Dialogue,” Gatherings: The Heidegger Circle Annual, 6 (2016): 130–56.
15 Martin Heidegger, “Europa und die deutsche Philosophie,” in Europa und die
Philosophie, ed. Hans-Helmut Gander (Frankfurt: Vittorio Klostermann,
1993), 31.
16 See Bret W. Davis, “Heidegger and Asian Philosophy,” in The Bloomsbury
Companion to Heidegger, eds. François Raffoul and Eric S. Nelson (New York:
Bloomsbury Academic, 2013), 460.
17 Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 12, 79–146; Heidegger, On the Way to
Language, 1–54.
18 Ibid., 85 and 89; Ibid., 5 and 8.
19 Ibid., 144; Ibid., 52–3.
20 See Bret W. Davis, “Heidegger’s Orientations: The Step Back on the Way to
Dialogue with the East,” in Heidegger-Jahrbuch 7: Heidegger und das
ostasiatische Denken, eds. Alfred Denker et al. (Freiburg/Munich: Alber Verlag,
2013), 177–80.
21 See Harmut Buchner (ed.), Japan und Heidegger (Sigmaringen: Thorbecke,
1989), 225; see also Ibid., 166.
22 See Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 77, 184 and 205; Country Path
Conversations, 120 and 132.
23 See Davis, “Heidegger and Asian Philosophy”, 463–8.
24 Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 53, 62; Martin Heidegger, Hölderlin’s
Hymn “The Ister”, trans. Will McNeil and Julia Davis (Bloomington: Indiana
25 Ibid.; Ibid.
26 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 76; Heidegger, Hölderlin’s Hymn “The Ister”, 63.
27 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 80; Ibid., 65–6.
28 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 81; Ibid., 66 (translation modified).
29 See Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 39, 290–4; Martin Heidegger,
Hölderlin’s Hymns “Germania” and “The Rhine”, trans. Will McNeil and
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Julia Davis (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2014), 263–7; Heidegger,

Gesamtausgabe, vol. 53, 168–70; Heidegger, Hölderlin’s Hymn “The Ister”,
134–7; and Martin Heidegger, Erläuterung zu Hölderlins Dichtung (Frankfurt
am Main: Vittorio Klostermann, 1996), 82–8; Martin Heidegger, Elucidations
of Hölderlin’s Poetry, trans. Keith Hoeller (New York: Humanity Books,
2000), 107–13. For an explication and critique of Hölderlin’s and Heidegger’s
understanding of the proper mode of cross-cultural encounter as a matter of
“homecoming through the foreign,” see Bret W. Davis, “Heidegger on the
Way,” 139–44.
30 Heidegger, Vorträge und Aufsätze, 43; Heidegger, The Question Concerning
Technology, 158.
31 From Gadamer’s personal correspondence with Graham Parkes, as recorded in
the latter’s introduction to Heidegger and Asian Thought (Honolulu: University
of Hawaii Press, 1987), 5, 7.
32 Winfield Nagley, “Introduction to the Symposium and Reading of a Letter
from Martin Heidegger,” Philosophy East and West, 20.3 (1970): 221. See also
Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 9, 424; Martin Heidegger, Pathmarks,
ed. William McNeill (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 321; and
Heidegger’s statement quoted in Willfred Hartig, Die Lehre des Buddha und
Heidegger: Beiträge zum Ost-West-Dialog des Denkens im 20 Jahrhundert
(Konstanz: Universität Konstanz, 1997), 15–16.
33 Hellmuth Hecker, “Ein Spaziergang mit Heidegger,” in Hartig, Die Lehre des
Buddha und Heidegger, 269.
34 Shih-Yi Hsiao, “Heidegger and Our Translation of the Tao Te Ching,” in
Heidegger and Asian Thought, ed. Graham Parkes (Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press, 1987), 93, 96.
35 Ibid., 98.
36 Martin Heidegger, Identität und Differenz (Stuttgart: Neske, 1999), 25; Martin
Heidegger, Identity and Difference, trans. Joan Stambaugh (New York: Harper
and Row, 1969), 36.
37 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 12, 187; Heidegger, On the Way to Language,
92 (translation modified).
38 Ibid., 89; Ibid., 8. See Davis, “Heidegger’s Orientations,” 179–80.
39 See Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 40, 105 and 115; Heidegger, Introduction
to Metaphysics, 153 and 166–7.
40 See the references in note 7.
41 See Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 77, 108–9; Heidegger, Country Path
Conversations, 70.
42 See Daodejing, chapters 2, 3, 10, 37, 43, 48, 63. Translations from the Daodejing
are my own. I have benefited from consulting a variety of translations, including
that by P.J. Ivanhoe and Bryan Van Norden (eds.), Readings in Classical Chinese
Philosophy (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2005), 163–203.
43 See Daodejing, chapters 8, 16, 25, 34, 37, 48, 51, 62, 73; and Heidegger,
Gesamtausgabe, vol. 77, 108–9, 122–3, 142–4; Heidegger, Country Path
Conversations, 70, 79–80, 92–4.
44 Daodejing, chapter 11.
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45 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 77, 130; Heidegger, Country Path

Conversations, 85.
46 Ibid., 137; Ibid., 89.
47 Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 79, 7–11; Martin Heidegger, Bremen
and Freiburg Lectures, trans. Andrew J. Mitchell (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 2012), 7–10.
48 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 65, 338–9; Heidegger, Contributions to
Philosophy, 268–9.
49 “Nothingness itself, however, is being [Das Nichts selbst aber ist Sein].” Martin
Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 71, 121; Martin Heidegger, The Event, trans.
Richard Rojcewicz (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013), 103.
50 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 65, 256; Heidegger, Contributions to Philosophy,
209. On the many other references to the “the nothing” in Heidegger’s thought,
see Davis, “Heidegger and Asian Philosophy,” 463–4. Note that, beginning in the
1930s, Heidegger sometimes uses the archaic spelling of Seyn (beyng), instead of
Sein (being), in order to indicate that he is referring to the originary
appropriating event of revealing/concealing rather than to “beingness”
(Seiendheit) in the sense of a metaphysical essence or ground of beings.
51 Daodejing, chapters 40 and 4.
54 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 77, 177–8; Heidegger, Country Path
Conversations, 115.
55 Ibid., 118; Ibid., 76–7.
56 Daodejing, chapter 11; Zhuangzi, The Complete Works of Zhuangzi, trans.
Burton Watson (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013), 10.
57 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 53, 23; Heidegger, Hölderlin’s Hymn “The
Ister”, 20.
Conversations, 75.
59 See Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1050a.
Conversations, 44.
61 Ibid., 115; Ibid., 75.
62 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 77, 122–6, 139–43; Heidegger, Country Path
Conversations, 80–2, 90–3.
63 Ibid., 122; Ibid., 79.
Conversations, 131.
66 In Davis, Heidegger and the Will, chapter 5, I argue that Heidegger’s passing
critique hardly does justice to Eckhart’s notion of Gelasseheit, and specifically
to the manner in which Eckhart breaks through and beyond a standpoint of
deference to the Will of a transcendent God.
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Conversations, 70.
68 Ibid., 143; Ibid., 93.
69 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 12, 186–7; Heidegger, On the Way to
Language, 91–2 (translation modified).
71 Ibid., chapter 10; see also Ibid., chapter 51. The phrase “lead without lording
over” is Ivanhoe and Van Norden’s felicitous translation of “zhang er bu zai
長而不宰.”
Conversations, 66.
75 Daodejing, chapters 64 and 34.
76 Ibid., chapters 15, 19, 28, 32, 37.
Conversations, 75.
80 Ibid., chapter 15, as quoted in Hsiao, “Heidegger and Our Translation,” 100.
81 See Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 77, 84–5; Heidegger, Country Path
Conversations, 54.
82 “Go-into-nearness” translates “In-die-Nähe-gehen,” which is the German
translation eventually given for the Greek title of the first of the Country Path
Conversations. That title is a one-word fragment by Heraclitus: Αγχιβασίη. See
Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 77, 152–5; Heidegger, Country Path
Conversations, 99–102.
85 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 12, 156; Heidegger, On the Way to Language,
60.
86 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 5, 310; Martin Heidegger, Poetry, Language,
Thought, trans. Albert Hofstadter (New York: Harper and Row, 2001), 132.
87 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Signs, trans. Richard McCleary (Evanston:
Northwestern University Press, 1964), 120.
88 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 9, 313; Heidegger, Pathmarks, 239.
89 Shizuteru Ueda, Zen—kongen-teki ningen (Tokyo: Iwanami, 2001), 387. See
Bret W. Davis, “Expressing Experience: Language in Ueda Shizuteru’s
Philosophy of Zen,” in Dao Companion to Japanese Buddhist Philosophy,
ed. Gereon Kopf (New York: Springer, 2019), 713–38.
91 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 12, 159; Heidegger, On the Way to
Language, 66.
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92 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 65, 510; Heidegger, Contributions to

Philosophy, 401.
93 Ibid., 36; Ibid., 30.
Conversations, 104.
95 Ibid.; Ibid.
96 Ibid., 223–4; Ibid., 145.
97 Ibid., 88–9; Ibid., 56.
98 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 12, 186–7; Heidegger, On the Way to
Language, 91–2 (translation modified).
99 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 77, 206–7, 233–5; Heidegger, Country Path
Conversations, 133, 152–3.
100 Ibid., 234; Ibid., 152–3.
101 Ibid., 234; Ibid., 153.
102 Ibid., 237; Ibid., 155. See also Ibid., 227, 232; Ibid., 148, 151.
103 Ibid.; Ibid., 155.
104 Ibid., 239; Ibid., 156.
105 Like the Daodejing, traditionally attributed to Laozi and so also called the
Laozi, the Zhuangzi was composed by a number of authors, some of them
more and some less closely connected with the person Zhuangzi who may
have composed the first seven of the thirty-three chapters—however, some
scholars now think that even those first seven “Inner Chapters” were
composed by more than one author. In any case, what concerns us here is
the consistency of thought rather than the identity of authorship. Following
the example of the text itself, I will sometimes use “Zhuangzi” as a name
for the collective authorship of the central and consistent lines of thought
in the text.
106 Zhuangzi, Complete Works, 231; see also Zhuangzi: The Essential Writings
with Selections from Traditional Commentaries, trans. Brook Ziporyn
(Indianapolis: Hackett, 2009), 112.
107 Ibid., 30; Ibid.
108 Ibid. 33; Ibid., 32.
109 Ibid. 31; Ibid.
110 Ibid., 6; Ibid., 8.
111 Ibid., 31; Ibid.
112 See Martin Heidegger, Sein und Zeit (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1993),
63–88; Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. John Macquarrie and
Edward Robinson (New York: Harper and Row, 1962), 91–122; and Davis,
Heidegger and the Will, 32–40.
113 On the roles that self-concealing “earth” and encompassing “nature” play in
Heidegger’s turn from a voluntaristic projection of a meaningful “world,” see
Davis, “Returning the World to Nature.”
114 Heidegger, Sein und Zeit, 70; Heidegger, Being and Time, 100.
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115 Martin Heidegger, Was heißt Denken? (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1984), 18;
Martin Heidegger, What is Called Thinking?, trans. J. Glenn Gray (New York:
Harper and Row), 44.
116 Martin Heidegger, Denkerfahrungen 1910–1976 (Frankfurt am Main:
Vittorio Klosterman, 1996), 18.
118 Heidegger, Letters to His Wife, 187.
119 Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 73/1, 5; Martin Heidegger, “Poverty,”
trans. Thomas Kalary and Frank Schalow in Heidegger, Translation and the
Task of Thinking, ed. Frank Schalow (New York: Springer, 2011), 3.
120 Ibid., 7; Ibid., 5 (translation modified).
121 Ibid., 8–9; Ibid., 6–7 (translation modified).
122 In particular, I will not be able to pay due attention either to the mellowing
tone and attunement in Heidegger’s thought between the later 1930s and the
1960s or to the significant differences in tone and attunement between the
Daodejing and the Zhuangzi.
123 Zhuangzi, The Complete Works, 16; Zhuangzi, The Essential Writings, 18.
124 Ibid., 233; Ibid., 114.
125 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 12, 27; Heidegger, Poetry, Language,
Thought, 207.
126 Zhuangzi, The Complete Works, 184; Zhuangzi, The Essential Writings,
89–90. Here and in other quotations from this text, I have changed Ziporyn’s
translation of dao as “Course” to “Way.”
127 See Davis, “Expressing Experience.”
129 Zhuangzi, The Complete Works, 181; Zhuangzi, The Essential Writings, 89
(translation modified).
130 Ibid., 233; Ibid., 114.
131 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 71, 330; Heidegger, The Event, 286
(translation modified).
132 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 65, 22 and 395–6; Heidegger, Contributions
to Philosophy, 19 and 313–14.
133 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 39, 94–5; Heidegger, Hölderlin’s “Germania”
and “The Rhine,” 85–6.
134 Ibid., 182; Ibid., 166.
135 Heidegger, Erläuterung zu Hölderlins Dichtung, 77; Heidegger, Elucidations
of Hölderlin’s Poetry, 98.
Conversations, 89.
137 Zhuangzi, The Complete Works, 146; Zhuangzi, The Essential Writings, 78
(translation modified). Ziporyn translates tian 天 more literally as “the
Heavenly.” As he tells us in his Glossary of Essential Terms, in the Zhuangzi
36138.indb 192 03/09/2019 11:16

this term refers to “the spontaneous and agentless creativity that brings forth
all beings” and whose “action is effortless and purposeless.” Zhuangzi, The
Essential Writings, 217.
139 Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 65, 7; Heidegger, Contributions to
Philosophy, 8. It is important to point out that Heidegger is decidedly not
calling for a ground in the “metaphysical” sense of “beingness” as a bedrock
of constant presence. Noting a passage where Heidegger says of the grounders
of the abyss that “their seeking loves the abyss, in which they know the oldest
ground” (Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 65, 13; Heidegger, Contributions to
Philosophy, 13), John Sallis comments: “For those who question, being
grounders of the abyss does not mean installing a ground that would cancel
the abyss as archaic ground, as an abysmal ground older than beingness as
ground.” John Sallis, “Grounders of the Abyss”, in Companion to Heidegger’s
Contributions to Philosophy, eds. Charles Scott et al. (Bloomington: Indiana
141 Ivanhoe and Van Norden, Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy, 127.
142 Zhuangzi, The Complete Works, 13 (my translation); Zhuangzi, The Essential
Writings, 16.
145 Zhuangzi, The Complete Works, 11–12; Zhuangzi, The Essential Writings, 14.
146 Ivanhoe and Van Norden, Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy, 248.
149 Ibid.
151 See Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 65, 107; Heidegger, Contributions to
Philosophy, 85.
152 Heidegger, Letters to His Wife, 182; see also Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol.
9, 364; Heidegger, Pathmarks, 276.
153 See Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 77, 164; Heidegger, Country Path
Conversations, 106.
154 Zhuangzi, The Complete Works, 17.
Conversations, 132.
156 Ibid., 226; Ibid., 147.
157 Zhuangzi, The Complete Works, 182–3; Zhuangzi, The Essential Writings, 89.
Here I have combined and modified the translations by Watson and Ziporyn.
158 Ibid. 183; Ibid. (translation modified).
159 Ibid., 3; Ibid., 6.
36138.indb 193 03/09/2019 11:16

References
Buchner, Harmut, ed. (1989), Japan und Heidegger. Sigmaringen: Thorbecke.
Davis, Bret W. (2007), Heidegger and the Will: On the Way to Gelassenheit,
Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
Davis, Bret W. (2013), “Heidegger and Asian Philosophy,” in François Raffoul and
Eric S. Nelson (eds.), The Bloomsbury Companion to Heidegger, 459–71, New
Davis, Bret W. (2013), “Heidegger’s Orientations: The Step Back on the Way to
Dialogue with the East,” in Alfred Denker et al. (eds.), Heidegger-Jahrbuch 7:
Heidegger und das ostasiatische Denken, 153–80. Freiburg/Munich: Alber
Verlag.
Davis, Bret W. (2014), “Returning the World to Nature: Heidegger’s Turn from a
Transcendental-Horizonal Projection of World to an Indwelling Releasement to
the Open-Region,” Continental Philosophy Review, 47.3: 373–97.
Davis, Bret W. (2014), “Will and Gelassenheit,” in Bret W. Davis (ed.), Martin
Heidegger: Key Concepts, 168–82, New York: Routledge.
Davis, Bret W. (2016), “Heidegger on the Way from Onto-Historical Ethnocentrism
to East-West Dialogue,” Gatherings: The Heidegger Circle Annual, 6: 130–56.
Davis, Bret W. (2018), “East-West Dialogue after Heidegger,” in Gregory Fried and
Richard Polt (eds.), After Heidegger?, 335–45, London: Rowman & Littlefield.
Davis, Bret W. (2019), “Expressing Experience: Language in Ueda Shizuteru’s
Philosophy of Zen,” in Gereon Kopf (ed.), Dao Companion to Japanese
Buddhist Philosophy, 713–38, New York: Springer.
Hartig, Willfred. (1997), Die Lehre des Buddha und Heidegger: Beiträge zum
Ost-West-Dialog des Denkens im 20 Jahrhundert, Konstanz: Universität
Konstanz.
Heidegger, Martin. (1962), Being and Time, John Macquarrie and Edward
Robinson (trans.), New York: Harper and Row.
Heidegger, Martin. (1968), What is Called Thinking?, J. Glenn Gray (trans.), New
York: Harper and Row.
Heidegger, Martin. (1969), Identity and Difference, Joan Stambaugh (trans.),
New York: Harper and Row.
Heidegger, Martin. (1971), On the Way to Language, Peter D. Hertz (trans.), New
York: Harper and Row.
Heidegger, Martin. (1975–), Gesamtausgabe. Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio
Klostermann. Cited by the following volume numbers: (5) “Holzwege”, (9)
“Wegmarken”, (12) “Unterwegs zur Sprache”, (39) “Hölderlins Hymnen
‘Germanien’ und ‘Der Rhein’ ”, (40) “Einführung in die Metaphysik”, (53)
“Hölderlins Hymne ‘Der Ister’ ”, (65) “Beiträge zur Philosophie (Vom
Ereignis)”, (71) “Das Ereignis”, (73/1) “Zum Ereignis-Denken” (vol. 1), (75)
“Zu Hölderlin / Griechenlandreisen”, (77) “Feldweg-Gespräche (1944/45)”.
Heidegger, Martin. (1977), The Question Concerning Technology and Other
Essays, William Lovitt (trans.), New York: Harper and Row.
Heidegger, Martin. (1984), Was heißt Denken?, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
Heidegger, Martin. (1993), “Europa und die deutsche Philosophie,” in Hans-
Helmut Gander (ed.), Europa und die Philosophie, 31–41. Frankfurt: Vittorio
Klostermann.
Heidegger, Martin. (1993), Sein und Zeit, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
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Heidegger, Martin. (1994), Vorträge und Aufsätze, Pfullingen: Neske.

Heidegger, Martin. (1996), Denkerfahrungen 1910–1976. Frankfurt am Main:
Vittorio Klostermann.
Heidegger, Martin. (1996), Erläuterung zu Hölderlins Dichtung, Frankfurt am
Main: Vittorio Klostermann.
Heidegger, Martin. (1996), Hölderlin’s Hymn “The Ister”, Will McNeil and Julia
Davis (trans.), Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Heidegger, Martin. (1998), Pathmarks, William McNeill (ed.), Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Heidegger, Martin. (1999), Identität und Differenz, Stuttgart: Neske.
Heidegger, Martin. (2000), Elucidations of Hölderlin’s Poetry, Keith Hoeller
(trans.), New York: Humanity Books.
Heidegger, Martin. (2001), Poetry, Language, Thought, Albert Hofstadter (trans.),
New York: Harper and Row.
Heidegger, Martin. (2008), Letters to His Wife: 1915–1970, Gertrud Heidegger
(ed.), R.D.V. Glasgow (trans.), Cambridge: Polity.
Heidegger, Martin. (2010), Country Path Conversations, Bret W. Davis (trans.),
Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Heidegger, Martin. (2011), “Poverty,” Thomas Kalary and Frank Schalow (trans.),
in Frank Schalow (ed.), Heidegger, Translation and the Task of Thinking, 3–10,
New York: Springer.
Heidegger, Martin. (2012), Bremen and Freiburg Lectures, Andrew Mitchell
(trans.), Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Heidegger, Martin. (2012), Contributions to Philosophy (From the Event), Richard
Rojcewicz and Daniela Vallega-Neu (trans.), Bloomington: Indiana University
Press.
Heidegger, Martin. (2013), The Event, Richard Rojcewicz (trans.), Bloomington:
Indiana University Press.
Heidegger, Martin. (2014), Hölderlin’s Hymns “Germania” and “The Rhine”, Will
McNeil and Julia Davis (trans.), Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Heidegger, Martin. (2014), Introduction to Metaphysics, Gregory Fried and
Richard Polt (trans.), New Haven: Yale University Press.
Hirota, Dennis. (2011), “Okakura Tenshin’s Conception of ‘Being in the World’,”
Ryūkoku Daigaku Ronshū, 478: 10–32.
Hsiao, Shih-Yi. (1987), “Heidegger and Our Translation of the Tao Te Ching,” in
Graham Parkes (ed.), Heidegger and Asian Thought, 93–103, Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press.
Imamichi, Tomonobu. (2004), In Search of Wisdom: One Philosopher’s Journey,
Tokyo: LTCB International Library.
Ivanhoe, P.J. and Bryan Van Norden, eds. (2005), Readings in Classical Chinese
Philosophy, Indianapolis: Hackett.
Laozi. Daodejing. Available online at: https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing
May, Reinhard. (1996), Heidegger’s Hidden Sources: East Asian Influences on His
Work. Graham Parkes (trans.), New York: Routledge.
Nagley, Winfield. (1970), “Introduction to the Symposium and Reading of a Letter
from Martin Heidegger,” Philosophy East and West, 20.3: 221.
Okakura, Kakuzo. (1906), The Book of Tea, New York: Duffield and Company.
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Okakura, Kakuzo. (1919), Das Buch vom Tee, Marguerite Steindorf and Ulrich
Steindorf (trans.), Leipzig: Insel-Verlag.
Okakura, Kakuzo. (1998), Cha no hon / The Book of Tea (a bilingual edition),
Asano Akira (trans.), Tokyo: Kodansha.
Parkes, Graham, ed. (1987), Heidegger and Asian Thought, Honolulu: University
of Hawaii Press.
Petzet, Heinrich Wiegand. (1993), Encounters & Dialogues with Martin Heidegger
1929–1976, Parvis Emad and Kenneth Maly (trans.), Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Sallis, John. (2001), “Grounders of the Abyss,” in Charles Scott et al. (eds.),
Companion to Heidegger’s Contributions to Philosophy, 181–97. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press.
Ueda, Shizuteru 上田閑照. (2001), Zen—kongen-teki ningen 禅―根源的人間 [Zen:
Originary Human Being], volume 4 of Ueda Shizuteru shū 上田閑照集 [Ueda
Shizuteru Collection], Tokyo: Iwanami.
Traditional Commentaries, Brook Ziporyn (trans.), Indianapolis: Hackett.
Zhuangzi. (2013), The Complete Works of Zhuangzi, Burton Watson (trans.), New
York: Columbia University Press.
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9
Heidegger and Zhuangzi:
The Transformative Art of the

Phenomenological Reduction
Patricia Huntington
1. Introduction
In the Zhuangzi 莊子, we find a text that is both delightful in its literary
fancy and demanding as an orientative guide to life.1 The phenomenological
method here adopted aligns itself with other literary, hermeneutic, and
metaphorical treatments. Without ignoring the skeptical aspects of the text,
such approaches demonstrate that the Zhuangzi promotes a rich program of
spiritual transformation as an art of living. These delightful stories issue
powerful challenges through a series of jolts that deprive the reader of
commonsense (natural) attitudes, expose the relativity of customs and local
perspectives, brush aside artificial labels, befuddle knowledge that is
commonly inherited and relied upon, and even arrest analytical acumen.
There have been detailed applications of the Husserlian forms of the
phenomenological, eidetic, and transcendental reductions to various Eastern
philosophies and meditative practices.2 My aim will be conservatively
limited to treating the phenomenological reduction, in its hermeneutic
rendition in Heidegger and as applied to the Zhuangzi, as a practice of de-
cultivation rather than of psychological and moral cultivation that builds up
capacities developmentally under the design and direction of critical reason.
The Zhuangzi can be read as enacting a practice of reduction in both textual
and soteriological terms. My explicit aim will be to show that a program of
un-learning generates newfound virtues and powers (de 德) that escape the
purview of a life directed exclusively by the power of rational discernment.
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The path of de-cultivation nourishes receptive openness and solitariness in

Heidegger, while the Zhuangzi significantly expands this repertoire to
include powers such as unknowing, trust in the Dao 道, nondual correlative
perception, and the adoption of non-purposive or nontelic aims. Because
this art of non-rational transformation yields a sustainable way of life that
integrates all our powers, it can be considered superior to that of the
deliberate forms of cultivation that amplify the power of reason alone.
2. Natural Attitudes or Cicadas and Doves

From both phenomenological and Zhuangzian standpoints, people operate
at a cicada-and-dove level in our natural attitudes and everyday approaches
to life. Fish cannot become birds, and birds do not fly ten thousand li. The
adult mind is secure in its standing as a rational agent and center of moral
will; it has abandoned childish dreams. Yet phenomenology shows us that
first-order empirical senses of life (facts) are anything but natural (things-in-
themselves), while Zhuangzi pokes fun at such attitudes as artificial
conventions, learned modes of valuation rooted in the acquired belief in “an
autonomous heart-mind over and above its affective states” that puts the
child’s mind to rest.3 Throughout this commentary, I will use the lyrical
phrase “cicadas and doves” to capture both naïvely-held beliefs and more
critically developed worldviews that preserve this separation of the
discriminating mind from affect, intuition, and vital force as well as spiritual
contact with life as it emerges in its transformative power.4
The “natural attitude” is a technical term inherited from Husserlian
phenomenology. It denotes the commonsense operative assumption that we
experience and know the world as it exists outside and independent of the
human mind.5 Yet the intentional or co-relational nature of consciousness
shows that, even as objective phenomena are not reducible to mental
constructs, we only know phenomena (objectively) as they appear finitely
within and are actively constituted by the field of human awareness
(subjectivity).6 Because the objects of consciousness (noema) and acts of
conscious awareness (noesis) arise concurrently, “facts” and “things” are not
simply facts and things. Phenomena are, rather, encrusted in histories of
interpretation, cultural attitudes, and socialized forms of evaluation. The
perceiving consciousness, that actively inherits such natural understandings,
is not truly primordial but instead reflects the suppositions, preferences,
beliefs, and theories of an acquired outlook.
My intent is not to detail the complexities of the eidetic and transcendental
forms of reduction but instead to emphasize the reduction as a transformative
practice that progresses from phenomenological suspension (epoché) to
intuitive apprehension. Even though it remains within the scope of reflective
activity, Husserl develops the phenomenological reduction as a technique
that strips away the prejudices and cultural encrustations of the natural
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Heidegger, Zhuangzi and Phenomenological Reduction 199
attitude, purifies perception, and restores a presuppositionless apprehension

of things-in-themselves. This technique begins with the phenomenological
epoché that suspends or brackets all beliefs and theories about the world
that we take for granted. Through this detachment from suppositions,
phenomena can then be described and analyzed as they arise immediately in
“essential intuition.”7 The technique of eidetic variation imaginatively
represents manifold variations of how a particular phenomenon arises
in human experience in order to perform the eidetic reduction; that is,
apprehend and judge it by its eidetic or invariant qualities (eidos or essences).
Because consciousness plays an active role in the meaningful construction
of phenomena, Husserl took an additional step through the transcendental
reduction to examine the intentional structures of pure consciousness.
Ramakant Sinari clarifies that Husserl “is predominantly interested in
comprehending that line of demarcation which separates consciousness in
the act of positing essences from consciousness reflecting this or that.”8
This Husserlian notion of the natural attitude can illuminate Heidegger’s
view that “Dasein is its world” with several qualifications. First, in the
expanded hermeneutical approach of Heidegger, we begin with the situated
nature of human existence as a whole and not merely consciousness. As
François Raffoul states, “if all there is is life, thought cannot be an external
gaze upon life, from a position outside life.”9 Second, although it would be
nice to say that world and subjectivity, rather than consciousness and its
intended object, are co-relational, the language of co-relationality gives the
falsifying impression that subject and environment first exist as independent
and separate things, only then to be brought into mutual relation. Dasein
and world are not co-relational because Dasein is its world.10 Third, the
hermeneutic turn within phenomenology through Heidegger, Sartre, and
Merleau-Ponty repudiates the idea that we can return to a presuppositionless
apprehension of things. To claim that Dasein is its world means that human
existence has an inherently projective structure and is thus interpretive
(Auslegung) in both prethematic (prepredicative) dealings and thematic
(predicative) modes of conceptualization. Interpretation arises actively
through “the working-out of possibilities projected in understanding,”
whether the aims are practical (to care for an animal) or theoretical (to
create a science of animals).11 The epoché or suspension of everyday
assumptions cannot thus lead back to world-less, pre-interpreted, or un-
projected (transcendental) apprehension of the invariant determinants of
things. The reduction must be reconfigured as a step-back that initiates a
regular practice of perceiving the limitations of our finite and interpreted
views of all things.
In the Heideggerian context, the “natural” (Husserl) becomes the
“everyday” (Heidegger), and the reduction is reconfigured as a step-back
and not a technique “which makes possible the disclosure of a pure, absolute
transcendental consciousness with no relationship to the world in order to
be.”12 Everyday assumptions include more than the fallacy of thinking we
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know facts outside subjective consciousness. These include the basic notions
that encompass our sense of being-in-a-world: (1) that we are isolated selves
who first exist substantially before socialization; (2) that we stand in a world
like an object placed in yet separate from a container; (3) that the preexisting
empirical world is a brute and uninterpreted datum; and (4) that we
manufacture language as a tool to represent this otherwise brute and mute
reality. All four of these operative assumptions reflect dichotomized
abstractions or, as Zhuangzi might put it, artificialities that cover over
the nature of their production and of our primordial non-dichotomous
experience of phenomenal existence.
However useful these everyday assumptions may be to collective survival
and individual success, they create in conceptual terms a false division
between self and world. And in practical terms, they produce a fractured
and alienating sense of separation from others and the lifeworld. These
conceptual dichotomies uproot us from the elemental experience of the
creative co-constituting and interpretive nature of being-in-a-world (human
existence) before it reifies into dualities. At this point Heidegger converges
in broad terms with the Zhuangzi: critical disputes over the worldviews and
ideological commitments that are built upon this uprootedness begin from a
faulty starting point and cannot repair alienation from self, others, life, and
the world.
Heidegger’s version of a phenomenological reduction confronts us with a
hermeneutic dilemma. Can there be a science of being if Dasein is its world?
Being and Time answers in the affirmative. Because the step-back engages us
in the phenomenal reality that human experience emerges out of nothingness
or the inexhaustibility of horizons of meaning, it seems to leave us with only
competing worldviews. Yet Dasein can become transparent to its existence
by projecting the horizon of interpretation upon our outermost possibility,
death.13 Death awareness, when lifted to the surface and brought to bear on
our lives, thrusts us back upon the nature of human finitude. There are two
intertwined levels to the projective nature of human existence, ontic and
ontological. Ontic projections pertain to specific goals, aims, and purposes,
while the ontological articulates the fact that human existence reaches
projectively beyond any one world-horizon into the very font of
unconcealment or disclosedness as such. The generative condition for the
possibility of all world-horizons of interpretation is that we reach into
nothingness at both the point of origination (the upsurge of life) and
cessation (death). Actively living out of death awareness, while strenuous,
roots us in a fragile, ever-elusive, and enigmatic compliance with the fact
that we know things only finitely within our field of awareness.
Although in Husserl, the phenomenological reduction ultimately leads to
the transcendental study of the noetic structures of consciousness, the
hermeneutic turn in phenomenology treats the subject in holistic terms as an
affective, embodied, and driven being and as embedded in the forces of
culture and history. This turn thickens our grasp of the depth and force of
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cultural conditioning and attenuates the desire to arrive at a pure standpoint.

By reversing the thrust that collapses death awareness (ontological
nothingness) into purposive aims (socialized ontic worldviews), the
hermeneutic step-back inaugurates a process of de-cultivation or un-
learning. The phenomenological reduction cannot be merely a technique
that purifies consciousness because it involves a confrontation with mortality
as a necessary moment in delivering us to transparency to a never-ending
engagement with the mystery of the disclosure of being (life). Without
equating Heidegger and Daoism, we can note a similarity with the enigmatic
nature of the Dao as Laozi 老子 describes it in his Daodejing 道德經: the
Dao that can be named is not the constant Dao (changdao 常道).14 We can
touch its originating power and virtue but not conceptualize it without
remainder.
3. Practice: Dislodging Cicadas and Doves

Even though Being and Time’s primary aim of developing a fundamental
ontology remains conceptual, Heidegger’s philosophy encourages an
exploration of the transformations produced through a lived practice of
reduction. Elsewhere I have criticized the Heideggerian model of authenticity
(Eigentlichkeit) for reinstating a positive paradigm of self-cultivation, rather
than adhering to a rigorous path of de-cultivation; I have argued that it
leaves intact a residual sense of a preexisting self.15 Manifold scholars have
examined a tension between Heidegger’s ontology and the intersubjective
model of authentic engagement with finitude. A bone of contention for East
Asian thinkers like Tetsurō Watsuji is that fundamental ontology does not
begin by articulating a completely nondual sense of interdependence, namely,
that selves are empty of intrinsic nature.16 Like Watsuji, Erin McCarthy,
Lawrence Vogel, and others, I find irresolvable tensions in Being and Time.17
Yet focusing on the rich practice of the reduction, rather than tensions
between ontology and intersubjectivity, allows me to highlight the practice
of de-cultivation in the early Heidegger as a way to engender an elemental
form of virtue.
Rather than treat a Heideggerian variant of the reduction as landing us in
some form of relativism or skepticism, a phenomenological approach
understands the step-back to recover a bearing; that is, a dispositional
orientation to discourse and life that allows the anxious drive for security to
surface. Because transparency does not deliver us to a final, fixed, and
absolute standpoint, a fundamental and angst-producing insecurity suffuses
human life. Typically, this angst—anxiety over no-thingness or the lack of an
unchanging basis for judgment—drives people to seek conceptual security
by one of two means: either by turning commonplace “cicada-and-dove”
worldviews into absolute standpoints or, where a reflective sense of the
limits of perspective obtains, by compulsively defending one’s viewpoint.18
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The evasion of finitude, when unacknowledged, infects argumentation and

yields stubborn or questionable outcomes: the driven need to be right belies
an extraneous excess of self-affirmation, the impulse to embrace a final
worldview betrays want of arbitrarily terminating the process of growth,
the inability to sustain expansion of the field of phenomenality belies
stubbornness. Insofar as existential angst is not confronted, the impetus to
security will taint conceptual debates, close down the field of phenomenality
(what can be perceived or what counts as evidence), and impose an arbitrary
limit on dialogue. Moreover, abstracting from primordial openness produces
staunch resistance to awakening from everyday attitudes that are culturally
inherited and reinforced by worldly aims. As valuable as it is to dispute
worldviews reflectively and abstractly, a practice of stepping back examines
the underlying attitudes and rigid dispositions betrayed in the laughter of
the cicada and the turtle dove, the self-pride of small wisdom, the puffed-up
words of Jie Yu, the sounds of the shrill and quarrelsome. While
understandable, our anxious dealings with the world bind us ever more
thoroughly to narrow and closed worldviews, and reductive modes of
interaction.
Given that it does not nullify the need to evaluate and argumentatively
assess the importance of moral values, political ideologies, or social aims,
we might ask what value lies in this step-back? Is openness simply a more
holistic and contextualized way to capture reflective life? I suggest not.
The value, I propose, lies in an elemental form of virtue/power (de) that
cannot be produced through cultivation (socialization) but only through
de-cultivation; that is, a practice of reduction or fasting of mind and
heart. Eric Nelson exemplifies the nourishing of such virtue in terms
of Heidegger’s grasp of individuation. One commonplace and shared
understanding is that we are all individuated because, as adults, we have
formed personalities, autonomous moral capacities, independent ideas, and
the ability to determine and achieve practical aims. Yet this hard-won
“natural attitude” proves to be a form of cicada-and-dove-like ignorance
because it takes for granted that individuation is completed at base, even if
we can enlarge critical understanding and build a more rectified character
on top of that base. Rather than treat individuation as the outcome of
psychological development and socialization, Nelson shows that, for
Heidegger, individuation arises only when we break with this commonplace
attitude: “The uniqueness of the self and things does not arise from the
imposition of a view, prescription, or imperative . . . but emerges in letting
the world be encountered.”19
Heidegger’s emphasis on individuation (Vereinzelung), mineness
(Jemeinigkeit), and solitude (Einsamkeit) demonstrates that radical
individuation “is a becoming finite.”20 It inheres in the active process of
realizing one’s finitude rather than through the formation of capacities.
Holding oneself open for finitude transforms fear and anxiety into receptivity
to the unpredictable and allows one to grow stable in meeting the unknown,
36138.indb 202 03/09/2019 11:16

however much it might jolt one uncomfortably into yet new shifts in
perspective. It progressively dissolves the psychic protections of artificial
constructs and defensive patterns of ideation. “Solitude is a condition not of
escaping the world but of encountering it.”21 Lawrence Vogel accentuates
the arduous nature of living authentically. To take up one’s finitude
authentically, rather than hide behind social conventions and the limitations
of the adult mind, means to stand “open to the structures of existence” and
to take “hold of . . . existence in light of the constraints of history,
embodiment, and morality.”22 Because social conventions seem to “disburden
one of the anxiety-producing responsibility,” we resist holding ourselves
open in the vulnerabilities of finitude.23 Nelson’s insightful explication
enables us to comprehend how commitments to a worldview, even when
rationally developed, can be pinned to a near-untouchable set of assumptions
and psychic formations that ward off angst. These inevitably harden beneath
the adult capacity to be self-governing; they uproot and restrict the power
of rational life by producing a zone of indifference that proves incorrigibly
difficult to dislodge. Everyday modes of being make one “indifferent to
that which would throw light on the character and plight of [one’s] own
existence.”24
The step-back, understood as a practice of authentic individuation,
fosters not simple psychological acceptance of finitude but an active
comportment, a “taking up, safeguarding, and preserving of finitude.”25
Critical suspension of beliefs does not suffice to eradicate anxiety and
indifference. The reduction can only fulfill itself through a strenuous practice
that fosters the elemental power, in solitariness, to remain aware of finitude,
to sustain an attitude of willingness to persist in being shown one’s finitude
(illusions), and to bear it well. This willingness expresses itself in the virtuous
receptivity that welcomes what comes without defensive or indifferent
acts of rational repudiation. Such stability does not come from socialized
character but instead from the genuine dissolution of angst and the
restoration of child-like wonder in non-discriminate openness.26 One might
hear in these Heideggerian concerns the echo of Zhuangzi’s radical mockery
of such patterns of “rational” development. Such a bearing might also
capture Zen Master Dōgen’s view that life is one continuous mistake because
it shows that, however rational we may be, we can and often are mistaken
in our way of being-in-the-world, and not simply through lapses in a logical
process of ideation.27
To further develop an understanding of the reduction as a constant return
to openness that fosters an elemental de requires that we supplement
Heidegger in two directions, one social and one spiritual. By turning to the
Zhuangzi, I directly address the latter but not the former. The Heideggerian
step-back takes us to the fact that our individual identities are bound up
with “cultural heritage—its possibilities, its patterns of living and doing, its
stories and interpretations.”28 Each of our cicada-and-dove belief systems
is related to that larger historical horizon of interpretation or, as Charles
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Guignon puts it, “shared medium of intelligibility.”29 Yet Heidegger

presupposes a homogenous cultural horizon and writes a grand meta-
narrative of Western thought, as Latina feminists Dorothy Leland and
Mariana Ortega, and as comparative thinkers, including Eric Nelson, have
shown. The practice of un-learning that nurtures a mature and liberating
individuation needs to be pursued in the cultural domain through a dialogical
and communicative practice with others whose stories about history and
whose cultural sensibilities differ from one’s own. It calls for a conceptual
model that reinterprets the step-back as a step into “world-traveling.”30
Holding oneself open would lead into a series of reductions that might
illuminate racial, ethnic, cultural, sexual, and other entrenched biases. The
willingness to sustain the uncanny discomforts of world-traveling would
prove vital to transformation. Zhuangzi’s “ease in wandering” (xiaoyaoyou
逍遙遊) must, in this light, be understood to move beyond the likes of
comfort and the dislikes of discomfort, and thus support the enabling
orientation that permits one to value each.
4. Phoenixes, Butterflies, and Dream

Unlike Husserl and Heidegger, the Zhuangzi is not burdened by the aim to
produce philosophy as rigorous science or develop a fundamental ontology.
The literary movement of the text can thus conform to and prepare reception
of the paradigmatic way of life it espouses.31 The Zhuangzi can be seen as
undertaking the phenomenological reduction in a hermeneutic sense in two
corresponding aspects, textual and soteriological. The opening chapters can
be understood as enacting a preliminary step-back through clearing away
discriminations and desires. Analyzed as deliberate enactments that lead the
reader to “disengage” the discriminating, planning, and goal-oriented mind,
the literary art of the Zhuangzi “engage[s] the intuitive or aesthetic functions
of the mind.”32 By disarming the analytic mind, this textual reduction
prepares the reader for the soteriological paradigm that presents the fasting
of the mind and effortless (wuwei 無為) or natural action (ziran 自然) as a
proscribed way of living. The Zhuangzi returns us to a way of nourishing de
that inheres in being or the generative matrix of life rather than by adherence
to prescriptive courses (daos) like those of the Confucian or Mohist schools
that mold behavior developmentally to attain specific moral or social
ideals.33 By articulating a robust and transformative art of following tian 天
(Heaven), the Zhuangzi demonstrates that it is possible to live in the world
by not-knowing and through relinquishing purposive aims.
Robert Allinson’s definition of spiritual transformation helps to clarify a
radical view of “free and easy wandering” that is neither irrational nor
reducible to aesthetic play, even though one lives without pre-designed aims
in life. Spiritual transformation effectuates a change in “perspective” that
alters the mind and “takes one beyond all viewpoints” or particular beliefs.34
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This transformation in perspective, attitude, and orientation is “noetic, but

not intellectual” (i.e., not the result of philosophical explanation or logical
deduction); irreducible to psychological insight (because it “removes an
entire mental block” and not only emotional conflicts); and non-mystical
(since it cannot depict a static union where “all distinctions vanish”).35 It is
not an adjustment within interpersonal and social relations conventionally
understood through a shared world-horizon but a dramatic liberation from
the world-horizons that bind one to constrained forms of affective and
mental change. We could call such a radical and complete transformation
“mystical” in the qualified sense that James Sellmann does; that is, not as
static mergence with the cosmos but rather as being restored to life in
“continuity with the particulars of nature.”36 Spiritual transformation
requires a deliberate release from discrimination (“so” and “not so”),
ordinary emotions (joy and sorrow), likes and dislikes (desirous preferences),
and entry into a way of unknowing and trust. The mockery of Zhuangzi
forms a part of the ease of wandering, yet this ease emerges through a serious
program of fasting and the cultivation of willingness to live from the larger
perspective of the oneness of things.
4.1. Textual Reduction

The opening chapters can be said to enact a phenomenological reduction
through two broad steps: (1) suspending the habit of discrimination and
(2) dismantling the desire to realize an ideal self. Among the plethora of
transformative metaphors in the Zhuangzi, the mythical phoenix Peng and
the butterfly dream frame the first two chapters and all that falls within (the
cicada and the little dove, the story of the hand balm, the chirping of birds).
This framing strikes a blow at conventional ideals, and the dualities they
rest upon, by positing the preposterous idea that one could undergo a great
transformation, like Peng, that seems impossible to fathom from all
customary standpoints. Because the Zhuangzi imparts a model of living that
stands at odds with normal ways of cultivation, it must initially generate
disorientation and then shatter the shared, commonsense orientation to
accomplishment that underlies all life projects, beliefs, and viewpoints,
whether one valorizes the life of virtue or that of the scoundrel. This
orientation treats life’s journey as a planned and goal-oriented quest to
attain an ideal form of selfhood (the butterfly dream).
That the cicadas and doves scoff at the transformation of a fish into the
phoenix Peng in chapter 1 (Carefree Wandering) signals that the trained
adult mind can only regard such carefree living as ludicrous, impossible to
attain or, even worse, a gaudy display of arrogance. “Where does he think
he’s going?” taunts the little quail.37 Having been trained to rule over
perception, judgment, and decision, the adult mind cannot entertain an
order of liberation, greatness, and distinction that exceeds all it assumes to
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be rationally and humanly attainable. Considered through the lens of

phenomenological reduction, the story cannot facilely promote greatness
(Peng) over smallness (cicadas, doves, and quails). Rather, it cautions the
reader not to confound any worldly notions of grandeur with the promise
of carefree wandering, which Peng enters only after he is diminished and
moves beyond dichotomous distinctions into the sea.
Peng, when seen as cicadas do, is symbolic of everything great that
humans desire to emulate, yet he remains “dependent upon things for
survival” and does not point beyond “worldly desires.”38 When transplanted
into the world-horizon of the southern sea, Peng appears dwarfed by the
sea’s vastness. By showing that even Peng’s apparent majesty might appear
inconsequential by other cultural standards, Zhuangzi nullifies the cultivated
and learned heart-mind that measures great and small against one
constructed horizon of value or another.39 These passages draw the reader to
place under an existential epoché assumptions of great and small (“so” and
“not so”) and to quiet the “petty desires and selfish grievances” born out of
and which keep us bound to them.40
The butterfly dream progresses further to unearth the relation between
rational ideals and desire. It plays upon a symbol of an unfathomable and
irreversible transformation. Halting discrimination at its logical limit, the
image of the caterpillar-turned-butterfly captivates the heart-mind with its
profound longing to become so grandiosely transformed as truly to become
distinguished. Discriminations, as treated in the Zhuangzi, hinge not on the
source unknown (Dao) that unites, relativizes, and contextualizes them but
rather on a singular ranking. The discriminating mind produces world-
horizons by prioritizing aims according to ideal ends or an idea of the
best life. This projected ideal, in turn, underwrites desire and gives vent to
competitive ambition. Through the dream scenario, Zhuangzi treats all
specific aims as harnessing an elemental desire to become outstanding,
literally to stand out above others. Whether pursued toward good or bad,
prominent or humble, social or anti-social, conventional or unconventional
forms of distinction, the desire for distinction orients us to measure ourselves
against others through the rankings we adopt. It thus misses the mark of the
great transformation heralded in the story of Peng.
Understood as an embodied form of the phenomenological reduction, the
Zhuangzi stages the dream in a manner that unleashes and toys with the
reader’s desire to identify with the butterfly. Positioned like bookends,
the story of Peng and the butterfly dream draw the reader through a process
of (1) stilling the cognitive impetus to make distinctions, (2) discovering the
hidden motivational ambitions that prove the rational quest to be less
righteous than it pretends, and (3) finally to a shattering of the very quest to
know the self. This final blow moves from the suspension of discrimination
and the unmasking of desire to a possible reorientation and dramatic
transformation. It prepares the disoriented and shattered heart-mind to
accept the possibility of a radically alternative path, not simply that of
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un-learning rather than upbuilding but also of unknowing and forgetting

the self.
The heart-mind compulsively questions, who am I really, Zhuang Zhou
(i.e., Zhuangzi) or the butterfly? By calling into question the ambition that
taints discrimination, the Zhuangzi challenges the very quest to know
oneself through fulfilling one’s ambition. The reduction is brought to a head
when the machinations of calculative planning and goal-oriented activity
are pared down to this circular and irresolvable anxiety over who I am
really. Like manifold linguistic distinctions before it, Zhuangzi does not
resolve the dream-question of selfhood but instead foils the cognitive and
emotional desire to know who I am in advance of action. This forces the
reader to suspend the customary pattern of an agential doer who wields
the power to fashion an ideal image of self and, in a pre-designed manner,
take steps to become this exemplary self.
These textual reductions teach that entry into a genuinely great
transformation (dahua 大化) cannot be rationally planned, self-governed, or
rooted in the comparative mind. Moreover, this literary art squelches the
surreptitious inclination to turn the butterfly into a spiritually ideal measure
of true selfhood.41 By depriving us of what we unconsciously seek—to
become superior either in worldly terms or through transcendent escape
from the world—this tight little story, translated into six sentences, with
neither commentary nor elaboration, uncovers the hidden motivations of
the rational life.42 The Zhuangzi’s stance inaugurates a shift away from the
view that the discriminating mind is the sole agent of change. A necessary
condition for entering into a co-creative life is to proceed without knowing;
that is, to relinquish dreams of self-attainment.
4.2. Soteriological Reduction: The Paradigmatic

Practice
The examples of Cook Ding 庖丁 and the fasting of the mind (xinzhai 心齋)
have received manifold treatments as articulating a paradigmatic life
practice. Zhuangzi, I have suggested, cannot conceivably propose Cook
Ding as exemplifying a sustainable spiritual practice, rather than an
occasional virtuosic performance, without first bringing the heart-mind to a
stop. And the story of the fasting of the mind begs the question whether a
non-purposive way of living can in fact be sustainable. How can Yan Hui
(a disciple of Confucius) teach men of worldly station to be ethical without
proposing a standard or assuming right demeanor? In the hands of the
Zhuangzi, the reduction, by restoring contact with tianji 天機 (Heavenly
mechanism), unveils the prospect of realizing a profound trust in life and its
promptings as a practiced way of being-in-the-world. This transformation
in modality of living proves sustainable based on several factors: unknowing,
trust, nondual perception, and intrinsic aims.
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In the Zhuangzi, the step-back does not merely suspend but ultimately
deposes discrimination and desire as the faculties that play the governing
roles in action. Taken as a practice of reduction, the fasting of the mind
empties out the senses, the heart, the mind, the desire to correct the
misguided. “Don’t listen with your ears, listen with your mind. No, don’t
listen with your mind, but listen with your spirit. Listening stops with the
ears, the mind stops with recognition, but spirit is empty and waits on all
things. Dao gathers in emptiness alone. Emptiness is the fasting of the
mind.”43 The cicadas and doves in our minds balk at the idea that a non-
purposively-oriented life could form a sustained way to be in the world. It
seems utterly naïve to commandeer life without the protections of knowledge,
without developing strategies for survival, and without reliance upon past
experience to show us how to handle new situations.
Edward Slingerland’s notion that there is a “normative order” (tianji) and
an irrepressible force of Dao buried beneath all interpreted and linguistic
horizons is important in this context. Freedom from goal-oriented and
desire-driven lifestyles rests on the experience of the Dao or the Heavenly
mechanism as a guiding force and as a font of action.44 A non-purposive
orientation need not land us in aimless pursuits because action can stem
from a font other than desire and be guided by powers other than the
discriminating intellect. This font and power emerge through an alignment
between the self and life. That Heaven proves “normative,” in the sense that
following it might prove the best way to live, must be discovered along the
way and cannot be known in advance by discrimination, abstract judgment,
or even divination.
Cook Ding, like other stories of skilled know-how, exemplifies this
process of developing an intuitive orientation that is no longer suppressed
and controlled by the reflective capacity. Cook Ding’s skill emerges through
a progressive series of epoché from the ears to the heart-mind to qi 氣 (vital
breath, energy). Slingerland details this as a movement that first relinquishes
ordinary sensory responses (I don’t look with my eyes), then releases
“discriminating knowledge” (listening with the heart-mind) until Cook
Ding can listen “with the qi” or spirit. Listening with the heart-mind
articulates the standard way we acquire skill through reliance on knowledge
of the parts of the ox. The Zhuangzi, however, considers this kind of
knowledge to be a blunt instrument that easily “butchers” the outcome
because a preconceived and set plan cannot adapt to the concrete fact that
this particular ox does not fit neatly into a scheme or ideal essence of ox.
Listening with spirit, by contrast, allows the cook effortlessly to sense spaces
between the joints and thus gracefully avoid clumsy mistakes and butchered
results.45
One could gloss this path of reduction, following Husserl, as a return to
pure subjectivity and a primordial intuition that apprehends things-in-
themselves. But what matters in the Zhuangzi is that contact with the
irrepressible Heavenly mechanism releases, stimulates, and nourishes one’s
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irrepressible “spiritual” powers or de. For this reason, an entirely new form
of life becomes possible. A.C. Graham argues that “Zhuangzi’s ideal is to
have no choice at all, because reflecting the situation with perfect clarity you
can respond in only one way.”46 James Sellmann emphasizes the organismic
power to live and die with the alterations of things.47 There may be, even for
Zhuangzi, multiple fitting responses and certainly multiple variations of
the authentic person’s (zhenren 真人) virtuosic style of cutting an ox, yet
Graham and Sellmann converge on the point that an apt response arises out
of the interplay between life and the person, and is not rooted in planning,
knowledge, and past experience. Slingerland underscores that such a non-
rational or unknowing manner of being can be likened to that of the artist
who sees the creative process more as one of discovery than attainment. One
discovers rather than designs “the proper way pigments on a canvas are to
be combined to reflect a landscape, or the way a knife is to be wielded if an
ox is to be butchered.”48
This co-creativity does not rest exclusively upon primordial intuition
(Husserl) or the mystery of disclosure (Heidegger) but upon the power of
this generative matrix and our own natural inherence in it. That the way of
unknowing is not a prescription for an irrational, impulsive, and blind life,
or “a purely egotistic pastime,” as Robert Allinson argues, can be explained
through the virtues it produces.49 By relinquishing a projective pattern for
decision, the fasting of the mind inaugurates a more intelligent way of living.
However ironic it may seem, the Zhuangzi counsels that one begins to
“know the limits of things” or acquire authentic understanding only through
this dynamic engagement with life.50 Proof of the superiority of this non-
rational way can be found in the dynamic, soft, and adaptable capacity to
respond in a fitting manner, and not force or “butcher” things, overwhelm
the field of action, or press people beyond their breaking point. By contrast,
the discriminating mind, bent on its preconceived agenda, inevitably
overrides the natural flow and presses past what the situation can bear. Such
a manner of moving against life inevitably retards growth. The ambitious
underpinnings of a self-directed life gather everything into its domain of
rational mastery. The “natural” way, though not without artistry or even
elements of deliberate intent, reverses and undoes this habitual and self-
conscious pattern of lording over life.
The fasting of the mind grows credible when we articulate the growth it
engenders. The “forgetting the self”—by fasting away the seemingly essential
power to make distinctions and “do” action—nurses the virtues of trust and
delight.51 Trust is an elemental form of virtue that grows out of receptivity
because one discovers through practice, and retrospectively, that things
progress better if one does not overpower but rather meets what the situation
calls forth and permits. Trust in tian (illumination) engenders trust in the
authentic life through strengthening the virtue of being able to follow, sense,
apprehend, and delight in the wild, strange, and fortuitous alterations of
things. It solidifies a non-anxious way of moving through life because it
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dispels the mistake of the discriminative mind in thinking that we must

abstractly determine the ideal way to proceed; it relieves the heart-mind of
the hefty weight of laying out courses of action and straining to discipline
the uncontrollable outcomes of events. Rational fears dissolve, since
emptying the mind and forgetting the self do not yield irresolute and
dissolute conduct. Instead, they foster a solid yet supple attentiveness that
allows life to nourish growth in oneself, in others, and in situations. This
mode of being-in-the-world produces consistency in meeting the field of
action with joy and unexpected delight but without utilizing contrived
effort to straighten character. It “stabilizes” a non-interfering orientation,
in the way that improvisational virtuosity does, by repeated unscripted
performances; that is, by eliminating preferences and pre-designed strategies
for attainment. And it enhances reception of the strangeness of others and
things.
The Zhuangzi, I wish to suggest, considers the hallmark of intelligence to
be creative adaptability to the unexpected alterations of things. “The
understanding of the ancients really got all the way there” refers not simply
to the equalizing of viewpoints but to “the point where, for some, there had
never existed so-called things.”52 This marks the moment when eidetic
reduction nullifies itself as a quest for cognitive classification and a path of
knowing, for it is the point where the discrimination of things can be seen to
reside in the naming and labeling of them, calling them a “this” which
implies a “that.” This point constitutes the pivot around which the mind can
be freed for the ultimate reduction, namely, to move non-dually with the
transformation of things. The Zhuangzi “would not define rightness in any
one particular way but would instead entrust it to the everyday function [of
each being].”53 Instead of a quest for essences, the Zhuangzi shows a way of
life that can flourish by embracing the immeasurable proportions of things.
The non-rational life gives birth to the virtues of “correlative nondual
thinking” that harmonize, as James Sellmann argues, with the “nondual,
two-sided flip-flop environment in which a life is lived.”54 “The correlative
nondual point of view . . . perceives the interdependency of opposites, such
as the Peng bird and the turtle dove.”55 It also captures the way the mind
generates the opposite out of phenomena: “thinking of the small turns
into thinking of the big.”56 I would extend this analysis to include the
immeasurable ways that nondual thinking generates adaptable action that,
when befitting a circumstance, is big when needed, small when fitting, low-
lying if necessary or standing-up as prompted. And it permits a thoroughly
embodied manner of appraising things in context. Things, in effect, are not
captured by a single measure. Peng is big when placed in the North and
small when placed in the South. The discriminating mind that carries over a
previous label and judgment that conceives Peng as a static essence impedes
and generates interference in how things arise and call for response in the
present situation. Peng changes diachronically relative to situation and to its
opposite.
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Yet because small and large are also not discrete names, nondual
perception includes synchronous and immeasurable facets to the two-sided
interdependence of opposites. The liberated mind can see the tallness in the
small. Even a cicada acquires its form, beauty, power, and greatness from the
Dao. It can discern the smallness of all that the world considers grand. It can
intuit the hidden in the visible bones of the ox, recognize the virtue of the
lame person who ascribes no blame to the Dao, and find the exemplar in
the monstrous or odd. From the perspective of unknowing, one’s virtue,
in the ethical sense, emerges through fasting away the preferences of the
bloated heart that cannot transcend a dualistic, non-contextual, and non-
dynamic manner of evaluating things. The Zhuangzi certainly confounds
the usual ways of discriminating, since gourds can be tubs and a balm for
chapped hands can serve the fiefdom.57 “Only the man of far-reaching vision
. . . has no use of categories, but relegates them all to the constant.”58
Earlier I noted that integration into the generative matrix of life makes the
non-rational life possible. Action can stem from spirit. The Dao can lead
beyond set measures and release one for the adaptive intelligence that can
apprehend, in light of Heaven, the situated size of things. Yet such a life, if it
is to be sustained in a thoroughgoing manner, must be lived ever more fully
for intrinsic aims. There may be no discernible telos or extrinsic cosmic
purpose to the generative Dao because it gives us no foundation on which to
project the standards of ideal character formation, development of civilization,
or moral coda. Yet it does not follow that the generative Dao realizes
no intrinsic, non-purposive, natural, or autotelic ends, namely, to nourish,
liberate, and transform. The fasting of the mind, understood as a transcendental
reduction, performs a dance with the Dao. In this dance, the extensive reach
out into life pursuits must constantly shed extrinsic aims in order to discover
and be fortified anew by the intrinsic lessons that life bestows.
Finally, this path of de-cultivation must engender an integration of powers
that otherwise fall fallow under domination of the discriminating mind or
“self,” powers such as the intuitive, sensitive, feeling, vital, and spiritual
aspects of human being as well as those of nondual perception and thought.
The living movement of return to the essentially creative font of effortless
action could be said to marshal all our powers conjointly or in unique
combinations as the circumstance demands. Even though the Cook Ding
passage seems to give special significance to qi or vitality as the spontaneous
force of free action, overemphasis on qi would have two undesirable
outcomes. It would give undue credence to the prospect that the Zhuangzi
promotes mindless forms of spontaneity. Edward Slingerland clarifies that
effortless action is not unaware or blind but rather unself-conscious and
unscripted.59 Overemphasis on vitality would equally neglect the other
faculties involved in correlative nondual perception, trust in the Dao, and
the virtues of practical knowing that the non-rational life fosters.
To the degree that one can speak of individuation in the context of the
Zhuangzi, it must be as a process of self-forgetting that unifies one with the
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generative matrix of the Dao and unleashes the fuller array of powers that
enable one to follow Heaven and respond to the unexpected. In the Zhuangzi,
integration cannot refer to a psychological view, as this would mimic the
kind of Confucian or Mohist patterns of development that he scorns. The
term “individuation” normally starts to collapse at the point that partaking
in the creative processes of life unfolds through forgetting the self’s power to
impose a plan and assert its separateness. Heidegger shows that genuine
individuation arises only through de-cultivation and the growth of virtues
that openness produces. Zhuangzi might add that we acquire and lose
“individuation” as we transform along with and adaptively respond to the
immeasurable and wild transformation of things.
5. Conclusion
Examining the Zhuangzi through the lens of the phenomenological reduction
shows a number of reasons to globalize philosophy and re-examine the
nature of philosophy as an academic discipline. The Zhuangzi encourages
the Western academic to break with a narrow conception of rationality, and
even to take disciplined reasoning less seriously. If, as the Zhuangzi intends
to show, the pretentions that underlie rational life impede or limit the growth
of humanity, then it proves conceivable that an ideal path of learning might
progress not only from moral cultivation to taking reflective distance on
cultivation but also from reflective life to a liberation from attachments to
the reflective life. Engaging the Daoist tradition debunks the idea that there
is one sole path to the attainment of an enlightened orientation. Even though
the cultivation of a rational life may benefit most individuals in a given
society, it may not be recommended that every individual take a direct path
into reflective life, since not all people are intellectually inclined. If the aim
of philosophy is not finally enjoyment of critical debate but rather self-
transformation, then it can proceed in various ways. A transformational
approach can dissolve attachment to any native bent, and thus open a person
to an integration of powers that would introduce balance into her overall
orientation to life. The intellectual cannot be exempted from the task to
safeguard finitude. The Zhuangzi detects the need to combat the stubborn
barriers to self-examination that, ironically, the pursuit of the reflective life
can erect.
The Zhuangzi and the Daoist tradition invite a rejuvenated sense that
the ultimate value of philosophy lies in its power to orient us to live a better
life and to effectuate transformative attitudes and outlooks. Anchoring
philosophy in a liberated relation to one’s primary bent, rather than prizing
one bent over another, engenders an appreciation of other modes of thinking,
manifold ways of arriving at insight, and creative methods of edification. In
addition to decentering analytical reasoning as the sole path to enlightenment,
this lineage leads one to consider the importance of utilizing a host of
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rhetorical, didactic, literary, paradoxical, textual, analytic, and hermeneutical

modes of thinking to advance the vocation of philosophy. It dismantles the
presumption that Western philosophy has long held to be the Queen of
the sciences. It challenges philosophy as a discipline to adapt to demands
of the global era and correct its collusions with Western forms of cultural
imperialism.
Among the more illuminated legacies of Western thought we can include
political liberties, constitutional democracies, and conceptions of basic
human rights. Axiomatic to the Daoist heritage is a robust understanding
that life conditions change. Old paradigms must give way to paradigm
shifts, even as core intuitions and aspects of the past may need to be preserved
in that shift. What once heralded progress and ascension may now impede
growth and productive change. There has always been an underside to
the European Enlightenment, so evident in the long-standing harms of
colonization, uneven development, cultural imperialism, and the denigrating
treatment of non-Western philosophies as infantile. The global situation
calls for the promotion of dialogical models of decision-making, the
implementation of new metrics of poverty and wealth that do not singularly
prize material assets and consumerist lifestyles, and the preservation of
cultural continuity, spiritual wisdom, and collective relations to land among
indigenous and other post-development communal formations around the
globe. Precedents and models for these shifts have been conceived by Western
and non-Western thinkers, philosophers and scientists, activists and people.
Yet these newly conceived models emerged not through hypothetical
reasoning by its lights alone but rather through genuine engagement with
and listening to the (excluded) voices of others.
If Western philosophy is to play a viable role on the global stage—by
correcting imbalances in global development, meeting the environmental
emergency, circumventing the crisis that the Oil Peak will generate, and
defeating cultural imperialism—it must reconceive itself as a practice of
intercultural dialogue. Such a practice would arguably be anchored, as
Zhuangzi teaches, in child-like openness and a humble sense of finitude.
Much philosophizing speaks about but neglects to engage the other—at
home, in the South or in the East. Yet the obvious cannot readily be dismissed.
The cultural other plays an irreplaceable role in revealing to Western thinkers
both the richness and the drawbacks of their intellectual heritage. The
assumption that any culture can make this assessment on its own does not
hold up to scrutiny. Actual intercultural dialogue thrusts one back upon
unflattering discoveries of faulty suppositions, intense attachments to them,
deeply embedded racist or ethnocentric habits, and angst. Even a lifetime of
sincere self-examination cannot guarantee that deeply internalized patterns
of thought have been sufficiently dislodged to maintain reflective awareness
in the face of other cultural logics or excluded perspectives. The very jesting
of the Zhuangzi, the delight it takes in poking fun at the quest for rational
life, the quick-witted way it stops abstract reason short in its tracks could
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easily be dismissed and cast aside as unworthy of attention by the philosopher

in pursuit of conceptual debate. This too might evoke bellyaching laughter
and glee from Zhuangzi, since it so eloquently expresses the underlying
sensibility of much Western philosophy that only those traditions that can
match its rationality merit engagement in worthy discourse.
Notes
1 Kwok-Ying Lau develops a rich phenomenological expression of this
orientative character of Chinese philosophy in his Phenomenology and
Intercultural Understanding: Toward a New Cultural Flesh (Dordrecht:
Springer, 2016).
2 For an overview, see: Julia Jansen and Wenjing Cai, “Husserlian
Phenomenology: Current Chinese Perspectives,” Comparative and Continental
Philosophy, 10.1 (2018): 2–6; and D.P. Chattopadhyaya, Lester Embree, and
Jitendranath Mohanty (eds.), Phenomenology and Indian Philosophy (Albany:
State University of New York Press, 2019).
3 Kim-Chong Chong, Zhuangzi’s Critique of the Confucians: Blinded by the
Human (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2016), 2.
4 Sellmann points out that bianhua 變化 refers not only to transformations “of
form and shape (bian 變) . . . but also entails a complete renewal of the
experience of life’s meaning (hua 化).” See James D. Sellmann, “Transformational
Humor in the Zhuangzi,” in Wandering at Ease in the Zhuangzi, ed. Roger Ames
(Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998), 170.
5 Edmund Husserl, Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a
Phenomenological Philosophy, First Book, (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1982), 27–8.
6 Ibid., 88–9.
7 Edmund Husserl, Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology
(London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1931), 49, cf. 131. For a general
description of the evolution of the reduction in Husserl, see Dermot Moran
and Timothy Mooney (eds.), The Phenomenology Reader (New York:
Routledge, 2002), 12–16.
8 Ramakant Sinari, “The Method of Phenomenological Reduction and Yoga,”
Philosophy East and West, 15.3–4 (1965): 219.
9 François Raffoul, “Factical Life and the Need for Philosophy,” in Rethinking
Facticity, eds. François Raffoul and Eric S. Nelson (Albany: State University of
New York Press, 2008), 75.
10 Martin Heidegger, Sein und Zeit (Tübingen: Niemeyer Verlag, 1985), 84. For
the English translation, see Martin Heidegger, Being and Time (New York:
Harper and Row, 1962). I follow the standard method of citing marginal page
numbers so that the references correlate to the German passages.
11 Ibid., 148. In all life activities, human beings operate interpretively; that is, by
projecting a horizon of possibility (a world of cleaning) within which things
appear meaningfully “as” something (a dust cloth) and “in order to” (for the
36138.indb 214 03/09/2019 11:16

sake of tidying up) (Ibid., 148–9). On this hermeneutic ground, Heidegger

claims that “[i]t is not the case that man ‘is’ and then has, by way of an extra, a
relationship-of-Being towards the ‘world’—a world with which he provides
himself occasionally” (Ibid., 84).
12 Francis Seeburger, “Heidegger and the Phenomenological Reduction,”
Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 36.2 (1975): 213.
13 Heidegger, Being and Time / Sein und Zeit, 231–5.
14 Laozi, Daodejing, chapter 1. Available online at: https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing
15 Patricia Huntington, “A Huayan Critique of Heidegger: The Quest for a
Non-Obstructed Mitdasein,” Journal of the Pacific Association for the
Continental Tradition, 1 (2018): 8–11 and 15–18.
16 Tetsurō Watsuji, Watsuji Tetsurō’s Rinrigaku: Ethics in Japan (Albany: State
University of New York Press, 1996), 9–15.
17 Erin McCarthy, Ethics Embodied: Rethinking Selfhood through Continental,
Japanese, and Feminist Philosophies (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2010), 20–6;
and Lawrence Vogel, The Fragile “We”: Ethical Implications of Heidegger’s
“Being and Time” (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1994), 7–9,
19–20, and 24–7.
18 David Wong, “Zhuangzi and the Obsession with Being Right,” History of
Philosophy Quarterly 22.2 (2005): 98–9.
19 Eric S. Nelson, “Heidegger and the Ethics of Facticity,” in Rethinking Facticity,
eds. François Raffoul and Eric S. Nelson (Albany: State University of New
York Press, 2008), 131.
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid.
22 Vogel, The Fragile “We,” 94.
23 Ibid., 13.
24 Nelson, “Heidegger and the Ethics of Facticity,” 133.
25 Ibid., 132.
26 This is nicely expressed in Chai’s comments that the Zhuangzi “espouses a
philosophy of self-forgetting, a de-labelling of knowledge as we know it, so
that one may return to the naïve state of innocence we experience as children;
the carefree wandering of xiaoyao.” David Chai, Early Zhuangzi
Commentaries: On the Sounds and Meanings of the Inner Chapters
(Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller, 2008), 1.
27 Taigen Dan Leighton, Cultivating the Empty Field: The Silent Illumination of
Master Hongzhi (Boston: Tuttle Publishing, 2000), 4.
28 Dorothy Leland, “Conflictual Culture and Authenticity: Deepening Heidegger’s
Account of the Social,” in Nancy J. Holland and Patricia Huntington (eds.),
Feminist Interpretations of Martin Heidegger (University Park: The
Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001), 110.
29 Quoted in Leland, Ibid., 115.
30 Mariana Ortega, In-Between: Latina Feminist Phenomenology, Multiplicity, and
the Self (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2016), 51–8 and 87–116.
36138.indb 215 03/09/2019 11:16

The concept of “world-traveling” comes from María Lugones, “Playfulness,

‘World’—Traveling, and Loving Perception,” Hypatia, 2.4 (1987): 3–19.
31 A fruitful comparison of literary techniques in the later Heidegger and the
Zhuangzi falls outside the scope of this chapter.
32 Robert Allinson, Chuang-Tsu for Spiritual Transformation: An Analysis of the
Inner Chapters (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), 23.
Commentaries Brook Ziporyn (trans.) (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing,
2009), xiii.
34 Allinson, Chuang-Tzu for Spiritual Transformation, 8.
35 Ibid., 8–9.
36 Sellmann, “Transformational Humor,” 170.
37 Zhuangzi, The Essential Writings, 4.
38 Chai, Early Zhuangzi Commentaries, 37; cf. Zhuangzi, The Essential Writings, x.
39 Chai argues that Zhuangzi “instills in the reader a sense of our own
diminutiveness as human beings while encouraging us to move beyond our
petty desires and selfish grievances.” Chai, Early Zhuangzi Commentaries, 37.
40 Ibid.
42 The additional passages on dreaming reinforce the view that it matters not
whether we are dreaming. Zhuangzi suggests “still, there may even be a greater
awakening after which you know, that this, too, was just a greater dream.”
P.J. Ivanhoe and Bryan Van Norden, Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy,
223. Their translation, however, captures the point that awakening may be
from lesser to more apt perspectives, but the process cannot be said to have a
limit. It thus fits with other translations: “I don’t know whether you are awake
or you are dreaming.” Zhuangzi, Chuang-Tzu: Basic Writings, Burton Watson
(trans.) (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 85. See also “When I
say you are dreaming, I am dreaming too” in Ibid., 43.
43 Zhuangzi, Basic Writings, 54. This story appears in chapter 4 of the text
(renjianshi 人間世) and has Confucius teaching his disciple Yan Hui the arts
of mental fasting.
44 Edward Slingerland, Effortless Action: Wu-wei as Conceptual Metaphor and
Spiritual Ideal in Early China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003),
195–203.
45 Ibid., 201.
46 A.C. Graham, Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China
(La Salle: Open Court, 1989), 190.
48 Slingerland, Effortless Action, 201.
49 Allinson, Chuang-Tzu for Spiritual Transformation, 7.
50 Zhuangzi, Basic Writings, 46; Zhuangzi, The Essential Writings, 21.
51 On the essence of the human, see Slingerland, Effortless Action, 181.
36138.indb 216 03/09/2019 11:16


53 Ibid., 13.
55 Ibid.
56 Ibid., 166.
57 Zhuangzi, Basic Writings, 28–9.
58 Ibid., 37.
59 Slingerland, Effortless Action, 8.
References
Allinson, Robert. (1989), Chuang-Tzu for Spiritual Transformation: An Analysis of
the Inner Chapters, Albany: State University of New York Press.
Ames, Roger, ed. (1998), Wandering at Ease in the Zhuangzi, Albany: State
University of New York Press.
Chai, David. (2008), Early Zhuangzi Commentaries: On the Sounds and Meanings
of the Inner Chapters, Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller.
Chattopadhyaya, D.P., Lester Embree, and Jitendranath Mohanty, eds. (1992),
Phenomenology and Indian Philosophy, Albany: State University of New York
Press.
Chong, Kim-Chong. (2016), Zhuangzi’s Critique of the Confucians: Blinded by the
Human, Albany: State University of New York Press.
China. La Salle: Open Court.
Heidegger, Martin. (1962), Being and Time. John Macquarrie and Edward
Robinson (trans.), New York: Harper and Row.
Heidegger, Martin. (1985), Sein und Zeit. Tübingen: Niemeyer Verlag.
Holland, Nancy J. and Patricia Huntington, eds. (2001), Feminist Interpretations of
Martin Heidegger, University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
Huntington, Patricia. (2018), “A Huayan Critique of Heidegger: The Quest for
a Non-Obstructed Mitdasein,” Journal of the Pacific Association for the
Continental Tradition, 1: 5–23.
Husserl, Edmund. (1931), Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology,
W.R. Boyce Gibson (trans.), London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
Husserl, Edmund. (1982), Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a
Phenomenological Philosophy, First Book, F. Kersten (trans.), The Hague:
Nijhoff.
Ivanhoe, P.J. and Bryan van Norden, eds. (2001), Readings in Classical Chinese
Philosophy, Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.
Jansen, Julia and Wenjing Cai. (2018), “Husserlian Phenomenology: Current
Chinese Perspectives,” Comparative and Continental Philosophy, 10.1: 2–6.
Laozi. Daodejing. Available online at: https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing
Lau, Kwok-Ying. (2016), Phenomenology and Intercultural Understanding:
Toward a New Cultural Flesh, in Contributions to Phenomenology (vol. 87),
Dordrecht: Springer.
36138.indb 217 03/09/2019 11:16

Leighton, Taigen Dan. (2000), Cultivating the Empty Field: The Silent Illumination
of Master Hongzhi, Boston: Tuttle Publishing.
Leland, Dorothy. (2001), “Conflictual Culture and Authenticity: Deepening
Heidegger’s Account of the Social,” in Nancy J. Holland and Patricia
Huntington (eds.), Feminist Interpretations of Martin Heidegger, 107–27,
University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
Lugones, Maria. (1987), “Playfulness, ‘World’—Traveling and Loving Perception,”
Hypatia, 2.4: 3–19.
McCarthy, Erin. (2010), Ethics Embodied: Rethinking Selfhood through
Continental, Japanese, and Feminist Philosophies, Lanham: Lexington Books.
Moran, Dermot and Timothy Mooney, eds. (2002). The Phenomenology Reader,
New York: Routledge.
Nelson, Eric S. (2008), “Heidegger and the Ethics of Facticity,” in François Raffoul
and Eric S. Nelson (eds.), Rethinking Facticity, 129–47, Albany: State University
of New York Press.
Ortega, Mariana. (2016), In-Between: Latina Feminist Phenomenology,
Multiplicity, and the Self, Albany: State University of New York Press.
Raffoul, François. (2008), “Factical Life and the Need for Philosophy,” in François
Raffoul and Eric S. Nelson (eds.), Rethinking Facticity, 69–85, Albany: State
Seeburger, Francis. (1975), “Heidegger and the Phenomenological Reduction,”
Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 36.2: 212–21.
Sellmann, James D. (1998), “Transformational Humor in the Zhuangzi,” in Roger
Ames (ed.), Wandering at Ease in the Zhuangzi, 163–74, Albany: State
Sinari, Ramakant. (1965), “The Method of Phenomenological Reduction and
Yoga,” Philosophy East and West, 15.3–4: 217–28.
Slingerland, Edward. (2003), Effortless Action: Wu-wei as Conceptual Metaphor
and Spiritual Ideal in Early China, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Vogel, Lawrence. (1994), The Fragile “We”: Ethical Implications of Heidegger’s
“Being and Time,” Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
Watsuji, Tetsurō. (1996), Watsuji Tetsurō’s Rinrigaku: Ethics in Japan, Yamamoto
Seisaku and Robert E. Carter (trans.), Albany: State University of New York
Press.
Wong, David. (2005), “Zhuangzi and the Obsession with Being Right,” History of
Philosophy Quarterly, 22.2: 91–107.
Zhuangzi. (1996), Chuang-Tzu: Basic Writings, Burton Watson (trans.), New York:
Publishing.
36138.indb 218 03/09/2019 11:16

10
The Reader’s Chopper:
Finding Affinities from Gadamer

to Zhuangzi on Reading
Sarah A. Mattice
1. Introduction
Reading is a skill and a practice that many take for granted. Words and
letters are all around us; the visual world is saturated with things to read.
For many fully literate adults, reading is such a fundamental skill that we do
not remember clearly not being able to read.1 Once we have learned to read,
something foundational about our existence in and engagement with the
world has been fundamentally altered, forever. Cognitive scientists and
psychologists describe this as an “irreversible” process, because once it has
really taken hold, or become automatic, we read without even trying—even
sometimes when we are trying not to, as in the case of the Stroop Effect2—
and we try to read even in cases where we know what we are seeing is not
“readable”—as in Xu Bing’s 徐冰 (1955–) art installation piece “Book of
the Sky.”3
In this chapter, I follow in the methodological footsteps of twentieth-
century literary giant Qian Zhongshu 錢鍾書 (1910–98), who often wrote
of the importance of datong 打通, creating connections and breaking
down or through barriers between previously un-associated material by
identifying unusual correspondences or affinities.4 In this chapter, my aim
is to contribute to the ongoing conversation on the ethics of reading, by
putting alongside one another material from such diverse sources as
cognitive science, European phenomenology, contemporary humanities, jazz
music, and classical Chinese philosophy, to name a few. Although reading is
36138.indb 219 03/09/2019 11:16

an irreversible, mostly automatic process that many of us take for granted

after we are literate, reading well can be a rich ethico-aesthetic practice that
we self-consciously attend to as part of a larger, transformative process of
living well.
2. Contemporary Research on Reading

“What happens when we read?” is a bad scientific question.5
When Daniel Willingham, author of The Reading Mind, says that “what
happens when we read” is a bad question, he does not mean that we should
not be investigating what happens when we read, as he notes that scientists
have been trying to do just that, from a variety of perspectives, for more
than a century. One reason he says that it is a bad scientific question is that
reading is too complex—it is made up of so many different sub-processes,
like vision, memory, grammar, language comprehension, vocabulary,
emotion, and so on—and so we should ask questions of the individual sub-
processes, and really understand those before moving on to the larger
activity. Another reason it is a bad question, according to Willingham, is that
understanding what happens when we read requires us to know what
happens, and we might not always be the best judge of that.
The history of psychology shows that it’s easy to be fooled when you try
to describe a task . . . Here’s a simple example. When we read it feels as if
we move our eyes smoothly—we sweep from the start of a line to the end,
and then snap back to the far left of the page for the next line. That
impression is easily disconfirmed by watching the eyes of another person
as she reads. Her eyes don’t move smoothly, but instead jump from
one spot to the next, usually a distance of seven to nine letters. That’s so
easily observed it’s probably been known for centuries. But even that
observation—jumping movements, not smoothly tracking—is an
incomplete description. In fact, your eyes are not always pointing at the
same letter when you read. About half the time each eye looks at a
different letter. They may even be slightly crossed.6
Although it may be a “bad” question, we do know a lot about how we

read, not only as Willingham describes above, about the workings of our
eyes, but about technical reading things like fonts and sizes and slants and
colors (on paper and on screen, and how they differ in terms of readability),
about reading pedagogy and the importance of not only letter recognition
and word vocabulary but also background knowledge to reading
comprehension, and about reading and memory and just how little of what
we read most of us actually retain. Researchers are also studying things like
whether or not people commonly experience inner speech while they read,
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From Gadamer to Zhuangzi on Reading 221
or how often they actually visualize passages from the text that they are
reading.7
And, of course, as we are now fully immersed in the digital age, we are
learning more and more about how very different reading is not just on a
screen, but online, with hypertext and links and multitasking that does make
reading online an overlapping but somewhat different skillset than reading
offline. We also know that when we read on screens, we tend to read in a Z
or F pattern,8 not every line, and that we pay significantly more attention to
the left side of the screen than the right: about 80 percent of our eye attention
goes to the left half of the screen.9 The fact that researchers have spent
significant time and energy tracking down this information is not just good
for web designers who want to redesign their pages so that people really see
all their good information, but it is also useful for people who study reading
habits of students. Imagine a page of text in print and a page of text as a
PDF; now imagine you’ve put a patch over the lower right corner of the text
on the PDF. This is basically what the F pattern of reading does on a screen—
our eyes read the top lines, and the left sides of things, but we don’t spend
as much time or attention with the lower right-hand corner of a page. Now
imagine this is how you read (without being aware of it) a twenty-page
document. It is no wonder that basic reading comprehension, recall, and
other reading tests are noticeably better with print than digital reading, and
the F pattern is not even the only issue. A number of researchers have also
studied the tactile experience of holding a book or paper in hand, being able
to flip back pages in a book, or hold a page and move between pages, or put
a finger at one spot in a text—all of these physical aspects of reading with
print materials do seem to make a difference.10
Cognitive neuroscientist Dr. Maryanne Wolf, Director of the Center for
Dyslexia, Diverse Learners, and Social Justice in the Graduate School of
Education and Information Studies at UCLA, explains that her research
depicts how the present reading brain enables the development of some
of our most important intellectual and affective processes: internalized
knowledge, analogical reasoning, and inference; perspective-taking and
empathy; critical analysis and the generation of insight. Research
surfacing in many parts of the world now cautions that each of these
essential “deep reading” processes may be under threat as we move into
digital-based modes of reading.11
Wolf is careful to note that she is not blaming technology per se, but
rather that we need to pay attention to the environment in which our brains
are developing and the practices we consistently privilege. She explains,
If the dominant medium advantages processes that are fast, multi-task

oriented and well-suited for large volumes of information, like the
current digital medium, so will the reading circuit. As UCLA psychologist
36138.indb 221 03/09/2019 11:16

Patricia Greenfield writes, the result is that less attention and time will
be allocated to slower, time-demanding deep reading processes, like
inference, critical analysis and empathy, all of which are indispensable to
learning at any age.
However, as the Atlantic’s Jordan Weissmann pointed out:
The Pew Research Center reported . . . that nearly a quarter of American
adults had not read a single book in the past year [2013]. As in, they
hadn’t cracked a paperback, fired up a Kindle, or even hit play on an
audiobook while in the car. The number of non-book-readers has nearly
tripled since 1978.12
In other words, while it may be tempting for some Luddites to raise

an anti-digital reading alarm, given what we know about low numbers of
readers, and about high adult illiteracy rates in the United States, focusing
on how to help make reading a more self-conscious, reflective practice in
whatever medium it is found might be the best approach. For my purposes
here, I am interested in a contemporary conversation concerning the ethics
of reading—not books vs. e-readers or audiobooks vs. comic books or
stories vs. poems vs. non-fiction or any of that, but about the role that
practices of reading might play in an ethical life, broadly conceived.13 For
that conversation, with contemporary research as an important motivating
force, we begin with philosophical reflection on the experience of reading,
with an eye toward how that may contribute to this larger project.
3. Reading from a

Phenomenological Perspective
While much of the literature on phenomenology of reading is concerned
with either literary criticism or reading education, for our purposes here I
want to draw attention to a strand of thinking that focuses on phenomenology
of reading with a more philosophical bent. Georges Poulet’s 1969 essay,
“Phenomenology of Reading,” opens by exploring some of the differences
between a book and a vase, concluding that while the vase obliges you to
remain outside of it, “on the other hand, take a book, and you will find
it offering, opening itself. It is this openness of the book which I find so
moving . . . In short, the extraordinary fact in the case of a book is the falling
away of the barriers between you and it. You are inside it; it is inside you;
there is no longer either outside or inside.”14 He continues, exploring the
way in which the consciousness of another “welcomes me, lets me look deep
inside itself, and even allows me, with unheard-of license, to think what it
thinks and feel what it feels.”15 While Poulet is somewhat uncritical about
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whether he means this consciousness is the consciousness of the author(s),

the author(s)’ intention, the book itself, or a more metaphoric sort of
connection through the book to other persons—real, living, dead, imagined,
fictional, etc.—his point centers on the feeling, both of intimacy and of a
sort of displacement, created by the act of reading certain kinds of text in a
certain way.
Poulet describes the way in which he is drawn into a fully interior world
of language as he reads (fiction), a world where the difference between himself
as subject and the external world of objects is blurred or reduced. In explaining
what he calls the “remarkable transformation wrought in me through the act
of reading,” Poulet puzzles over the idea that in reading, he is “thinking the
thoughts of another”; he is the “subject of thoughts other than my own.”16
There is a certain style or habit of reading with total commitment, and Poulet
finds that, on careful phenomenological examination, this leads to a sort
of dispossession of the self, evident in reading either a popular thriller or a
work of “high” literature. Poulet explains that this dispossessed self is “a
consciousness astonished by an existence which is not mine, but which I
experience as though it were mine.”17
Building critically on Poulet’s work, Wolfgang Iser’s 1972 “The Reading
Process: A Phenomenological Approach” argues that in reading, “text and
reader no longer confront each other as object and subject, but instead
the ‘division’ takes place within the reader himself. In thinking the thoughts
of another, his own individuality temporarily recedes into the background.”18
But, whereas Iser argues that Poulet draws from this the conclusion that
in reading, which is understood as a kind of identification or internalization,
the author’s life story and the reader’s individual disposition must be
absent, Iser suggests that this is the wrong way to understand this
phenomenon. In reading, in making this division within ourselves where
we “take as a theme for ourselves something we are not,” we are
reshaping ourselves to increasingly accommodate the unfamiliar.19 He
explains:
someone else’s thoughts can only take a form in our consciousness if, in
the process, our unformulated faculty for deciphering those thoughts is
brought into play—a faculty which, in the act of deciphering, also
formulates itself . . . The need to decipher gives us the chance to formulate
our own deciphering capacity . . . [reading literature] entails the possibility
that we may formulate ourselves and so discover what had previously
seemed to elude our consciousness. These are the ways in which reading
literature gives us the chance to formulate the unformulated.20
In other words, Iser, following a more hermeneutic line than Poulet,

considers reading a creative practice involving the text, the community, the
reader’s anticipations, recollections, imagination, and her ability to make
space for the unfamiliar within herself—to not only comprehend but
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also decipher and formulate for herself words, thoughts, language, ideas,
narratives, stories, and so on that are not her own.
Although Iser does not directly reference Hans-Georg Gadamer’s
philosophical hermeneutics, it is clearly visible in the architecture of his
phenomenological account of reading. While there is a great deal that could
be said concerning Gadamer’s hermeneutics and the phenomenology of
reading, here we can focus on his metaphor of conversation for the activity
of understanding, where the paradigm case of understanding is understanding
a text. For Gadamer, understanding is
a reciprocal relationship of the same kind as conversation. It is true that

a text does not speak to us in the same way as does a Thou. We who are
attempting to understand must ourselves make it speak . . . the chief thing
that these apparently so different situations—understanding a text and
reaching an understanding in a conversation—have in common is that
both are concerned with a subject matter that is placed before them . . .
Every conversation presupposes a common language, or better, creates a
common language . . . To reach an understanding in a dialogue is not
merely a matter of putting oneself forward and successfully asserting
one’s own point of view, but being transformed into a communion in
which we do not remain what we were.21
Working out the understanding-as-conversation metaphor has several

implications for the phenomenology of reading, on Gadamer’s account. In
order to be in a position to listen to the other conversation partner—the
text—we must ourselves actively do something with it in order to be in a
position to listen. For Gadamer, the conversation is not a passive metaphor,
but one that implies significant effort and skill on the part of the reader. As he
notes, the “rigor” of hermeneutical experience is “uninterrupted listening”—
in other words, making the text speak is precisely putting oneself in a position
to listen as openly as possible, without imposing oneself or any other
interruptions, onto what it has to say.22 It also implies not only that we listen,
but that like in a real conversation, we are genuine participants, readers who
must follow the thread of the conversation where it goes: “a genuine
conversation is never the one that we wanted to conduct . . . Understanding
or its failure is an event that happens to us.”23 So while the conversation
metaphor is not passive, it does suggest some of the ways in which once we
engage seriously in reading, we are swept up in the experience in ways that
are not in our control, and are transformed as a result of the experience.
Not only is listening a crucial part of the conversation of reading, for
Gadamer, but because of his interest in the phenomenology of language, he
sees the conversation of understanding as one that happens primarily with
relation to active speech. Gadamer writes, “Reading with understanding is
always a kind of reproduction, performance, and interpretation. Emphasis,
rhythmic ordering, and the like are part of wholly silent reading too.
36138.indb 224 03/09/2019 11:16

Meaning and the understanding of it are so closely connected with the

corporeality of language that understanding always involves an inner
speaking as well.”24 We need not take him to be making an empirical claim
here, but rather to be suggesting that we attend to the embodied, rhythmic
vitality of language as we encounter it in the practice of reading, even when
that reading is not literally out loud.
Furthermore, given Gadamer’s commitments to the historically effected
consciousness and the hermeneutic circle, it is no surprise that he, along
with Iser and others, would see a necessary connection between reading and
application, or the idea that the meaning one creates, from a conversation or
from a text, is always already involved with the reader: “a person reading a
text is himself part of the meaning he apprehends. He belongs to the text
that he is reading.”25 That is, not only does the reader bring her own
background, language, history, and cultural context to the text, but she also
brings her anticipations and expectations about the text, the connections
she makes between part of the text and a memory or experience, and how
she, personally, integrates herself, the text, and the larger context together
into a meaningful moment. How could she not be part of the meaning she
apprehends? This also accounts for how our experiences of re-reading a
favorite text, like having a conversation with a good friend, can be familiar
and yet reveal something new or unexpected—while the literal text may not
have changed (although our friend likely has), because we have continued to
live and grow and have new experiences, we bring a new set of possibilities
to the text, and so we bring the potential for new connections and new
meaning to our conversation with it.
Contemporary art director, designer, and typesetter Peter Mendelsund
takes up the phenomenological thread in his latest book, What We See When
We Read. While not a work of academic philosophy, the phenomenological
elements of this text are fully integrated with the subject matter, through
images, backgrounds, and fonts that change from page to page and topic to
topic, as one would expect from an iconic textual artist and observer.
Mendelsund describes the experience of reading in this way:
When you first open a book, you enter a liminal space. You are neither in
this world, the world wherein you hold a book (say, this book), nor in
that world (the metaphysical space the words point toward). To some
extent this polydimensionality describes the feeling of reading in general—
one is in “many places at once.”26
While this is similar in many respects to Poulet and Iser, Mendelsund is

here making a subtle shift in his description of reading. In invoking the
language of polydimensionality and liminality, Mendelsund has pointed us
away from the pure interiority of Poulet’s description, which seemed to exist
not in a single dimension but in a kind of no-space, where the distance
between subject and object has been entirely dissolved.
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Mendelsund brings us back into our bodies, in holding the book, and
yet also reminds us of the ways in which reading can draw our attention
away from the physicality of the activity into the world of the book, and
the ways in which we can be in different places in different ways at the
same time, without necessarily having merged or lost something. He
writes:
When I read, my retirement from the phenomenal world is undertaken

too quickly to notice. The world in front of me and the world “inside” me
are not merely adjacent, but overlapping: superimposed. A book feels like
the intersection of these two domains—or like a conduit; a bridge; a
passage between them.27
Again, the language here is reminiscent of Poulet and Iser, but with slight
differences. Mendelsund’s description resists the easy collapse of the
phenomenal world into the “interior” world—in describing these worlds as
overlapping, and the book as a passage, he is allowing each to maintain its
own sensibility while acknowledging the reality of the feeling that the
distinction between them has broken down.
Mendelsund’s text meanders in, around, and through questions connected
to what we see, hear, smell, taste, touch, and feel when we read. In particular,
he makes a strong case for a connection between the visual and the auditory:
“I would suggest that we hear more than we see while we are reading.”28 In
the context of the passage in which he writes this, Mendelsund has asked his
readers to consider what happens when we read the opening lines of Moby-
Dick: “Call me Ishmael.” He is drawing our attention to our having been
addressed, and asking us to think about what that means. While it is possible
that he is making a claim about inner speech vs. visualization, I think that
like Gadamer, he is trying to get us to attend to the connection between
being readers and being listeners, not to literal sound but to listening as a
metaphor for reading.
When Mendelsund suggests that we “hear” more than we see, part of
what he is relying on is both experience and research into the way our senses
attempt to reproduce literary description—in knowing what Anna Karenina
looks like from how she is described in the novel, you are familiar with her
and yet, if asked to sketch her, may not really be able to provide much detail.
Or, if a scent is described, although we usually say we can bring that scent
to mind, we are often making a metaphoric or analogous move from
something in our own experience, which may or may not match the intended
scent. Mendelsund suggests that part of how we can make sense of these
synaesthetic moves is that although we use our eyes to read (generally), the
connections are made through a kind of neural-auditory mode. Seeing the
words does not necessarily entail reading—the understanding that comes
with reading requires, for him, a kind of listening to the language as it is
presented.
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In thinking about his description of reading as a movement into a

polydimensional, liminal space, a space between, and of reading as a kind
of hearing, Mendelsund seems to be inviting us to consider music as a
source metaphor for making sense of some of the phenomenal aspects of
reading. As American jazz pianist Craig Taborn reflects, “[music] is a way of
connecting to things beyond . . . it always suggests a liminal space, or the
quicksilver spaces between things.”29 Here, Taborn’s description of music as
always suggesting the spaces between or connecting things gives us a way to
understand Mendelsund’s claim that entering a book puts us in-between—
we are in-between or polydimensional in much the same way, perhaps, that
music puts us in-between or in many places at once, aiding us to reach out
of ourselves and to be reached in ourselves at once.
Taborn continues, thinking about both the experience of playing music
and of listening to music as:
really an art of memory . . . the way sound works, you play a note, and
then that note is gone, and you’ve played the next note, and the concept
of memory, the consequence of a melody is based on you remembering
what the note that happened before was, it’s all memory. You never hear
a whole piece at once, you can’t.30
Taborn’s description of listening to a piece of music here is

phenomenologically astute—although it comes from his extensive experience,
his ability to explain the experience in a way that resonates not only with
other musicians or music listeners but also with the experience of reading
points to the power of Mendelsund’s claim about hearing and reading. A
significant portion of the activity of reading, too, is an art of memory. As
Willingham notes, “reading depends on memory.”31
Reading and listening aren’t just about memory, though. “It’s all
imagination. You hear a note, and you’re like, I like this melody, and then
you can sing it back, but you’re singing back your memory of what it sounded
like, and it subtly shifts and alters even in that process.”32 Taborn’s description
here is reminiscent of Iser’s account of reading, and also of the Gadamerian
roots of Iser’s hermeneutic approach to phenomenology in general.
As is the aim with most phenomenological projects, the thread here, from
Poulet and Iser to Gadamer and Mendelsund, is not naïvely descriptive.
Each of these authors is drawing our attention to what it is like to read,
what we are like when we read, as part of their larger concerns about what
it means to be human, to be the sort of beings who are drawn to find and
make meaning in the world around us and with one another. Reading, by its
very nature, is an activity of both meaning and connection. It directs us out
of ourselves and brings others to us. Even something as simple as a road sign
can be profoundly intimate or profoundly alienating, as anyone who has
ever been lost can attest. The phenomenological project is also a call to
consider the value of certain habits of reading.
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4. Toward an Ethics of Reading

[R]eading is a practice that raises questions of ethical significance.33
The natural continuation of this thread of phenomenological reflection on

reading is found in Michelle Boulous Walker’s Slow Philosophy: Reading
Against the Institution. In this text, Walker surveys a number of major
figures in continental philosophy, from Emmanuel Levinas and Luce Irigaray
to Simone de Beauvoir and beyond. Walker’s main purpose in the text is to
develop an account of an ethics of reading. She argues that
what slow reading allows is an open relation to the complexity of the

world we inhabit. In this it partakes of a love of wisdom and philosophy
as a way of life. By granting us unhurried time, we are able to open out
to the world. It is this openness that permits us what is ultimately an
ethical relation with our world. Openness to otherness, to strangeness, to
complexity is what constitutes ethics. And slowness, in this sense, is what
enables this openness.34
Walker sets the stage for her argument by looking at the trend that
understands reading primarily under a technological or scientific model
of information acquisition, which draws on “mining” or “extraction”
metaphors: as you read, mine the text for the key information, extract the
parts that will be on the test, etc.35 On this sort of model, according to
researcher Peggy Kamuf, the activity of reading is simply a “technique for
capturing information.”36
Walker uses the current trend toward reducing reading to a technology of
information capture to motivate the project of considering connections
between reading and complexity. She draws on work by Hans Ulrich
Gumbrecht: “Gumbrecht makes a positive link between reading and
complexity, arguing that a certain slow and careful reading . . . makes it
possible for us to confront—I would say ‘encounter’—high levels of
complexity, thus resisting the temptation to reduce and simplify the issues at
hand.”37 Reading, then, becomes one of the key practices that exposes
students (and all of us) to complex issues that are not easily or obviously
resolvable into simple or straightforward solutions. She writes, “reading is
thus re-figured in his work as a kind of bitter-sweet exposure or openness
to complexity, one that inevitably takes its time.”38 Given a certain ethical
perspective, this is a very desirable habit to inculcate—both the sense of
ethical complexity and the sense of the value of not rushing ethical decisions.
Walker is not alone in suggesting that haste is not a virtue. From
philosophers like Paul Cillers to contemporary psychologists like Iain
McGilchrist, a number of thinkers have argued that the ability to pay a
certain quality of attention to what one is doing is crucial to success, and
rushing compromises that ability. Walker also notes that this quality of
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attention, which may be habituated through certain kinds of reading

practices, is definitely not habituated by other kinds of reading practices,
especially the online skimming and multitasking common in contemporary
students. Drawing on work from Mark Bauerlein, she notes that:
The basic skills of concentrated attention, uninterrupted thinking and

receptivity are lacking in an alarmingly large proportion of first-year
students. In an effort to counter this trend Baurlein makes the case for
developing habits of slow reading aimed to accustom high school students
to the attentive mode that complex material demands.39
An ethics of reading, then, involves a certain kind of habituation into

a slow and concentrated reading practice, one where we are continually and
repeatedly engaging with irreducibly complex material, material that
encourages us to return to it with new questions, concerns, and ideas, but
that resists reduction to simple interpretations.
To appreciate some of the problematic ethical implications of the
information capture/mining model of reading, we need look no further
than the example given by Peter Brooks, Sterling Professor Emeritus
of Comparative Literature at Yale University and Andrew W. Mellon
Foundation Scholar at the University Center for Human Values and the
Department of Comparative Literature at Princeton University, for the
purpose of his seminar “The Ethics of Reading and the Cultures of
Professionalism”—the Torture Memos.40 As Brooks explains:
I began by evoking the Torture Memos because in that case the disastrous
results of not reading—of merely pretending to read while in fact inserting
one’s own prejudices and preferred outcomes between the reader and the
text—are so clear and so horrible . . . Though the consequences of other
sloppy, misguided, pernicious interpretations may not be so spectacularly
awful, they can skew everything that follows in their wake.41
In other words, one of the dangers of reading to “mine” for information

is that when one mines, one already knows what one is looking for. Having
decided ahead of time what to look for not only precludes the text from
revealing itself as it is, but also reinforces whatever one approaches it with.
Brooks continues, “the issue of the Torture Memos and my classroom
experience in interpreting legal texts led me to claim that the humanities
can, and at their best do, represent a commitment to ethical reading.”42
Here, Brooks gives a real-life, concrete example of the kind of predicament
that is directly related to how we read—with what quality of attention, with
what purposes, with what appreciation of the complexity of the issues at
hand, and with what sense of consideration for and openness to others.
Brooks, very much in line with Walker’s project, continues, explaining that
“reading as a self-conscious practice—‘reading in slow motion,’ as it has
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been called—tends to suggest the inadequacies of the simple and the

certain.”43 Here, he brings in the same idea of slowness, of the need for
viewing reading as a practice, one that is attended to self-consciously, and
one that has a direct relationship with complexity.
Brooks is careful to note that in talking about an ethics of reading, he is
not talking about the idea that reading “good” books somehow makes
one a “good” person, or that in order to be a “good” person one must read.
Rather, he notes, “what I want to defend is not a product but a process and
a practice. The practice of reading itself, pursued with care and attention to
language, its contexts, implications, uncertainties, can itself be an ethical
act.”44 That is, in reading in the manner suggested by Brooks—slowly, self-
consciously, attentively, without imposing our own meaning on the text—
we are habituating profoundly important ethical patterns. In the act of
reading we are interpreting what is happening, we are giving a reading of
the circumstances, and in doing so “we must constantly submit what we
want the text to mean to the constraints of the lexicon, the historical horizon,
and the text as a whole. This submission to culture as something beyond
one’s individuality is itself a discipline.”45 Here, we have not only Walker’s
sense of openness and complexity as part of the ethics of reading, but also a
sense, returning from the earlier phenomenologists, of the way in which this
kind of reading practice puts oneself in a relationship with others, where
one’s own wants are not the sole determiner of things.
Charles Larmore, a participant in one of Brooks’s symposia on ethics in
reading, continues on this somewhat Levinasian theme: “The most basic fact
about our relation as readers to texts is that this relation is asymmetrical.
We can read the text, but the text cannot read us.”46 Texts, he argues, are
vulnerable to their readers in a number of different ways, especially in terms
of rushed or poor readings. Larmore continues, “our ethical character shows
itself most clearly in how we treat the vulnerable, since they cannot make it
in our interest to treat them well. Though I will not go so far as to say that
a bad reader cannot be a good person, I doubt that a habitually careless or
deliberately manipulative reader will be one.”47 Larmore has here added a
very interesting dimension to an ethics of reading. If, as Walker and Brooks
have argued, reading as a practice has an importantly ethical dimension
and/or can be an important part of an ethical life, then habitually reading
poorly (carelessly or manipulatively) would seem to be a sign of habits that
are not confined to practices of reading. In other words, if practices of
reading can positively habituate other ethical aspects of one’s life (not
rushing to judgment on complex issues, for instance), then habitually
careless or prejudicial reading would seem to be a potential sign of habitual
carelessness or prejudicial activity elsewhere as well.
In thinking about reading having a more direct connection to ethics,
Elaine Scarry, also a participant in one of Brooks’s symposia, writes on the
connection of literature and poetry, specifically, with empathy, deliberative
thought, and beauty. In terms of empathy, she is well in line with other
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thinkers, who have argued similarly for the idea of “the capacity of literature
to exercise and reinforce our recognition that there are other points of view
in the world, and to make this recognition a powerful mental habit.”48
Narrative, in particular, is particularly powerful for eliciting empathy,
especially in circumstances where other forms of argumentation have not
been successful.49 She notes that the way literature/poetry develops empathy
and how it develops deliberative thought are actually very similar:
the claims made about dispute greatly resemble what we can say about
empathy. What they have in common is not just the recognition that there
are multiple points of view, two sides to every coin, but also the chance to
practice, and thereby to deepen and strengthen that recognition . . . both
dispute and empathetic narrative require one to think counterfactually, to
think the notion that one does not oneself hold to be the case.50
That is, reading about certain kinds of disputes, in poetry or literature,

can help us practice deliberative thought, because it requires us not only to
recognize that different points of view exist, but to actually play out different
perspectives. As Iser suggested earlier, this enables the expanding of our
cognitive capacities—by reading certain kinds of things, we are able to think
in new and different kinds of ways. In particular, since good deliberation
requires that we be able to recognize multiple perspectives and follow
premises out to their conclusions, when we read literature and poetry, we
are able to deliberate better, according to Scarry, and that is crucial for
public, democratic ethical progress.
Scarry argues that in addition to empathy and deliberative thinking,
reading (literature and poetry) is also important for ethics because of its
connection with beauty. This is perhaps the least intuitive but most
sophisticated of her points. She writes:
beauty interrupts and gives us sudden relief from our own minds. Iris
Murdoch says we undergo “an unselfing” in the presence of a beautiful
thing; “self-preoccupation” and worries on one’s own behalf abruptly fall
away. Simone Weil refers to this phenomenon as a “radical decentering.”
I call it an “opiated adjacency,” an awkward term but one that reminds
us that there are many things in life that make us feel acute pleasure
(opiated), and many things in life that make us feel sidelined, but there
is almost nothing—except beauty—that does the two simultaneously.
Feeling acute pleasure at finding oneself on the margins is a first step in
working toward fairness.51
The earlier phenomenologists all wrote of the “sidelined” sort of feeling

in reading, and each perhaps hinted at the great pleasure they found in
reading, but Scarry is the first to explicitly connect these together—part of
the acute pleasure of reading is precisely in the feeling of being sidelined by
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the presence of beauty, in being swept along in something that is not yours,
in stretching your cognitive capacities beyond where they were yesterday,
in being drawn into that liminal space where you, too, are intimate with
greatness for a moment and yet it is not about you. As a moment of
motivation for ethical practice, beauty is particularly powerful.
5. Zhuangzi Transforms Reading

Not only is beauty an important motivation for ethical practice, but focusing
on beauty highlights an important gap in what has been discussed to this
point. What is missing from the ethics of reading so far is an explicitly
aesthetic dimension. Reading, in the sense we’ve been discussing, is neither
an algorithmic process nor a simple skill. Rather, it is a complex, embodied,
holistic set of phenomena, an approach to the intentionality of an other or
others, embedded in an artifact, that cannot be reduced to a procedural
operation. Furthermore, through the act of reading, reader, text, and culture
are mutually transformed and mutually transform one another. This aesthetic
dimension and context are crucial for the ethics of reading; as Judith Butler
notes in her response to Brooks’s symposia, the question now for all those
who want to resist the “embattled humanities” discourse and broader
cultural dismissal of the humanities is: “what now is the value of our
values?”52 An ethics of reading cannot hope to respond to this question
without a robust aesthetic dimension, as “value” and questions of value are
not reducible to questions of ethics, but are connected to lived experience
through aesthetic processes. An ethics of reading also cannot hope to be
successful without having roots in more than one intellectual tradition. As a
text that plays with questions of value and use, interpretation and language,
and that sees what in common Western philosophical vocabulary are called
epistemological, ethical, and aesthetic values as necessarily intertwined, the
Classical Chinese Daoist text Zhuangzi 莊子 is not only a pleasure to read
but also an important text for intervening in this conversation.
While the Zhuangzi does not have much to say, directly, about the activity
of reading, it has a great deal to say about skillful and aesthetic practices,
about language, and about how to live well.53 In the history of Chinese art
and aesthetics, it is one of the single most influential texts, not only in terms
of its poetic discussion of aesthetic issues such as creativity, transformation,
and spontaneity, but as a work of art in its own right, one which has served
as a repository of inspiration for generations of artists—literary, visual, and
auditory. The character of Zhuangzi or Zhuang Zhou is the paradigm
example of an artist-philosopher at play, and the Zhuangzi is a consummate
work in and of aesthetics. Contemporary philosopher Li Zehou explains:
Zhuangzi may still be considered the first in the history of Chinese art to
have discovered and given attention to the aesthetic principles of artistic
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creation and appreciation, in particular as concerns those creative

phenomena that seem almost miraculous in skill, impossible to grasp or
formalize, and difficult to describe or articulate . . . Zhuangzi’s philosophy
is, in and of itself, aesthetic in character.54
This is a text that presents the ceaseless transformations of the world as

a model on which human beings can draw inspiration for playfully
transforming themselves and their world in resonance with the constant
changes of the cosmos.55 The text is organized into thirty-three chapters,
each of which contains stories, poems, songs, short essays, and other prose
comments. The first seven chapters are often referred to as the “inner
chapters” and historically were thought to have been authored by Zhuang
Zhou himself. While contemporary evidence now suggests that many hands
were at play, even in the inner chapters, the text as a whole might be thought
of as a collected set of the work of various jazz masters, riffing on similar
themes. In what follows, I draw on four stories from different sections of
the text, to think about what a Zhuangzian perspective might add to our
discussion of the ethics of reading.
5.1. Wheelwright Pian

One of the few points in the text that does directly discuss books and reading
is the story of Wheelwright Pian. So the story goes, the Duke of Huan is
reading a book, likely on a topic we might classify as “ethics,” at the top of
the hall when the Wheelwright puts down his tools and goes to ask what the
Duke is reading. The Duke replies that he is reading the words of a sage, but
when asked if the sage is alive, replies that the sage is dead. The Wheelwright
criticizes this as reading “the dregs of the men of old,” and when asked by
the Duke to explain himself or die for his insolence, he says:
Speaking for myself, I see it from the perspective of my art. In making a

wheel, if I chip too slowly, the chisel slides and does not grip; if too fast,
it jams and catches in the wood. Not too slow, not too fast; I feel it in the
hand and respond from the heart, the mouth cannot put it into words,
there is a skill in it somewhere that I cannot explain to my son and that
my son cannot learn from me. This is how in my seventy years I have
grown old making wheels. If the men of old and their untransmittable
messages are dead, then what my lord is reading is the dregs of the men
of old, isn’t it?56
While this story is often taken as a critique of texts, language, and reading,
I think the critical element here is not so much about the fact that the Duke
is reading, and not “doing,” but that the Duke at once says that the sage
is dead, and that his words are worth reading. From the Wheelwright’s
perspective, what is found in the book is mere “dregs of old” if the Duke
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thinks that he can mechanically read and reproduce the sage’s advice for
living well (his ethics) without himself creatively adopting and making live
the sage’s words. Reading without concern for self-and-world transformation,
and without an acknowledgment of both the aesthetic (non-algorithmic) and
what we might call the hermeneutic application, is the object of the critique.
In other words, fixed words are mere dregs, while transforming words are
more than mere text. Wheelwright Pian is making a phenomenological point
here about the necessary embodiment of skill, and the fact that learning and
skill require aesthetic personalization. If the sage is really dead, then what is
left to feel in the hand and respond to from the heart? On the other hand, if
the book is a real connection, through language, through a meaning-making
activity, to the life of another, then treating that other as “live” is precisely
what makes possible a transmission, not of a message, but of the potential of
a way of life that must be lived to be understood.
5.2. Cook Ding

Cook Ding, the butcher whose story is found in chapter 3 of the Zhuangzi,
is often taken as a paradigm exemplar of Zhuangzian Daoism:
Cook Ding was butchering an ox for Lord Wenhui. His hand touched,
shoulder leaned in, foot stamped on the ground, putting pressure with his
knee, with a hiss! With a thud! The chopper as it sliced never missed the
rhythm, now in time with the Mulberry Forest dance, now with an
orchestra playing the Qingshou. “Ah, excellent!” said Lord Wenhui.
“Your skill has reached such heights!” Cook Ding set down the chopper
and replied, “What I care about is dao, this goes beyond skill. When I first
began to butcher oxen, wherever I looked I saw nothing but oxen. After
three years, I no longer saw an entire ox. Now, I use the numinous to
encounter it, and do not use the eye to see it. The senses know where to
stop, the numinous continues on. I rely on natural patterns, cleave along
the main seams, let myself be guided by the main cavities, go by what is
inherently so. I skillfully pass through without hitting any tendons or
ligaments, not to mention solid bone. A good cook changes his chopper
once a year, because he hacks. A common cook changes it once a month,
because he smashes. Now I have had this chopper for nineteen years, and
have butchered several thousand oxen, but the edge is as new as if it just
came from the grindstone. At that joint there is space between, and the
blade’s edge has no thickness; if you take what has no thickness and put
it into the space between, then, there is more than enough room in there
for the edge to roam about. This is why after nineteen years the edge of
my chopper is as new as if it were fresh from the grindstone.”57
Cook Ding’s description of his career as a butcher can be easily likened to

a reader’s progression, from learning letters and words and sounding out
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each unfamiliar word to the ease and familiarity of a reader who hardly
even recognizes that she is engaged in doing anything when she reads. The
ease, the joyful dance of the embodied practice of Cook Ding’s care for dao,
how things are and how they should be, which is skillful and yet not mere
skill, lends an aesthetic richness to the language of reading. If we were to
read as Cook Ding butchers, how would we read? We would read with a
direct care for the embodied nature of the activity, with a dance-like rhythm
and grace; we would recognize that reading is part of a larger project of
caring for dao and nourishing life; we would be guided by the particulars of
the situation without imposing ourselves upon it; and we would pay careful
attention to the empty spaces and places. We can see these empty spaces in
Mendelsund’s account of when as readers we are asked “not to see,” or to
“imagine the unimaginable” or to “understand a character by what they are
not.”58 The relationship between the silence that births a tone and the void
that words emerge from reminds us that often it is the play or interplay
between what is present and what is absent that creates meaning.
The empty spaces and places, for the butcher the joints of the animal, the
openings between muscle, bone, ligament, and fiber, for the reader are
perhaps what is unsaid, unwritten, and yet what underlies and holds together
the story, the description, or the argument; they are also the meaning that
is yet-to-be-determined, the space for significance to emerge from the
particulars of the given text, rather than through the imposition of a fat
chopper that would get very dull indeed shoving its prejudgments through
the text. The experienced reader’s chopper, guided by what is absent as much
as what is present, does not hack or smash but moves through the text with
the agile precision of a very slim blade. The novice’s chopper, on the other
hand, may need frequent sharpening.
In building on this last point, we would especially take care to go slowly
when the going was difficult, as Cook Ding relates:
“However, each time I come to something complicated, I see the difficulty

and cautiously prepare myself; my gaze settles, activity slows down, there
is a slight movement of the blade—and the tangle unravels, like a clod of
earth crumbles to the ground. I stand with chopper in hand, look around
leisurely and with satisfaction, then clean the blade and put it away.”59
Although we have had reference before to complexity, this is the first

opportunity we have had to reflect phenomenologically on the experience of
reading something difficult, something where slowness is not a general
virtue but a particular demand, and where the best response to success might
be to put down the book for a while. And, since we are not all of Cook
Ding’s superior skill and experience, the tangle might not unravel on the first
try. It may in fact take a great deal of patience and repeated effort to unravel,
so we might need his leisurely satisfaction with even small amounts of
progress.
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5.3. Potter’s Wheel

In chapter 2 of the Zhuangzi, the text is particularly critical of points of view
that seem to take an arbitrarily fixed or dogmatic stance on how things are
or should be, without careful reference to the circumstances and particulars
of the surrounding context. One of the most famous stories from this chapter
is called “Three in the Morning,” and tells of the anger of a group of monkeys
at learning that their daily ration of seven nuts will be split into three in the
morning, four in the evening, and their delight when the trainer switched
it to four in the morning and three in the evening instead. Commenting
on this, the text reads: “Thus, the sage uses various rights and wrongs to
harmonize with others and yet remains in the center of the sky-like potter’s
wheel.”60 In switching the number of nuts in the monkey’s meals, the trainer
did not make any substantive change—the monkeys still got seven nuts total,
but because he paid careful attention to their conditions, he was able to
make their circumstances that much better. The image of the sky-like potter’s
wheel, or the potter’s wheel of the heavens (tian 天), is a powerful metaphor
for the way certain kinds of activity can make the best use of their immediate
circumstances. As Brook Ziporyn notes:
The character here used for “Potter’s Wheel” also means “equality.” The
two meanings converge in the consideration of the even distribution of
clay made possible by the constant spinning of the wheel: the potter’s
wheel’s very instability, its constant motion, is what makes things equal.
Note also that Chinese cosmology considers Heaven, the sky, to be
“rotating”: the stars and constellations turn in the sky, and the seasons—
the sky’s varying conditions—are brought in a cyclical sequence. The
turning of the seasons is what makes things exist and grow. The turning
of the Potter’s Wheel sky brings life, as the potter’s wheel creates pots.61
While it may be common to think of reading as a linear sort of activity,

from point A to B, from start to finish, the spinning of the potter’s wheel is
a very apt image for the practice of reading. The potter’s wheel maps well
onto an hermeneutic circle, describing the sort of recursive relation Iser
mentions between a line of text, the reader’s imagination, larger text itself,
the broader cultural context, and the reader’s return through the text, which
is not a passive process happening to the reader but an active, dynamic,
and creative process in which reader, text, language, context, and culture—
hand, clay, water, motion, and wheel—all act together transforming one
another and being transformed by one another into a new experience. In
addition, we can take the hermeneutic dimension of the wheel also to have
a temporal aspect, keeping in mind that reading, like listening to music, is
very much an activity of the present moment—the center of the wheel—
that stretches back through memory to previously read parts of the text, and
into the future through anticipation or expectation of what’s coming next,
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where the present is shaped by the past, and is in the process of shaping
what is to come.
One way to read this image is to bring to mind the importance of dynamic
instability—the wheel’s constant motion is what makes possible both
balance on it and creative activity from it. As readers this suggests that we
be conscious of our locations, and the difficulty of maintaining one’s balance
when occupying a position on the outside of the wheel. The empty space in
the center allows us to playfully occupy multiple interpretive spaces without
becoming fixed to any one in particular. To take this in a more concrete
direction, as Brooks notes: “The ability to read critically the messages that
society, politics, and culture bombard us with is, more than ever, needed
training in a society in which the manipulation of minds and hearts is
increasingly what running the world is all about.”62 Occupying the center of
the wheel, on this metaphor, then, may allow us not just to take the best
advantage of the given circumstances, but to have the necessary interpretive
distance to be critical readers of all incoming messages, not taking a friend-
or-foe position on the outside of the wheel, or situating ourselves in an echo-
chamber where intent and meaning have been determined in advance.
5.4. Fasting of the Heart-Mind

The character of Confucius (Kongzi 孔子) makes several appearances in
the Zhuangzi. In one of the encounter dialogues of chapter 4, Confucius’s
favorite disciple Yan Hui has asked for advice about how to serve the Lord
of Wei without getting himself killed—a real risk. Confucius is (predictably)
skeptical, but finally tells Yan Hui that he must fast the heart-mind (xin 心).
When asked what that means, he replies:
Confucius: “If you merge all your intentions into a singularity, you will
come to hear with the heart-mind rather than the ears. Further, you will
come to hear with the qi rather than with the heart-mind. For the ears are
halted at what they hear. The heart-mind is halted at whatever verifies its
preconceptions. But the qi is an emptiness, a waiting for the presence of
beings. The dao alone is what gathers in this emptiness. And it is this
emptiness that is the fasting of the heart-mind.”
Yan Hui said, “Before I find what moves me into activity, it is myself
that is full and real. But as soon as I find what moves me, it turns out that
‘myself’ has never begun to exist. Is that what you mean by being empty?”
Confucius said, “Exactly. Let me tell you about it . . . Good fortune
comes to roost in stillness. To lack this stillness is called scurrying
around even when sitting down. Allow your ears and eyes to open inward
and thereby place yourself beyond your heart-mind’s understanding.
Even the ghosts and spirits will then seek refuge in you, human beings all
the more so!”63
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In his guise here as a Daoist sage, and not a stodgy moralist, Confucius is
trying to help Yan Hui figure out how to help others. In order to do that, he
suggests, Yan Hui needs to figure out how to stop feeding his heart-mind,
the source and activity of his feeling-and-thinking. To do this, Confucius
says that he needs to move from hearing with his ears, to hearing with his
heart-mind, to hearing with his qi 氣 (vital energy), which will allow him to
cultivate an emptiness and a stillness that will draw others to him.
In parsing out what this means, Yan Hui says, “it turns out that ‘myself’
has never begun to exist. Is that what you mean by being empty?” Here, the
image of fasting the heart-mind, reading with your qi, in concentrated
stillness, beyond the preconceptions of your heart-mind, has an additional
layer—rather than throwing into doubt the clarity of the subject–object
relation, as reading did for Poulet and Iser, here for Yan Hui fasting the heart-
mind has perhaps thrown into doubt the existence of his “self” in a strong
sense. In an ethics of reading, or reading as part of an ethical life, reflection
on what the “self” is and means is crucial, and this is something that certainly
would benefit from perspectives from diverse philosophical traditions.
While Scarry takes a key component of the ethics of reading to be taking
on other perspectives, from fasting the heart-mind we see also the idea of
placing yourself beyond your limited, individualized understanding, and
getting beyond the idea of your “self.” This can even be seen in Scarry’s sense
of opiated adjacency, where instead of the feeling of pleasure at one’s being
sidelined, one might have a feeling of pleasure at being beyond your heart-
mind’s understanding, empty of yourself. In entering into a liminal space
“we” can be “transformed” in important ways that point to the flexible and
permeable nature of us as persons. So rather than Poulet’s need to “leave the
individual behind,” reading gives us the opportunity to realize the fiction of
the unchanging self. After all, for the Zhuangzi one of the most important
themes of the entire text is transformation—the constant transformation
of the cosmos, but also the potential we have to playfully transform ourselves
to meander along with the changes we find around us. An ethics of reading,
then, as an aesthetic practice and approach not only to texts, but to any
potential sites of meaning and connection to others, whether in images,
works of art, persons, or as a way to move about in the world, can be a way
to live a response to Butler’s question: What value are our values? If they are
not to be just the dregs of old, then you will have to see for yourself.
6. Conclusion
Paying attention to the phenomenology of reading has led many thinkers to
converge on the importance of reading as a slow, self-conscious practice, one
that benefits from repetition and tactile sensation and that gives us the rare
opportunity to practice being still. As Mendelsund reflects, “reading mirrors
the procedure by which we acquaint ourselves with the world. It is not that
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our narratives necessarily tell us something true about the world (though
they might), but rather that the practice of reading feels like, and is like,
consciousness itself: imperfect; partial; hazy; co-creative.”64
Attending more carefully to this oft-neglected practice can offer us
insights into who and how we are. In the Introduction to this chapter I
referenced Xu Bing’s “Book of the Sky,” an installation piece that took four
years (1987–91) to complete. This work of art is perhaps one of the most
insightful pieces in recent years on many issues, but especially concerning
reading. The work is a mixed-media installation featuring books and scrolls
printed from hand-carved blocks created by the artist. Each block was
created to resemble, but not really be, a character in the Chinese language.
The artist then printed the books and scrolls in such a way as to balance
word frequency and type, giving the feeling of reading a real text (e.g., “a”
and “the” occur more often in sentences than “perchance” or “terrifying”).
Each character is meaningless, and yet it produces the illusion of being
almost meaningful, nearly readable, just beyond one’s reach (if one reads
Chinese). As an installation, the ceiling billows with text, the floor is covered
in waves of books, the walls flow from one scroll to the next. Moving
through it, you are at once immersed in text, and yet never more aware of
incommunicability, of the way in which the text resists your almost
existential drive to read it. Many Chinese viewers spent hours examining the
early exhibits, sure that there were at least some “real” characters mixed in
with the fakes.
While there are many things that can be said about this work, from its
connection to Xu’s time spent working for state propaganda art to Chinese
history and block printing, for our purposes there are a few things that
stand out. First, there is the phenomenological experience of reading, the
way in which the work initiates a connection and makes one try to read it,
even when it is obvious that it cannot be read. Your eyes still pore over it as
if it were text, as if the characters will soon shift into focus and be meaningful;
if you are a calligrapher your hand might even trace some characters to feel
the rhythm of the brushstrokes. The opacity of the text is striking—the
Chinese Classics were learned through recitation, and while there is a visible
rhythm to the organization of the “characters,” there is no sound, no
reference through the visual to what the text should sound like. Second, the
work highlights the context of reading, not only the location, language,
history, printing, and so on, but that the very act of reading is a purposeful
(if also automatic) act. We read to know, to seek and to find meaning with
and through others, and that is always in a larger context. Third, reading is
a political activity. As a work of art, Xu’s piece is able to suggest this in ways
that are perhaps not as clear in a more direct phenomenological analysis.
Reading is political in the sense of the privilege of being able to read, the
control of what is available to read, and in the Zhuangzian sense of reading
as a transformational practice. The piece also encourages reflection on the
nature of such a large collection of books—while in the Song and Ming
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Dynasties that his work evokes, such large collections would likely have
been in private hands, in contemporary times we are lucky enough to have
free public libraries, and such institutions have been an important part of
not only individual but also cultural transformation. Xu Bing’s work
prompts us to reflect on the experience, meaning, and significance of reading
in our own lives, and as a work of art, it does so in a way that models an
ethics of reading, from a work of art to a lived practice and out into our
engagements with others.
Finally, the work is called the “Book of the Sky,” and while we often take
reading to be indicative of human-to-human connection, as Xu hints at with
his title we also read the sky, the natural world, and we should perhaps not
get so caught up in our own meaning-making activities that we cease to pay
attention to the transformations happening around us. I would like to leave
you with selections from a letter, written by botanist Robin Kimmerer, as
part of a book to young readers:
I am sitting, on this summer afternoon, in my favorite reading place under

the black cherry tree on the hill, looking out over the fields. In the moment
before I open a book, I like to just hold it between my palms and remember
what an amazing thing it is, a meeting of tree gifts and human gifts on the
same page. A place where the reader and the writer meet in reciprocity to
create something which has never existed before. A book is an invitation
to see the world through another’s eyes: blue eyes, black eyes, fiery green
wolf eyes.
It feels like the tree is reading over my shoulder, sharing the stories, as
it has every right to do, since they are printed on a sheet made of tree
cells. Books let us be like trees, don’t you think? Seeing beyond the span
of our own lives, reading high into the sunlight and deep into the dark
fertile soil of imagination. They let us play in their branches or dream in
a hammock. If we’re lucky our minds will widen with every volume, like
growth rings of wisdom. And books attract more books, more ideas—
like bright singing birds flocking to a tree of knowledge . . .65
Notes
1 While the focus of this chapter is on literate adults, low literacy among adults
and children in the United States is a serious issue that has not received
significant philosophical attention. Due to space constraints and my own lack
of familiarity with the subject, I also do not delve into the interesting
philosophical issues surrounding braille or other concerns in phenomenology
of reading for the visually impaired.
2 First noted in English by John Ridley Stroop in 1935, the Stroop Effect in
psychology described a kind of interference in the reaction time of certain
kinds of tasks. One of the most famous demonstrations of this is how much
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longer it takes to name (out loud) the color a color word is printed in, when
the color it is printed in and the color it spells out are two different colors (e.g.,
RED, written in black ink, when the task is to name aloud the color of the ink,
not the word) of reading aloud the color a word is written in, if the word
spelled is a different color than the ink of the word.
3 For images of the work, see: http://www.xubing.com/en/work/details/
206?year=1991&type=year#206
4 A good introduction in English to Qian’s work is Ronald Egan, trans. Limited
Views: Essays on Ideas and Letters (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1998).
5 Daniel Willingham, The Reading Mind: A Cognitive Approach to
Understanding How the Mind Reads (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2017), 2.
6 Willingham, The Reading Mind, 3.
7 See Alan Moore and Eric Schwitzgebel, “The Experience of Reading,”
Consciousness and Cognition, 62 (2018): 57–68.
8 See Kara Pernice, “F-Shaped Pattern of Reading on the Web: Misunderstood
but Still Relevant (Even on Mobile),” Nielsen Normal Group. Available online
at: https://www.nngroup.com/articles/f-shaped-pattern-reading-web-content/
9 See Therese Fessenden, “Horizontal Attention Leans Left,” Nielsen Normal
Group. Available online at: https://www.nngroup.com/articles/horizontal-
attention-leans-left/
10 See Anne Mangen et al., “Reading Linear Texts on Paper versus Computer
Screens: Effects on Reading Comprehension,” International Journal of
Educational Research, 58 (2013): 61–8. See also the more popularly aimed
works by: Naomi Baron, “Do Students Lose Depth in Digital Reading?,” The
Conversation. Available online at: https://theconversation.com/do-students-
lose-depth-in-digital-reading-61897; Rachel Grate, “Science Has Great News
for People Who Read Actual Books,” Mic. Available online at: https://mic.com/
articles/99408/science-has-great-news-for-people-who-read-actual-books#.
PMd5BMAUI; and Maria Torheim, “Do We Read Differently on Paper than on
a Screen?,” Phys.org. Available online at: https://phys.org/news/2017-09-
differently-paper-screen.html
11 Maryanne Wolf, “Skim Reading is the New Normal: The Effect on Society is
Profound,” The Guardian. Available online at: https://www.theguardian.com/
commentisfree/2018/aug/25/skim-reading-new-normal-maryanne-wolf?fbclid=
IwAR28ZJeg3ZcO9TSwYTUWMTiaeTLJ0rTt6iSJmVyA8fajtzTFziyKtj33gZ4
12 Jordan Weissmann, “The Decline of the American Book Lover: And Why the
Downturn might be Over,” The Atlantic. Available online at: https://www.
theatlantic.com/business/archive/2014/01/the-decline-of-the-american-book-
lover/283222/
13 While traditional phenomenology was not particularly concerned with ethics
per se, later developments in existential phenomenology recognize the
inextricable connections between the social, political, and intentional spheres
of our experience, and so are deeply concerned with how phenomenological
inquiry relates to ethical living, and I take this more existential approach to
phenomenological inquiry in this chapter.
36138.indb 241 03/09/2019 11:16

14 Georges Poulet, “Phenomenology of Reading,” New Literary History, 1.1

(1969): 54.
15 Ibid.
16 Ibid., 55–6.
17 Ibid., 60.
18 Wolfgang Iser, “The Reading Process: A Phenomenological Approach,” New
Literary History, 3.2 (1972): 289.
19 Ibid.
20 Ibid., 299.
21 Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method (New York: Continuum, 2004),
370–1.
22 Ibid., 461.
23 Ibid., 385.
24 Ibid., 153.
25 Ibid., 335.
26 Peter Mendelsund, What We See When We Read: A Phenomenology with
Illustrations (New York: Vintage Books, 2014), 61.
27 Ibid., 58.
28 Ibid., 39. In addition, although Mendelsund doesn’t make this point, recent
research into the causes of dyslexia suggest that it is not a problem with vision,
but rather with our phonological system, which is used for processing speech
sounds, and which does support his claim here. For more information, see
Ellen Ullman, “Cutting-Edge Research to Support Students with Reading
Disabilities,” eSchool News: Daily Tech News and Innovation. Available online
at: https://www.eschoolnews.com/2018/02/05/cutting-edge-research-support-
students-reading-disabilities/
29 Craig Taborn, “Pianist Craig Taborn on Reinventing Jazz Improvisation,”
Interview by Steve Paulson, To the Best of Our Knowledge, National Public
Radio. Available online at: https://www.ttbook.org/interview/pianist-craig-
taborn-reinventing-jazz-improvisation
30 Ibid.
31 Willingham, The Reading Mind, 5.
32 Taborn, “Reinventing Jazz Improvisation,” online.
33 Charles Larmore, “The Ethics of Reading,” in The Humanities and Public Life,
ed. Peter Brooks (New York: Fordham University Press, 2014), 49.
34 Michelle Walker, Slow Philosophy: Reading Against the Institution (New York:
Bloomsbury, 2017), 31.
35 Ibid., 18.
36 According to Peggy Kamuf’s “The End of Reading.” This paper delivered at
the University at Albany, October 12, 2000. See Walker, Slow Philosophy, 18.
This rather neatly also subordinates reading as an activity under a combat
metaphor (“capturing information”). For more on philosophy and
metaphor, see Sarah Mattice, Metaphor and Metaphilosophy: Philosophy
36138.indb 242 03/09/2019 11:16

as Combat, Play, and Aesthetic Experience (Lanham: Lexington Books,

2014).
37 Walker, Slow Philosophy, 19.
38 Ibid., 20.
39 Ibid., 13.
40 See Peter Brooks, “Introduction,” in The Humanities and Public Life, ed. Peter
Brooks (New York: Fordham University Press, 2014), 1.
41 Ibid., 3.
42 Ibid., 1–2.
43 Ibid., 3.
44 Ibid.
45 Ibid., 3–4.
46 Larmore, “The Ethics of Reading,” 50.
47 Ibid., 54.
48 Elaine Scarry, “Poetry, Injury, and the Ethics of Reading,” in The Humanities
and Public Life, ed. Peter Brooks (New York: Fordham University Press, 2014),
42. See also David Kidd and Emanuele Castano, “Reading Literary Fiction
Improves Theory of Mind,” Science. Available online at: http://science.
sciencemag.org/content/342/6156/377
49 See the preliminary piece by Schwitzgebel and McVey, “Narrative but not
Philosophical Argument Motivates Giving to Charity,” The Splintered Mind,
21 November 2018. Available online at: http://schwitzsplinters.blogspot.
com/2018/11/narrative-but-not-philosophical.html
50 Scarry, “Poetry, Injury, and the Ethics of Reading,” 45.
51 Ibid., 46–7.
52 Judith Butler, “Ordinary, Incredulous,” in The Humanities and Public Life,
ed. Peter Brooks (New York: Fordham University Press, 2014), 37.
53 While this text does not reflect explicitly a great deal on reading, there are
many Chinese philosophical texts that do give explicit attention to the practice
of reading. There are also later medieval Daoist practices dealing with the
nature of language, reading, and writing that would be fascinating to consider
in a longer exploration of this topic.
54 Li Zehou, The Chinese Aesthetic Tradition (Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press, 2009), 105.
55 For more on play and Zhuangzi, see chapter 3 of Mattice, Metaphor and
Metaphilosophy, 2014.
Commentaries, Brook Ziporyn (trans.) (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing,
2009), chapter 13 (my translation).
58 Mendelsund, What We See When We Read, 241–2.
59 Zhuangzi, The Essential Writings, chapter 3 (my translation).
36138.indb 243 03/09/2019 11:16

60 Zhuangzi, The Essential Writings, 14 (Ziporyn’s translation, modified).

61 Zhuangzi, The Essential Writings, 14n16.
62 Brooks, The Humanities and Public Life, 2.
63 Zhuangzi, The Essential Writings, 26–7 (Ziporyn translation, modified).
64 Mendelsund, What We See When We Read, 403.
65 Robin Kimmerer, “Dear Young Reader,” in A Velocity of Being: Letters to a
Young Reader, eds. Maria Popova and Claudia Bedrick (New York: Enchanted
Lion Books, 2008), 78.
References
Baron, Naomi. (2016), “Do Students Lose Depth in Digital Reading?,” The
Conversation, 20 July. Available online at: https://theconversation.com/do-
students-lose-depth-in-digital-reading-61897
Brooks, Peter, ed. (2014), The Humanities and Public Life, New York: Fordham
University Press.
Butler, Judith. (2014), “Ordinary, Incredulous,” in The Humanities and Public Life,
Peter Brooks (ed.), 15–37, New York: Fordham University Press.
Fessenden, Therese. (2017), “Horizontal Attention Leans Left,” Nielsen Normal
Group, 22 October. Available online at: https://www.nngroup.com/articles/
horizontal-attention-leans-left/
Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (2004), Truth and Method, Joel Weinsheimer and Donald
Marchall (trans.), New York: Continuum.
Grate, Rachel. (2014), “Science Has Great News for People Who Read Actual
Books,” Mic, 22 September. Available online at: https://mic.com/articles/99408/
science-has-great-news-for-people-who-read-actual-books#.PMd5BMAUI
Iser, Wolfgang. (1972), “The Reading Process: A Phenomenological Approach,”
New Literary History, 3 (2): 279–99.
Kidd, David and Emanuele Castano. (2013), “Reading Literary Fiction Improves
Theory of Mind,” Science, 242 (6156): 377–80. Available online at: http://
science.sciencemag.org/content/342/6156/377
Kimmerer, Robin. (2018), “Dear Young Reader,” in A Velocity of Being: Letters to
a Young Reader, Maria Popova and Claudia Bedrick (eds.), 78, New York:
Enchanted Lion Books.
Larmore, Charles. (2014), “The Ethics of Reading,” in The Humanities and Public
Life, Peter Brooks (ed.), 49–54, New York: Fordham University Press.
Li, Zehou. (2009), The Chinese Aesthetic Tradition, Majia Bell Samei (trans.),
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Mangen, Anne et al. (2013), “Reading Linear Texts on Paper versus Computer
Screens: Effects on Reading Comprehension,” International Journal of
Educational Research, 58: 61–8.
Mattice, Sarah. (2014), Metaphor and Metaphilosophy: Philosophy as Combat,
Play, and Aesthetic Experience, Lanham: Lexington Books.
Mendelsund, Peter. (2014), What We See When We Read: A Phenomenology with
Illustrations, New York: Vintage Books.
36138.indb 244 03/09/2019 11:16

Moore, Alan and Eric Schwitzgebel. (2018), “The Experience of Reading,”

Consciousness and Cognition, 62: 57–68.
Pernice, Kara. (2017), “F-Shaped Pattern of Reading on the Web: Misunderstood
but Still Relevant (Even on Mobile),” Nielsen Normal Group, 12 November.
Available online at: https://www.nngroup.com/articles/f-shaped-pattern-
reading-web-content/
Poulet, Georges. (1969), “Phenomenology of Reading,” New Literary History,
1 (1): 53–68.
Qian, Zhongshu. (1998), Limited Views: Essays on Ideas and Letters, Ronald Egan
(trans.), Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Scarry, Elaine. (2014), “Poetry, Injury, and the Ethics of Reading,” in The
Humanities and Public Life, Peter Brooks (ed.), 41–8, New York: Fordham
University Press.
Schwitzgebel, Eric and Christopher McVey. (2018), “Narrative but not
Philosophical Argument Motivates Giving to Charity,” The Splintered Mind,
21 November. Available online at: http://schwitzsplinters.blogspot.com/2018/11/
narrative-but-not-philosophical.html
Taborn, Craig. (2018), “Pianist Craig Taborn on Reinventing Jazz Improvisation,”
Interview by Steve Paulson, To the Best of Our Knowledge, National Public
Radio, 3 March, Audio 14:35. Available online at: https://www.ttbook.org/
interview/pianist-craig-taborn-reinventing-jazz-improvisation
Torheim, Maria. (2017), “Do We Read Differently on Paper than on a Screen?,”
Phys.org, September. Available online at: https://phys.org/news/2017-09-
differently-paper-screen.html
Ullman, Ellen. (2018), “Cutting-Edge Research to Support Students with Reading
Disabilities,” eSchool News: Daily Tech News and Innovation, 5 February.
Available online at: https://www.eschoolnews.com/2018/02/05/cutting-edge-
research-support-students-reading-disabilities/
Walker, Michelle. (2017), Slow Philosophy: Reading Against the Institution, New
Weissmann, Jordan. (2014), “The Decline of the American Book Lover: And Why
the Downturn might be Over,” The Atlantic, 21 January. Available online at:
https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2014/01/the-decline-of-the-
american-book-lover/283222/
Willingham, Daniel. (2017), The Reading Mind: A Cognitive Approach to
Understanding How the Mind Reads, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Wolf, Maryanne. (2018), “Skim Reading is the New Normal: The Effect on Society
is Profound,” The Guardian, 25 August. Available online at: https://www.
theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/aug/25/skim-reading-new-normal-
maryanne-wolf?fbclid=IwAR28ZJeg3ZcO9TSwYTUWMTiaeTLJ0rTt6iSJmVy
A8fajtzTFziyKtj33gZ4
Publishing.
36138.indb 245 03/09/2019 11:16

36138.indb 246 03/09/2019 11:16
11
Unknowing Silence in Laozi’s
Daodejing and Merleau-Ponty
Katrin Froese
1. Introduction
In the contemporary world, we are drowning in a cacophony of textual
voices, thanks in large part to the precipitous rise of social media and an
overabundance of available data. But, this surplus of information and text
has also been accompanied by a profound sense of meaninglessness and
a burgeoning disenchantment, especially as it seems to proliferate without
grounding. Nonetheless, we become habituated to this noise and are
increasingly uncomfortable with silence and solitude, even though we are in
dire need of their counterbalancing effects. Without silence as a companion
to language, words themselves are eventually denuded of their meaning and
become little more than continuous babble which we are addicted to, despite
its unsettling impact. Our language has literally run away from us.
In an environment marked by the excess of speech, Laozi’s Daodejing 道
德經 and the work of Maurice Merleau-Ponty offer a welcome alternative.
The need to step back from our linguistic constructs is acknowledged. A
primordial silence is once again to become a part of language, and for this
to take place, a non-linguistic awareness must be deliberately fostered. In
the Daodejing stillness is cultivated, and silence also becomes part of the
process of naming through the act of continuously renaming and unsettling
all settled words. In Merleau-Ponty, silence is a retreat from speaking in
order to open up infinite perceptual pathways that lead us to unexpected
worlds. This is meaningful in his view because it opens the door to the lived
experience of connection, rather than relying on communicative tools alone.
However, words do not necessarily function in opposition to silence, there is
also a continuous “enfolding” of words into the perceptual experience. The
danger arises not from their intermingling, but when we succumb to the
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temptation to replace perceptual experience with language. The Daodejing

goes further than this, because it imagines a primordial and silent oneness
out of which all particular embodied things emerge. Thus silence not only
reminds us of the boundary imposed by language, but of the boundaries of
the physical body.
2. Merleau-Ponty
The prevailing view of language assumes that it functions mainly as a
communicative tool, which conceptualizes, represents, and enframes
experience. This illusory mindset impels us to view silence as little more than
a void, signifying ignorance and non-knowledge. However, it is precisely the
non-knowing relationship to the world that silence offers, which Merleau-
Ponty insists is absolutely essential in order to live a meaningful existence.
Silence and speech are placed into polar opposition only when language has
detached itself from its corporal moorings to the point where its conceptual
abstractions have asserted their primacy. For Merleau-Ponty this amounts
to mistaking the secondary end-product of linguistic development for its
origins and it dovetails with the fantasy of the omniscient subject to achieve
totality, which also functions as a kind of limiting self-enclosure.
According to Merleau-Ponty such an approach glosses over an awareness
of language in the process of emergence, wherein it becomes part of our
corporal response to the world. Silence resides in the midst of language,
attuning us to a plenitude of existence that can never be grasped, nor fully
communicated. It represents the confusion out of which language emerges
as well as the openness and potential that impels us to speak in the first
place. As such, it also functions as an important counterweight to knowledge,
reminding us that knowledge itself is only one kind of response to our
existence that when taken too far, suppresses the very wonder that gave
birth to it in the first place. Silence can keep such wonder alive, reminding
us that we are interwoven into a world that “precedes knowledge . . . in
relation to which every scientific schematization is an abstract and derivative
sign-language.”1 In other words, we must stop continuously thinking
ourselves out of the world.
The role of silence in Merleau-Ponty is indelibly linked to the primacy of
perception, which remains the central theme of his entire corpus. When the
phenomenological clarion call to “return to the things themselves” is heeded,
we discover that there are no “things” except perhaps as a result of the
objectifying acts of consciousness. Instead of privileging consciousness,
Merleau-Ponty focuses on perception, which precedes consciousness.
Perception is no longer the abstract grasping or apprehension of “things,”
but a testament to our entanglement in the world. In addition, the
predominant role accorded to perception marks a resistance to a life
increasingly weighed down by words, which causes the words themselves to
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Silence in L aozi and Merleau-Ponty 249
be stripped of their meaning. According to the Cartesian framework, the

inner world of subjectivity and the world of objects “out there” are starkly
demarcated from each other. Since the certainty of objects always eludes us,
we retreat into an allegedly “pure world” of thought, forgetting that the
inner world of language only emerges through the “outer world.” Language
gives us the illusion of an inner self when we seek refuge behind its veils.
Perhaps it is only in speaking about our perceptions that we begin to assume
that perception itself occurs at a distance. In other words, language obscures
the nature of perceptual activity. This is why a repeated return to silent
perception is absolutely essential: “In the silence of primary consciousness
we see not only what words mean but also what things mean, the core of
primary meaning around which the acts of naming and expression take
place.”2 The emptier language becomes the greater the temptation to ward
off this emptiness with the constant flow of words.
Merleau-Ponty vociferously repudiates the observer status we accord
to ourselves: “We are caught up in the world and we do not succeed in
extricating ourselves from it in order to achieve consciousness of the world.”3
The sense of distance that ensues robs us of meaning and also arrogates
to human beings a superior status. Rather than embarking on a quest for
knowledge and certainty, Merleau-Ponty launches an investigation to
discover what imbues us with a sense of meaning. Here the double meaning
of the French word sens (sense) is instructive, since it refers to both sensation
and meaning, thereby already straddling the divide between the conceptual
and the corporeal.4 Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy aims to relinquish the
obsession with truth in order to return to the roots of pre-objectified world.
The Cartesian achievement which had elevated the subject on an
epistemological pedestal for Merleau-Ponty is perhaps one primary
contributing factor to a profound sense of meaninglessness which pervades
the contemporary world.
The terrain of perception is much richer than our barren conceptual
categories would permit. Merleau-Ponty remarks that perception is neither
passive observation, nor is it an active grasping which remakes the world in
our image: “There can be no question of fitting together passivity before a
transcendent with an activity of immanent thought. It is a question of
reconsidering the interdependent notions of the active and the passive in
such a way that they no longer place us before a philosophical antinomy.”5
Each apparently simple act of perception opens up a horizon, arousing “the
expectation of more than it contains,” and thereby is already “charged with
a meaning.”6 As Lawrence Hass points out, the perceptual field is one of
excess which “spills out every which way, beyond and around the specific
things one attends to.”7 Thus Merleau-Ponty suggests that what exceeds our
expectations generates meaning, emerges out of a responsive movement
toward an unknown, mysterious world. Meaning is distinct from
knowledge. We contribute to the world our own “intentional arc,” even by
moving in a certain direction, sometimes drawing upon the structures of
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language that surrounds us in order to do so. Silence is an important part of

this process, since it marks an unassuming openness as well as a profound
desire for the allure of the unbounded. Thus our “intentional arc” cannot be
solely attributed to our subjective intention. Knowledge continuously aspires
to transform the unexpected into the expected, but a world in which we
cease to be surprised because we are addicted to the Cartesian illusion of
certainty, is one that starves us of meaning. The richness of perceptual
experience is then reduced to something amenable to measurement and
categorization. For example, the label red which we use to characterize an
object impels us to forget that the “red patch which I see on the carpet is red
only in virtue of a shadow which lies across it, its quality is apparently only
in relation to the play of light upon it, and hence as an element in a spatial
configuration.”8 It is this poetic field of awareness that perception opens up:
“reflection never holds, arrayed and objectified before its gaze, the whole
world and the plurality of monads” and “its view is never other than apartial
and of limited power.”9 Even the clear contours of a shape only have meaning
in relation to a surrounding shapelessness that bring it into relief.
Furthermore, we respond to the world affectively before we do so objectively.
Merleau-Ponty also notes that perception preexists the ego: “If I wanted
to render precisely the perceptual experience, I ought to say that one
perceives in me, and not that I perceive.”10 As M.C. Dillon points out, “the
perception is primary, only later does reflection step back, disengage itself
and transform the world into a spectacle which is viewed from a distance.”11
This means that I am not the agent of perception but rather participate in a
process of perception. Merleau-Ponty uses the example of artistic creation
to describe this. In “Indirect Language and the Voices of Silence” Merleau-
Ponty interprets painting to be a kind of perceiving and being perceived, in
which the painter cannot articulate “what comes from him and what comes
from things.”12 When I perceive, I also receive and lose myself. What we
refer to as the self can be seen as a wave which surges forth and withdraws:
“As I contemplate the blue of the sky I am not set over against it as an
acosmic subject; I do not possess it in thought . . . I abandon myself to it . . .
it ‘thinks itself’ within me.”13 Furthermore, Merleau-Ponty sets art in
opposition to what he calls “activism” whereby “only the painter is entitled
to look at everything without being obliged to appraise what he sees. For the
painter, we might say, the watchwords of knowledge and action lose their
meaning and force.”14 We are, according to Merleau-Ponty, “immersed in
the visible,” which impels us to open ourselves to the world.
A conventional theory of sensation “builds up all knowledge out of
determinate qualities” and “offers us objects purged of all ambiguity, pure
and absolute.”15 Sight is prioritized as the sensation that is most closely
allied to knowledge, but Merleau-Ponty maintains that even our
presumptions about what we do when we see are fundamentally mistaken.
We assume that sight occurs at a detached distance, which is not the case
with senses such as touch and sound that surround and immerse us. But
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Merleau-Ponty refuses to uphold the privileged status accorded to sight.

He suggests that to “look at the object is to plunge oneself into it,”16
and when we reflect upon our seeing, we realize that each object is defined
only by virtue of its horizon such that every object becomes the “mirror
of all others.”17 I do not “see objects” until I concentrate my gaze on a
particular, becoming “anchored in it,” but this “coming to rest of the gaze
is merely a modality of its movement . . . and in one movement I close up
the landscape and open the object.”18 Thus the perception of an object
depends on the partiality of the gaze, which deliberately allows the
surroundings to recede into the background. Each visual fixation, which
offers us the illusion of stasis, is in fact the outcome of a certain kind of
bodily movement. At the same time, language, which depends upon the
ability to objectify, could not occur without the movement of the body that
objectifies physically before we can do so intellectually. As such, language
mirrors the movements of the body.
When vision is seen as a bodily phenomenon, it can incite an awareness
of the deep multiplicity of the world, while the distillation of these experiences
into habituated objects and words demands a kind of detachment from
experience so that the idea, “like the object,” can purport to “be the same for
everybody, valid in all times and all places.”19 As a result, “I am no longer
concerned with my body, with time, nor with the world . . . I now refer to
my body only as an idea.”20 But the idea of the body that is created as a
result also allows us to communicate with each other while at the same time
marking “the death of consciousness,”21 and so it opens up the possibility
for the creation of a social body. Merleau-Ponty acknowledges that the gaze
of another without language would be too unsettling, because there would
be no common ground. In the look of the other, I risk becoming a stranger
to myself, because the illusion of a coherent self is threatened. I can never see
what another sees. Perception is inherently solipsistic, and it is language that
attempts to overcome this solipsism: “What is it like when the other turns
upon me, meets my gaze, and fastens his own upon my body and my face?
Unless we have recourse to the ruse of speech, putting a common domain of
thoughts between us as a third party, the experience is intolerable.”22 One
need only reflect on the intense discomfort we experience when somebody
stares at us in silence to glean the import of these words.
Language is a double-edged sword. The rationa structure of sedimented
language associated with Cartesian “spirituality” is a much later stage of
development that belies its origins. The first uses of language are emotive
and gestural, rather than rational and logical: “We speak and we understand
speech long before learning from Descartes that thought is our reality. The
true dawns through an emotional and almost carnal experience where the
‘ideas’—the other’s and our own—are rather traits of his physiognomy
and of our own, are less understood than welcomed or spurned in love or
hatred.”23 Language makes communication and interweaving with others
possible, but it also tempts us to take refuge in the illusion of certainty that
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this second-order experience offers and we “lose contact with the perceptual
experience.”24
In the Introduction to Phenomenology of Perception, Merleau-Ponty
makes the claim that “to return to things themselves, is to return to that
world which precedes knowledge of which knowledge always speaks.”25 We
cannot move from certainty within the self, to certainty about the outside
world, since the world is there “before any analysis of mine.” Before
knowledge speaks, before we can even conceive of a consciousness, the
world speaks to us silently. Thus silence is also a return to pre-egoistic
reflection: “When I begin to reflect, I reflect upon an unreflective experience.”26
Merleau-Ponty vociferously denies the existence of an inner world separated
from the outer world: “Truth does not ‘inhabit’ only the ‘inner man’ or more
accurately there is no inner man, man is in the world, and only in the world
does he know himself.”27
In The Visible and the Invisible Merleau-Ponty suggests that we engage
in a hyper-reflection which is a kind of reflection that returns to pre-linguistic
awareness, perpetually relating it to our linguistic ways of being, which
would not “lose sight of the brute thing and the brute awareness and would
not finally efface them, and would not cut the organic bonds between the
perception and the thing perceived with a hypothesis of inexistence.”28 This
means that silence would be part of reflection as part of “our mute contact
with things, when they are not yet things said.”29 Rather than becoming
merely the vehicle for knowledge, thinking becomes a constant interrogation
of the world, through which we expose “what in silence it means to say.”30
No conceptual schema can bestow upon the world a singular unity. Instead
the world through perception is revealed as “strange and paradoxical.”31 We
are transformed through this perceptual act and cannot extricate ourselves
from the world “in order to achieve consciousness” of it.32
Perception is neither wholly passive nor wholly active and opens up a
new surrounding world (an Umwelt) and therefore is in itself fundamentally
expressive as well as responsive. Our relationship with this Umwelt is
paradoxical since we are assaulted by it, creating a fissure within ourselves
that constantly places our subjectivity under siege. But this inner rift or
opening incites within us an impossible thirst for plenitude that drives us to
perceive. Perception is also a kind of yearning for the fullness the world
offers, while at the same time underlining the impossible possibility of
coming together and tearing apart which Merleau-Ponty will later coin the
incompossible: “The world ceaselessly assails and beleaguers subjectivity, as
waves wash round a wreck on the shore. All knowledge takes place within
the horizons opened up by perception . . . we can never fill up in the picture
of the world, that gap which we ourselves are, since perception is the flaw
in this ‘great diamond.’ ”33 The image of the great diamond is taken from a
poem by Valéry: “Mes repentirs, mes doutes mes contraintes, sont les défauts
de ton grand diamant” (My doubts, compunctions, my constraints and
checks, these are the flaws of your great diamond).34 This metaphor
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highlights the intertwining of suffering, longing and beauty. There is a

craving underlying the act of perception, which derives from the weak
position of a wounded self, thirsting for a wholeness that will always elude
it. It suggests that uncertainty and suffering drive our perceptual curiosity.
The quest for knowledge is merely derivative.
Speaking can be a longing to close the gap with words. It too is the child
of desire unleashed in perception. When we retreat behind human words,
we can easily succumb to the illusion of certainty, and perform an inversion
which considers the certainty of words to be primary. However, words
are also an expression of uncertainty. Merleau-Ponty cautions us that
“philosophy is not a lexicon . . . it does not seek a verbal substitute for the
world we see, it does not transform it into something said. It is the things
themselves from the depths of their silence, that it wishes to bring to
expression.”35 Thus silence in Merleau-Ponty is necessary to create another
kind of language, namely an expressive language which would “adjust itself
to those figured enigmas . . . whose massive being and truth teem with
incompossible details.”36 When silence informs language, we do not just
speak of the world, the world speaks through us. Merleau-Ponty hints at the
possibility of silent speaking.
Perception in Merleau-Ponty is a dialogical relationship to the world. In
this sense, it is already a kind of speaking. Silence is no mere absence of
sound, but a responsiveness to the plenitude of existence. The active
cultivation of silence ensures that language’s limiting function does not take
over. We speak because we are also spoken to by the world we inhabit.
Furthermore, silence constitutes a recognition that there can be no speaking
about the world without listening to it. Silence is not inactivity but, rather,
is the activity of attunement to that which is necessarily excluded by
language. It thereby also ensures the continual transformation and creation
of language.
Silence is also a kind of “unraveling of speech” which guards against the
excesses made possible by the sedimentation of language, or what Heidegger
refers to as idle talk (Gerede). This is talk that is primarily repetitive,
conventional, and has forgotten that we do not survey (survoler) the world,
but rather inhabit it. The sedimentation of language impels us to forget that
while language is always already there, it also is in a continuous process of
emergence. When language becomes automatic, we can easily succumb to
the conceptual illusion that language makes sense of the world. In other
words, our conceptual certainty is the product of the ossification of habits,
particularly when they are socially reinforced: “An attitude towards the
world, when it has received frequent confirmation, acquires a favored status
for us.”37 Of course all of us are thrown into a world of language from birth
and mimic the words of adults. Observing children in the process of learning
language reminds us of its expressive nature, since children will often make
sounds that have no social meaning but nonetheless have a kind of gestural
significance expressing sheer wonder, delight, or even revulsion. Their
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babbling may not make conceptual sense, but it manifests a meaningful

responsiveness to the world they encounter.
Thus the origins of language are poetic rather than utilitarian: “As soon
as man uses language to establish a living relation with himself or with his
fellows, language is no longer an instrument, no longer a means; it is a
manifestation, a revelation of intimate being and of the psychic link which
unites us to the world and our fellow men.”38 Language is ontologically
grounded in the sounds and gestures of the body according to Merleau-
Ponty: “We need then to seek the first attempts at language in the emotional
gesticulation whereby man superimposes the given in the world according to
man.”39 The notion that signifiers have meaning only in relation to other
signifiers, severing the link between signifier and signified, is a later moment
in the development of language; however, “conventions are a late form of
relationship between men; they presuppose an earlier means of communication
and language must be put back into this current of intercourse.”40 Language
is above all a musical response to the world, a way to “sing the world’s
praises and in the last resort to live it.”41 Furthermore, language, at least
initially, is not divorced from the body but rather intimately connected to its
movements, even if at a later stage of development, language is used to arrest
movement in order to generate timeless structures. Merleau-Ponty reminds
us of the physical aspects of language, which include a “contraction of the
throat, a sibilant emission of air between the tongue and teeth, a certain way
of bringing the body into play.”42
In order to make sense of this idea, it is helpful to turn to the text of
the Zhuangzi 莊子 since it also underscores the meaningful nature of the
nonsensical piping of human beings and animals, thereby highlighting that
meaning does not inhere in the explanatory function of words, but rather in
the responsiveness of words to the cosmos: “Words are not just wind. Words
have something to say. But if what they have to say is not fixed, then do they
really say something? Or do they say nothing? People suppose that words
are different from the peeps of baby birds, but is there any difference or isn’t
there?”43 The fact that there is an element of saying nothing in the words, as
in the “meaningless” sounds of baby birds, suggests that the origins of human
language include a tacit recognition of the radical openness of the cosmos
which cannot be contained in words. Therefore the Zhuangzi suggests that
the most meaningless words of all carry a profound meaning that is forgotten
when we saddle them with heavy meanings as we do when they become
cumbersome words (yuyan 寓言), or heavy/repeated words (zhongyan 重言)
rather than the goblet words (zhiyan 卮言) that express fluidity.44
In The Visible and the Invisible, Merleau-Ponty goes even further in
emphasizing non-linguistic awareness/attunement. The invisible refers to
what we would commonly think of as thought, language, and reflection, but
by describing it in relation to a physical sensation (vision), he emphasizes
the idea that thought is not part of an ethereal sphere divorced from the
body, but is instead a sublimation and extension of corporeal activity. The
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subject–object dichotomy, as well as the dichotomy between consciousness

and corporeal existence, are collapsed. Merleau-Ponty understands the body
as a dehiscence (écart). We open to the outside as we are touched from the
inside. There is a constant crossing or intersection between inside and
outside as we both touch and are touched, which Merleau-Ponty refers to as
the chiasm. The “coincidence” is “never but partial,”45 meaning that I never
grasp the world. Each touching is also a slipping away and this impels us to
reach out into the world over and over again. Silence thus is also the process
by which the world retreats from our gaze. It is this refusal of the world to
surrender to our perception (similar to the conflict between world and Earth
in Heidegger) that fuels our desire. Perception, as corporeal participation in
being, is also desire which emerges out of the dialectical relationship between
presence and absence. The chiasmic encounter highlights the link between
desire and perception.46
Corporeal entanglement is necessarily ambiguous. My hand is at once
both touched and touching, perceived as well as perceiving: “This can
happen only if my hand, while it is felt from within, is also accessible from
without, itself tangible, for my other hand, for example, if it takes its place
among the things it touches, is in a sense one of them, opens finally upon a
tangible being of which it is also a part. Through the crisscrossing within it
of the touching and the tangible, its own movements incorporate themselves
into the universe they interrogate . . . It is no different for the vision—
except . . . that . . . the information it gathers [does] not belong ‘to the same
sense.’ ”47 If I try to compartmentalize this process to locate a starting or
endpoint, or to subject it to laws of causality which would enable me to
identify an agent that acts and an object which is acted upon, I will inevitably
fail. I feel one hand through the other. I am perceiving and perceived. There
is no internal coherence to the self, only dehiscence: the opening to the other
that necessarily entails a splitting within the self. The fact that there is no
coherent self is not a source of intellectual stress for Merleau-Ponty. There is
no problem of the other, as in Sartre or even Levinas, because the other is
part of my internal awareness of myself. Although the notion of a coherent
self is a powerful fantasy, such a self could not engage with the world
because there would be no open fissures in it that would make meaningful
engagement with its Umwelt (surrounding world) possible: “There is here
no problem of the alter ego because it is not I who sees, not he who sees,
because an anonymous visibility inhabits both of us, a vision in general, in
virtue of that primordial property that belongs to the flesh, being here and
now, of radiating everywhere and forever, being an individual, of being also
a dimension and a universal.”48 Thus we do not just see but are “in vision”
that anonymously occurs through us. Seeing is not simply something we do;
it is also done to us. The flesh for Merleau-Ponty is not mute, dumb matter,
but rather an organism that opens out into the world and is a “bursting
forth of the mass of the body towards the things,” which makes me “follow
with my eyes, the movements and contours of things themselves.”49
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The chiasmic encounter takes on an even more radical meaning in the

text of the Zhuangzi in the famous butterfly dream. Here it is not merely one
hand touching another that results in a deliberate confusion of identity.
Instead, it is one creature transforming into the other in a dream in which
Zhuangzi does not “know if he was Zhuang Zhou who had dreamt he was
a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming he was Zhuang Zhou,” concluding only
“that there must be some distinction” which is called the “transformation of
things.”50 As in Merleau-Ponty, this folding of one being into another is
meant to undo identity by suggesting that the difference between things and
their mutual entanglement is a sign of their connective unity. The unity stems
neither from the reduction of one to the other, nor from their difference,
but rather comes about because of the paradoxical combination of these
seemingly opposed tendencies. It is only language which places difference
and oneness into an oppositional relationship. Merleau-Ponty’s écart and
Zhuangzi’s muddled dream point out that only the paradoxical confusion of
these two dimensions allows for transformation. In both texts, identity loses
its central place and the process of transformation that occurs because of the
encounter is highlighted instead.
Merleau-Ponty also insists that vision is always entangled in other senses
and that I never simply see an object, but rather see in constellations: “this
red is what it is only by connecting up from its place with other reds about
it, with which it forms a constellation, or with other colors it dominates or
that dominate it, that it attracts or that attract it, that it repels or that repel
it. . . . The red dress a fortiori holds with all its fibers onto the fabric of the
visible, and therefore onto a fabric of invisible being.”51 The invisible
therefore is part of the visible. Vision is dynamic, not static. I fix my eyes
upon something only by moving away from something else. States of being
grab my attention by coalescing in particular ways. It is “less a color or a
thing, therefore, than a difference between things and colors, a momentary
crystallization of colored being or of visibility.”52 Colors are experienced as
affective intensities, not just as abstract distant visual phenomena. It is
impossible to separate the affective response to color from its visual cues:
“Claudel has a phrase saying that a certain blue of the sea is so blue that
only blood would be more red. The color is yet a variant in another
dimension of variatio, that of its relations with the surroundings this red is
what it is only by connecting up from its place with other reds about it, with
which it forms a constellation.”53 The emotional intensity of redness is part
of the visible experience of it. The invisible underlies the visible.
By suggesting that the visible does not survey from above, but rather is
a “grain or corpuscle borne by a wave of Being,”54 Merleau-Ponty also
throws into question the idea that philosophy should mimic science which
has traditionally fixed its sights on acquiring a detached bird’s eye view.
Instead, there is a participation in a varied and multi-layered intercorporeal
tapestry. Language is part of this tapestry but we must guard against
allowing it to supplant it. That would be akin to equating musical notation
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with music-making. Quoting from Proust, Merleau-Ponty asserts that one

would then be left with “bare values substituted for the mysterious entity he
had perceived, for the convenience of his understanding.”55 Meaning and
understanding cannot be equated. Merleau-Ponty takes Saussure’s notion of
the diacritical structure of language, whereby signifiers refer to each other in
an endless chain, and applies it to the senses which are also inextricably
intertwined, enveloping, pointing, and referring to each other. Instead of the
clear categories required by conceptualization, Merleau-Ponty treasures
ambiguity, crisscrossing and a “wild being,” a notion which, as I will point
out below, is similar to the idea of the murky and the obscure in Daoist
texts. In seeing one thing, we are at the same time “seeing the invisible” in
its multiple dimensions. The invisible is the blurred background that
highlights the foreground. It is not absence or Sartre’s néant but rather a
temporary retreat and as such is part of and informs the visible.
Language adds another fold into Being and is an expression of a desire or
a movement toward and into the world: “the folding over within him of the
visible and the lived experience upon language, and of language upon the
visible and the lived experience, the exchanges between his mute language
and those of his speech . . . it is the theme of philosophy.”56 Furthermore,
such language is called forth “by the voices of silence.”57 The voices of silence
in their variegated multiplicity elicit our speech in a manner that is similar
to the way in which emotional states can impel us to sing. Such singing is a
type of responsiveness that can never be explicated, nor can it generate
understanding. But it does generate meaning, which Merleau-Ponty
uncouples from knowledge.
Merleau-Ponty replaces the Cartesian quest for certainty with a quest for
ambiguity that is vital to maintain the richness of experience. There is a
profound paradox that runs through Merleau-Ponty’s works on perception.
On the one hand, perception is inherently meaningful, and does not require a
transcendent abstract justification as its supplement. Yet, at the same time, the
interplay between language and silence, which makes reflection upon our
perception possible, imbues the experience with a deeper meaning, not because
reflection is inherently richer, but because the contrast between the sublimated
nature of language and our tangible corporeal existence enables us to be more
poignantly aware of the endless depth of perceptual activity. The alienating
dimension of language bestows upon silent perception a renewed intensity. In
turn, the disintegration of the self that this intensity makes possible, makes us
long for the comfort of the social body that language plays a part in creating.
Silence is paradoxical. It draws out our voice, and at the same time muffles
it, allowing for a kind of melting into our environs that speech undercuts.
The undulating relationship between speech and silence is the harbinger of
meaning. Glen Mazis describes this relationship as a kind of “pivoting between
the invisible of the visible” rather than a retreat into the pre-reflective.58
As I have pointed out above, speech also transmits my experience to
another, enabling me to become part of and contribute to the creation of a
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social body. However, when the social transmission of the experience

completely eclipses the experience itself, we are left with nothing but empty
gestures, devoid of mooring, as is increasingly the case in a world overtaken
by social media. One could see the world of social media as an excess of the
social that ends up decimating the very social bonds it intends to create. If
the social function of language is to remain meaningful, a solipsistic silence
must also be maintained. The idea that Derrida takes from Saussure, namely
that signifiers refer only to other signifiers, and that the social world is
always only a socially constructed one, is rejected by Merleau-Ponty.
Language must be grounded, albeit in a “wild being” which is “behind or
beneath the cleaves of our acquired culture.”59 Nonetheless, this ground is
always shifting. It is silence that repeatedly draws our attention to this
perpetually shifting, multi-perspectival, and multi-textured world that we
are both drawn to and also repelled by.
3. The Daodejing

Silence and stillness play a pivotal role in Laozi’s text, the Daodejing.
Merleau-Ponty uses silence to remind us of the important connection
between meaning and the corporal immersion in existence. The Daodejing
goes even further with a cosmology that underscores the role of silence as
part of the process of return to the primordial root of all things. While
Merleau-Ponty’s primordiality predates the ego and language, primordiality
in the Daodejing also precedes the development of physical bodies. In the
Daodejing silence is also pre-perceptual:
There was some process that formed spontaneously, emerging before

Heaven and Earth. Silent and empty, standing alone as all that is, it does
not suffer alteration; all-pervading it does not pause. It can be thought of
as the mother of Heaven and Earth. I do not yet know its name. If I were
to style it, I would call it Dao. And if I were forced to give it a name, I
could call it grand.60
In the above passage, the word ji 寂 means both silent and lonely, since it
refers to a condition prior to the emergence of the myriad forms of life. The
ten thousand things (wanwu 萬物), of which we are but one, always long to
return to their primal origins. Hence, silence is emblematic of a state before
things were distinct from one another, which also can become the source of
our longing. According to the Daodejing, it is as fundamental to our being
as language, which is something we readily forget, especially in a culture
that is marked by a surplus of words and text. In other words, the Daodejing
suggests that even our desire to speak may represent the allure of silence
because the plenitude of silence can never be “filled” by speech. Every word
we utter falls short and so we frantically search for more fitting words. In
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fact, the text notes that if “forced (qiang 強) to give it a name, I would call
it grand.” But as soon as the name grand (da 大) is bestowed on it, the
speaker adopts a plethora of other names that cast doubt on the initial
moniker: “Being grand, it is called passing. Passing, it is called distancing.
Distancing, it is called returning.”61 The interaction between naming and
un-naming or renaming is significant. Through silence we recognize that
no name suffices. Thus silence is part of the action of naming by unsettling
every name. This kind of “deconstruction” is a meaningful process signifying
a movement back to the source of all things, which is beyond any single
name but at the same time permeates all of them. The primordial oneness
gives birth to multiplicity and a fecund naming is part of this process of
constant generation and growth. In other words, it draws attention to
naming as process rather than focusing simply on “the named.”
There are many instances in the Daodejing where the importance of jing
靜 is underscored. Although this word means silence, it can also mean
stillness, calm, and equilibrium. Stillness is the root of movement, even
agitated movement: “The heavy is the root of the light, stillness is the lord
of agitation (jing wei zaojun 靜為躁君).”62 This passage can be interpreted
in multiple ways. One is that frenetic activity (zao 躁) is kept in check by
jing ensuring that one is always drawn back to the silent root. Cultivating
the stillness of the body is an important part of this process. Thomas Michael
asserts that the “pristine Dao” is related to its inner cultivation within the
physical body and that “both are grounded in a physicality that cannot be
brushed aside.”63A second possible interpretation of the passage is that the
desire for stillness precipitates the frantic attempt to return to the primordial.
Since every action falls short, we engage in unrelenting activity unaware that
our nervous movement is a longing for silence.
The Daodejing presupposes that harmony is also the most natural state
of being, but it is not a harmony that excludes opposition; rather, it emerges
out of a process in which opposites flow into each other. This means that
even the movement from one extreme to another signifies a natural pull
toward equilibrium, just as the door swings around a hinge from one side to
another while the hinge itself does not move. The moving opposites always
remain connected through the hinge and thus are one.
While the text on one level labels desire a negative force that hinders
the return to the Dao, maintaining that a desireless posture enables one to
observe the mysteries of things (gu heng wuyu, yiguan qi miao 故恆無欲，以
觀其秒), it also asserts that desire enables one to “observe boundaries” (heng
youyu ye, yiguan qi suojiao 恆有欲也，以觀其所徼).64 Boundaries draw
attention to the particular potential of things or their de 德. Thus we
must move continuously between desire and “desirelessness.” The desire
manifested in silence is a yearning for a radical openness that impels us to
transition through various states rather than settling in any one position.
Curie Virag points out that desire is what “incites, animates and furnishes the
content of knowing because it represents the workings of the Dao within
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humans: it is the productive force by which all things come into the world
and move towards fulfillment.”65 In contrast, Hans-Georg Moeller argues
that desires are identified as the “main cause of war and social disorder in the
Daodejing.”66 He points out that a desireless stance is necessary among sages
as well as being deliberately cultivated in the general populace so as to avoid
conflict. However, I argue that the rejection of objectifying desire predicated
on acquisition does not constitute the rejection of all desire.
The above passage attests to the possibility of a desire for fluid and open
movement.
In the Daodejing, as in Merleau-Ponty, speaking is an act that transforms
the ten thousand things, sometimes in creative ways that “fold back” into
the Dao (to appropriate Merleau-Ponty’s language), but also in destructive
ways that usher in disequilibrium and mark abrupt departures from the
harmonious way of the Dao (of course, even this disharmony experienced
by human beings becomes part of the ultimate harmony of the Dao which
treats human beings as “straw dogs destined for sacrifice”). The Daodejing
begins by highlighting the paradoxical nature of language and cautioning us
to always speak carefully and tentatively. It throws into question the action
of naming while at the same time affirming its importance and vitality:
Way-making that can be put into words is not really way-making, and
naming that can assign fixed reference to things is not really naming. The
nameless is the beginning of Heaven and Earth, the named is the mother
of the ten thousand things.67
There are several ways of interpreting this passage. On the one hand,
words cannot possibly capture the eternal Dao (changdao 常道), and are but
a pale and also misguided imitation of it. Yet, it can also be read in a very
different, albeit unconventional way if chang is assumed to mean regular or
common rather than eternal: “The Dao that can dao is not the common
Dao, the name that can name is not the regular name.” In other words, the
Dao that is capable of Dao-ing is not regular because it is continuously
adaptive and flexible.68 The naming that can name is not a congealed word
but a fluid one. Naming is always also a renaming. There is a difference
between using language adaptively and using it rigidly. Nonetheless, the
name is always inadequate to the Dao, and so the only recourse one has is
to use words and subsequently undo them, thereby mimicking the ebb and
flow of the Dao in language and ensuring that words do not become too
entrenched, or sedimented. In order to approximate the stillness of the
source, one must be prepared to continually adjust. Thus movement can
become a kind of return to the openness of stillness. Sedimented language
which all too often bellows into silence, disrupting it rather than growing
out of it, obscures the harmonious movement of the Dao.
The Daodejing does not vilify speech. Naming itself is a way of
participating in the creative generation of the Dao, which is why the named
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is the mother of the ten thousand things, contributing to their creative

proliferation. This is reminiscent of Merleau-Ponty’s idea of the poetic and
expressive origins of language. A name is no mere label that re-presents
things, but rather is a transformative response to the beings of the world.
There is a kind of wild fluidity to words, which Merleau-Ponty insists is
inscribed in their poetic origins. Habit contributes to their congealment and
their poetic roots are quickly forgotten. Perhaps this is why the objectification
of the name (or the constant/repeated name) hinders the process of naming.
The term changming 常名 is interesting because it reminds us of the
deleterious impact of repetition. But even the seemingly fixed nature of
words demands a repetitive movement so that they can be preserved.
Merleau-Ponty reminds us that we cannot do without a reservoir of
sedimented language in order to be able to speak poetically. The paradoxical
oscillation between sedimentation and generation (creation) is a process
that both the text of the Daodejing and Merleau-Ponty allude to.
The emphasis on the interplay between speech and silence as a form of
creative generation also means that the Daodejing privileges the obscure
rather than the clarity of knowledge. In Merleau-Ponty the obscure takes
the form of the overwhelming openness and diversity of experience that is
above all fecund, and impels us to form our own “intentional arcs” in
response. In other words, our intentionality constitutes a reaction to the
confusion arising out of such multiplicity. In the Daodejing, obscurity blurs
boundaries between things, thereby moving closer to the undifferentiated
Dao. The Daodejing maintains that the coalescence of the named and the
nameless gives rise to the obscure, in part because the clarity of words helps
draw attention to the murkiness of the obscure. We swing continuously
between clarity and murkiness:
These two—the nameless and what is named—emerge from the same

source yet are referred to differently. Together they are called obscure, the
obscurest of the obscure. They are the swinging gateway of the manifold
of mysteries.69
The Daodejing repeatedly highlights the mystery of the cosmos, thereby

downplaying and even denigrating attempts to obtain knowledge of it.
Knowledge is primarily instrumental because it is used as a mechanism of
control, both politically and in relation to the natural world. Mystery in the
Daodejing and wonder in Merleau-Ponty are meaningful. Just as speech
without silence can become a dangerous weapon, knowledge without the
countervailing impact of mystery can also have ominous effects. Lin Ma
points out that zhi 知 as rational knowledge is thoroughly resisted in the
text. Zhi is etymologically related to speech in Chinese since it is a
juxtaposition of the radicals for arrow (shi 矢) and mouth (kou 口). Ma
points out that in many instances, shou 守 or safeguarding is the preferred
phrasing.70 She highlights one example with this usage which underscores
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the importance of safeguarding equilibrium: “Extend your utmost emptiness

as far as you can, and do your best to preserve your equilibrium” (shoujing
守靜).71
Closely connected to knowledge in the Daodejing is perceptual grasping
that can occur when the clearly demarcated “five colors” and “five flavors”
assault the senses:
The five colors blind the eye, the hard riding of the hunt addles both heart
and mind, and property hard to come by subverts proper conduct. The
five flavors destroy the palate and the five notes impair the ear. It is for
this reason that in the proper governing by the sages: They exert their
efforts on behalf of the abdomen rather than the eye, thus eschewing one
they take the other.72
In Daoist meditative practices, the abdomen is the center for focusing

one’s energies and the place of equilibrium. Energy must be continuously
returned to the abdomen in order to prevent it from leaking out of the body.
The abdomen is the physical root of stillness within the human body that
grounds the other senses and prevents them from being besieged by external
stimuli. Thus stillness is not merely an absence of speech, but rather the
cultivation of a particular kind of integrative physical energy. Thomas
Michael points out that to relinquish human socialization, one must “open
oneself up to the energies of the physical world,”73 and I would argue that
physical cultivation of stillness within the body is part of this process. The
physical cultivation of a still energy provides a powerful counterweight to
conceptual language.
Stillness in Daoism is thus a broader concept than Merleau-Ponty’s silence
because it is quieting not just of sound but of all the senses. It lightens the
load not only of speech but also of perceptual grasping, allowing for a kind
of perceptive equilibrium. Words are only one form of grasping and their
impact is never solely conceptual, since they play a pivotal role in cultivating
an anxious desire that precipitates acquisition. Once the five sounds are
categorized by language, they are more amenable to grasping. As in Merleau-
Ponty, words have a profound impact on the way in which we perceive. This
is also why too much studying makes us susceptible to the allure of constant
acquisition:
In studying there is a daily increase, while in learning of Dao there is a

daily decrease. One loses and again loses to the point where one does
everything non-coercively (wuwei 無為).74
The unavailability of the Dao to the senses suggests that there is a kind
of awareness made possible by the cognizance of their failure to reach
what we long for. Thus perceptual failure is an important part of the
awareness of the Dao:
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Looking and yet not seeing it, we thus call it elusive. Listening and yet not
hearing it, we thus call it inaudible. Groping and yet not getting it, we
thus call it intangible. Because in sight, sound and touch it is beyond
determination, we construe it as inseparably one.75
The indeterminacy of the Dao stands in contrast to the determinacy of

language:
Ever so tangled, it defies discrimination and reverts again to

indeterminacy.76
We cannot undo the impact of thinking and naming and completely

divest ourselves of our penchant for clarity. But stillness and silence help
human beings to blunt the sharper edges of thoughts and words. The
swinging gateway represents an ability to pull back, without losing sight of
the central hinge. This is a skill that is lost when we immerse ourselves
completely in the social world, at the expense of the natural world.
What makes language a socially viable tool of communication, namely
repetition and ossification, also helps to set human beings against
nature. The social use of words, which gives them stability, at the same
time disrupts their flow and eventually robs them of their meaning. This
means that from a Daoist perspective the social order is often at odds with
nature:
As soon as everyone in the world knows that the beautiful are beautiful,
there is already ugliness. As soon as everyone knows the able, there is
ineptness.77
Duality becomes opposition in a social context, when one thing is

valorized over another. Furthermore, the act of knowing itself is a social
phenomenon. Only social recognition and repetition of the name imbues
one with the “knowledge” of words. But the Daodejing never ceases to
remind us that the ensuing clarity is a delusion. This means that there must
be a periodic retreat from the social order to ensure that it does not tip into
excess. One must “know when to stop” being a social being and learn to
think with nature, rather than against it.
Connected to the balancing effect of silence is the necessary cultivation
of non-knowledge since knowledge can be seen as an excess of speech:
“Cut off learning and there will be nothing more to worry about.”78
Hierarchy, strife and competition emerge out of a naming that provides
us with knowledge since a fixed position automatically invites its opposite.
The irony is that even this conflict is part of the relentless desire to return
to the equilibrium of the center. In order to ensure that our words do not
destroy, we need silence to remind us of a primordial nature that is free
of words. Too much knowledge and study are associated with coercion and
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an excess of Yang 陽 (male, bright, strong, etc.), as compared to Yin 陰

(female, dark, supple, etc.).
Without knowing when to stop speaking, we generate conflict. Acting
non-coercively necessitates a retreat from our own language into stillness.
The reification of names is dangerous, not only because it undermines
the creative, constantly shifting flow of the cosmos, but because the ultimate
outcome of this ossification of names is war. The Daodejing puts
forward the radical idea that the overuse and veneration of language is one
of the root causes of deadly conflict. If political leaders were to acknowledge
the nameless nature of the Dao, there would be no occasion for strife (of
course the irony of this is that they would then also cease to be political
leaders):
Way making is really nameless. Although in this unworked state it is of

little consequence, no one in the world would dare to condescend to it.
Were the nobles and kings able to respect this, all things would defer of
their own accord. Heaven and Earth would come together to send down
their sweet honey, and without being so ordered, the common people
would see that it is distributed equitably.79
Recognizing the importance of namelessness goes hand-in-hand with

recognizing that knowledge is a threat to the security of the state:
Those of ancient times who engaged in way-making (Dao) did not use it to
edify the common people, but rather to keep them foolish. What makes it
difficult to bring proper order to the people is that they already know too
much. Thus to use knowledge in governing the state is to be a bane to that
state. To use a lack of knowledge in governing the state is to be its benefactor.80
This is not a plea to render people ignorant, although the wording of the
passage may suggest that this is indeed the case. In comparison to the masses
who are enamored with their own knowledge, the person who realizes the
unknowable nature of the Dao seems dumb and is also thrust to the social
periphery. The wisdom of stillness always makes one an outsider. The masses
think they see because they can scale the heights to survey the surroundings
(this is reminiscent of Merleau-Ponty’s critique of knowledge as survoler or
surveying from above):
Most people are happy, happy as though feasting at the tailao banquet
or climbing some sightseeing tower in the springtime. I alone am so
impassive, revealing nothing at all, like a babe that has yet to smile. So
listless, as though nowhere to go . . . The common lot see things so clearly,
while I alone seem to be in the dark. The common lot are so discriminating,
while I alone am so obtuse. So vague and hazy, like the rolling seas; so
indeterminate, as though virtually endless.81
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The wisdom of the sage who cultivates an appreciation for the murkiness
of the Dao and retreats into silence appears stupid in relation to the babbling
crowd. It is natural for the sage to “speak only rarely” (xiyan ziran 希言自
然).82 When words are used to excess, they resemble the “violent winds”
which “do not last a whole morning.”83 Silence represents a refusal to see the
world through one’s communicative tools alone, but in doing so, one is
forced into the position of the outsider. In a world overrun with texts and
words, such a person is scorned and mocked for her/his rejection of
instrumentalism. A non-instrumental stance is open, adaptive, purposeless,
and useless in world that prioritizes success and achievement:
What is truest seems crooked; what is most skillful seems bungling. What
is most prosperous seems wanting; what is most eloquent seems halting.
Staying active beats the cold; keeping still beats the heat. Purity and
stillness can bring proper order to the world.84
While the importance of silence in order to procure political peace is

underscored in the Daodejing, and the text has a tone that is decidedly anti-
militaristic, it also raises the possibility that social order and silence are
perpetually incompatible and will always remain in tension. We do not have
to look far to recognize that the silent leader is an oxymoron. The silent do
not wish to lead. While purity and stillness bring harmony to the world, social
order may always exclude harmony. Thus while the text tries to find a means
of bringing politics into alignment with the silent Dao, it at the same time
recognizes the impossibility of doing so. It is perhaps no coincidence that the
optimistic tone of Merleau-Ponty’s text is achieved only by avoiding a
discussion of politics. The Daodejing, in contrast, does not avoid this topic
and also suggests that the harmony of the Dao may not be something that can
ever be fully experienced by social human beings. In this sense, silence could
also constitute a recognition that social harmony can never be completely
aligned with the harmony of the Dao. But this misalignment also precipitates
the desire for return to the Dao.
4. Conclusion
The cultivation of the relationship between speech and silence according to
both the Daodejing and Merleau-Ponty is necessary to revive the poetic and
creative use of language. It signifies an overture or openness to the world
that imbues us with a sense of meaning. Mystery and obscurity generate a
kind of desire that assists the closure of knowledge. An overemphasis on
knowledge risks changing the world into something that can be ordered and
controlled, which is why it must be continuously undone. The child, who
greets the world with wonder, is not suffocated by the idea that life has no
purpose, because it is intuitively preoccupied with its exploration. Meaning
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in both texts is purposeless and silent. There is no need to endow it with

words.
Undoubtedly, language can play a role in this exploratory and creative
openness, but only if it also makes room for silence. According to Merleau-
Ponty, silence is not a void, or nothingness, but rather a retreat from speech
in order to fully engage one’s other senses, unencumbered by the conceptual
categories that can limit them. In the Daodejing it is necessary to attune
oneself to the movement and rhythm of the Dao. When we become too
engrossed with our own words, then knowledge is easily mistaken for
the way things are. We need silence to remind us of perceptual ambiguity
and obscurity. For example, speech can impel us to forget that the
“discrete” things that are constructed by our minds do not exist, since
the ten thousand things flow into each other, continuously changing their
shapes. By cultivating silence, which has no boundaries, we can learn
to be comfortable with the murky and flowing nature of existence. The
Daodejing goes further than Merleau-Ponty in underscoring the importance
of silence, because there is a cosmological imperative to return to an
undifferentiated oneness that is the hinge upon which all the multifarious
things of the world converge. Thus stillness, which is also a physical
motion, constitutes a return to this root while at the same time making
us attentive to the particularity of each moment. Only in silence, which is
fundamentally non-differentiated, can we see the irreducibility of all beings
to language. Paradoxes have their home in silence. A complete immersion in
the world of speech, or to put it in Merleau-Ponty’s terms, an invisible world
that attempts to deny its roots in the visible, blinds us to nuance and
movement.
Furthermore, silence reminds us of the overly instrumental tendencies of
an ossified language. Merleau-Ponty’s chiasm points out that subjectivity is
an illusion since we not only perceive but are perceived: perception is not
a method of surveying the world from above, but rather is a connection
between things. Once we recognize this, we can begin to act without
intention, as the Daodejing points out, because we do not know where these
connections might lead us. The undifferentiated Dao at the root of things
makes possible a radical openness, which in Merleau-Ponty is referred to as
“wild being.” Meaning comes out of cultivating this openness in the face of
which we are all ignorant, as the Daodejing points out. Thus we must openly
cultivate our ignorance, not just our knowledge. Clichés irk us because
we know them too well and they become meaningless with overuse. An
instrumental language turns everything into an object that can be easily
grasped but such grasping also forecloses the open potential of being that
allows interconnection. According to both Merleau-Ponty and the Daodejing,
it is this interconnection, unpredictable, sometimes wild, and sometimes
murky, that makes our existence meaningful. In a social environment that
favors unceasing hyperactive babble, the reminder to keep still is a message
that should not be ignored.
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Notes
1 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Phenomenology of Perception (London: Routledge
& Kegan Paul, 1979), ix.
2 Ibid., xvii.
3 Ibid., 5.
4 Reneau Barbaras maintains that Merleau-Ponty never abandons the dualist
vocabulary that marks the split between realism and intellectualism, and
maintains that the body becomes a site of mediation between the two
conflicting strains: “Realism and intellectualism are not so much overcome as
pushed to the side, with the result finally that the double negation tends to turn
itself into a double affirmation. Far from giving way to a radical reevaluation
of the concepts of objective philosophy, the description is actualized in
terminology that is simultaneously realist and intellectualist.” Reneau Barbaras,
The Being of the Phenomenon: Merleau-Ponty’s Ontology (Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1991), 6. However, I would argue that the word sens
is a word that bridges the gap between intellectualism and realism because it is
the physical connection to reality, which is also always incomplete and partial,
that precipitates the conscious quest for meaning.
5 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, The Visible and the Invisible (Evanston: Northwestern
6 Merleau-Ponty, Phenomenology of Perception, 4.
7 Lawrence Hass, Merleau-Ponty’s Philosophy (Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 2008), 33.
9 Ibid., 61.
10 Ibid., 215.
11 M.C. Dillon, Merleau-Ponty’s Ontology (Chicago: Northwestern University
Press, 1997), 56.
12 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Signs (Evanston: Northwestern University Press,
1964), 58–9.
14 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, The Primacy of Perception: and Other Essays on
Phenomenological Psychology, The Philosophy of Art, History and Politics
(Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964), 290.
16 Ibid., 67.
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid., 71.
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid.
22 Merleau-Ponty, Signs, 16.
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23 Merleau-Ponty, The Visible and the Invisible, 12.

25 Ibid., ix.
26 Ibid., xi.
27 Ibid., ix.
29 Ibid.
30 Ibid., 39.
31 Merleau-Ponty, Phenomenology of Perception, xiii.
32 Ibid., 5.
33 Ibid., 241.
34 Paul Valéry, Collected Works of Paul Valéry (Princeton: Princeton Legacy
Library, 2016), vol. 1: 272.
36 Ibid.
38 Ibid., 196.
39 Ibid., 186.
40 Ibid., 187.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid., 194.
43 Zhuangzi, The Complete Works of Zhuangzi, Burton Watson (trans.)
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2013), chapter 2.
46 Mauro Carbone maintains that Merleau-Ponty is engaging in a kind of
“a-philosophy” in The Visible and the Invisible because he attempts to find a
language that goes beyond philosophy since the “philosophical formulation
tends radically to betray the polymorphism of being.” He contrasts this with
Hegelian philosophical language intent upon insisting that the absolute is the
“identity of identity and non-identity,” an identity which can only occur in
thought. Philosophy, in Carbone’s view, maintains the superiority of the
reflected world. Mauro Carbon, The Thinking of the Sensible: Merleau-Ponty’s
A-Philosophy (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2004), 36.
47 Merleau-Ponty, The Invisible and the Invisible, 133.
48 Ibid., 142.
49 Ibid., 146.
50 Zhuangzi, The Complete Works, chapter 2.
51 Merleau-Ponty, The Invisible and the Invisible, 132.
52 Ibid.
53 Ibid.
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54 Ibid., 136.
55 Ibid., 150.
56 Ibid., 126.
57 Ibid., 127.
58 Glen Mazis notes that Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy of perception undercuts all
sorts of dualisms including the dualisms of “ideality and materiality, necessity
and contingency and empiricism and idealism” and espouses a “felt solidarity”
with the world. He uses the term “imaginal” to describe the world between
silence and speech. Glen Mazis, Merleau-Ponty and the Face of the World:
Silence, Ethics, Imagination and Poetic Ontology (Albany: State University of
New York Press, 2016), xiii–xiv.
59 Mazis, Merleau-Ponty, 121.
60 Laozi, Daodejing: A Philosophical Translation, Roger Ames (trans.)
(New York: Ballantine Books, 2004), chapter 25.
61 Ibid.
63 Thomas Michael, The Pristine Dao: Metaphysics in Early Daoist Discourse
(Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005), 4–5.
65 Curie Virag, The Emotions in Early Chinese Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford
66 Hans-Georg Moeller, The Philosophy of the Daodejing (New York: Columbia
68 Most commentaries interpret changdao to mean the eternal Dao. For example,
Wang Bi notes that: “The Way that can be spoken about is not the eternal Dao,
since the eternal cannot be spoken about and named.” See Rudolf Wagner, A
Chinese Reading of the Daodejing: Wang Bi’s Commentary on the Laozi with
Critical Text and Translation (Albany: State University of New York Press,
2003), 121.
70 Lin Ma, “Levinas and the Daodejing on the Feminine: Intercultural
Reflections,” Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 39.S1 (2012): 165.
73 Thomas Michael, In the Shadows of the Dao: Laozi, the Sage and the
Daodejing (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2015), 11.
76 Ibid.
36138.indb 269 03/09/2019 11:16


83 Ibid.
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University Press.
Wagner, Rudolf. (2003), A Chinese Reading of the Daodejing: Wang Bi’s
Commentary on the Laozi with Critical Text and Translation, Albany: State
Zhuangzi. (2013), The Complete Works of Zhuangzi, Burton Watson (trans.), New
York: Columbia University Press.
Zhuangzi. (1998), Zhuangzi Reader 莊子讀本, Taipei: Sanmin Shuju.
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36138.indb 272 03/09/2019 11:16
PART FOUR
A Most Urgent
Encounter:
Re-Rooting Our
Futural Selves
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12
Grounding Phenomenology in
Laozi’s Daodejing:
The Anthropocene, the

Fourfold, and the Sage
Martin Schönfeld
Phenomenology faces uncertain prospects, not only in the arts and the
humanities, but also in relation to the wider spectrum of research programs.
Is there a path from its great past to an even greater future? I believe there
is—but with the caveat that taking this path would come with two conditions.
First, it would require phenomenology to embrace a foundational outlook
based on positivism rather than relativism, on objectivity rather than
subjectivity, and on realism rather than anti-realism. Second, it would
require an orientation toward Eastern ways of thinking, specifically toward
Daoism and the ontological model of Laozi’s Daodejing 道德經. Embracing
a realist epistemology and integrating Daoism would allow phenomenology
to consolidate its heuristic position. Such a consolidation would let it gain a
seat at the interdisciplinary table for managing the crisis of collective
existence.
In this chapter, I argue for such a future-oriented consolidation. The
argument proceeds from explaining the two conditions toward examining
“the fourfold” (das Geviert) and “the sage” (der Weise), which are neglected
concepts in Martin Heidegger’s later thought. I describe the need for the
conditions and explain how the fourfold and the sage, in a Daoist reading,
may satisfy them.
In the first section, I point to an alternative in continental philosophy.
It consists of approaches marginalized in the English-speaking world, which,
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in contrast to the skepticist leanings of postmodern heirs of phenomenology,

fit under the conceptual umbrella of dogmatic philosophy. This alternative
is better equipped to respond to the civilizational crisis than is the postmodern
mainstream. The emergence of this alternative in twentieth-century thought
shows that it is possible to think outside the box and yet do so within
the horizon of continental philosophy. The possibility of integrating this
alternative with Heidegger’s late concepts, furthermore, shows that one can
pursue a continental alternative without needing to leave phenomenology
behind. It merely requires phenomenology to renounce the leanings that
make it ill-equipped for the paradigm shift in our lifeworld.
In the second section, I describe how the paradigm shift is documented in
the sciences. The universal structure of human existence has changed, and
not for the better. At the verge of the third decade of the new millennium,
this change is also becoming increasingly hard to miss. When phenomenology
first appeared on the scene, environmental impacts were limited to local and
regional degradations of the Earth’s surface. Understandably, these events
were not in the purview of phenomenological research. Only the problem of
technology, suggested by Ernst Jünger to Heidegger, put them indirectly at
the periphery of phenomenological attention. Now, however, environmental
impacts have spread beyond the Earth’s surface to the Earth System, affecting
its functioning, impairing its integrity, and imperiling civilization.
The section on the paradigm shift adds an interdisciplinary perspective.
This puts the question of the future of phenomenology in empirical context.
The information presented there may seem obscure without an introduction.
Thus an outline beforehand may be useful. Since my argument for the Daoist
grounding of phenomenology is intended as a philosophical essay, notes
should be kept to a minimum. But since the second section is a report of
findings outside philosophy, notes are appropriate there, to document the
facts, show the credibility of the sources, and invite readers to compare my
account of the meaning of this paradigm shift with the evidence cited.
On the environmental side, our generation is witnessing the sixth mass
extinction in Earth history. This event involves not only a loss of biological
diversity but also an annihilation of biota to such an extent that it is
now manifest in the defaunation of the biosphere. In the past half century,
since 1970, the biosphere has lost 60 percent of vertebrate populations
in the Global North and 90 percent (not a misspelling) in the Global
South. Invertebrate biotas are in similarly dire straits, and for insects, at
the bottom at the food chain, and responsible for key biospherical
functions such as pollination, the situation is teetering on the verge of
catastrophe.
Climate change is intensifying this extinction event, just as defaunation
is making climate more sensitive to human forcings. Global warming has
reached the point that both icecaps are thinning; that the so-called third
pole, the Hindu Kush Himalaya region, is deglaciating; and that ocean
currents are slowing down. The polar vortex above the Arctic Circle is
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The Anthropocene, Fourfold, and Sage 277
weakening, with outflows of polar air to the lower latitudes now occurring
every winter. The increase of weather extremes, driven by the thermal energy
absorbed through elevated greenhouse gas concentrations in the climate
system, is pummeling continents and islands with storms, droughts, and
floods; with heatwaves in summer, and deep freezes in winter. As a result,
lands in temperate and tropical latitudes are becoming less productive.
On the civilizational side, the lands most vulnerable to the impacts of
climate change—in North Africa, South Asia, the Middle East, and Central
America—contain also some of the most densely populated regions on
Earth. Growing numbers of people are pushed on uncertain migrations,
with the majority being children. As rivers run dry, dust bowls grow, and
deserts spread, the carrying capacity of the affected regions shrinks. This
makes people lose their livelihoods and homes, and forces them to become
refugees, seeking shelter elsewhere. The stream of refugees is dividing the
host societies which are their destination. Thus in the Global South,
economies are being destabilized and nation-states are failing, while in the
Global North, doors are closing, walls are going up, and nation-states are
battening down the hatches. The growing disparity between haves and have-
nots polarizes collective existence, with cascading consequences. One
consequence is that the liberal order of the West is succumbing to autocratic
regimes. The havoc wreaked on the environment is now blowing back to
global civilization.
Prior to the mass extinction and climate change, civilization had impacted
nature on the surface, with land conversion and with air and water pollution.
Now, human impacts are affecting the ensemble of environmental services
and cycles, the totality of the Earth System. (An example of services is the
biological productivity of the planet; an example of cycles is the carbon
cycle that assimilates CO 2 emissions.) Civilization is dependent on the
integrity of the Earth System, and while this is a truism so trivial it hardly
merits discussion, it is worth considering that this collective existential
dependence is objective, universal, and absolute.
This is the crisis. The upheavals do not spare philosophy. The paradigm
shift in our lifeworld imposes a concordant shift on the academy. Postmodern
approaches to truth and reality are now obsolete. Relativistic, subjectivist,
and anti-realist ways of deconstructing information belong to an earlier
age. In the Anthropocene, such skepticist deconstructions are becoming
cognitive liabilities. Insisting on them, despite the crisis, also raises ethical
concerns.
The philosophical upheaval is illustrated by the precursors to the cognitive
approaches that are standard in postmodernity today. For example, with
regard to early phenomenology’s rejection of psychologism, Edmund
Husserl disavowed positivism and embraced a type of subjectivism instead.
Seen in the historical context of philosophy protecting its borders against
the sciences encroaching from all directions, Husserl’s subjectivism, at that
time, and in these circumstances, was arguably reasonable.
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A generation later, Heidegger’s choice of relativism over universalism

and his embrace of historicism against progressive alternatives were perhaps
not quite so reasonable. But Heidegger made these epistemic choices
decades before the planetary crisis would break, and thus his relativism
and historicism are features of a more innocent time. In his day, these
were philosophical positions and nothing more, without pernicious
ramifications.
But that was then. Today, phenomenologists and their allies in the
postmodern community who still take the same subjectivist-relativist line
that Husserl and Heidegger once did are risking isolation. This is epistemically
pointless and ethically irresponsible. Postmodern heirs of Husserl and
Heidegger who still declare, during this crisis of collective existence, that
objectivity is a myth, that positive evidence can be deconstructed into
narratives, that there is always another side to the facts, and that there is no
such thing as truth, make themselves into unwitting stooges of the cultural
and political forces that are pushing civilization toward the brink. This
is neither helpful nor does it represent what phenomenology should be
about.
In the third and final section, I describe what phenomenology ought
to be about instead. A future-oriented path for phenomenology in the
Anthropocene would reorient it toward scientific information by grounding
its approach in Daoism. This grounding is made concrete in a Daoist reading
of the fourfold and the sage. The motivation of this groundwork is hope. I
have faith that phenomenology can get back on track as a future-oriented
approach of continental philosophy and join the interdisciplinary project of
tackling the Earth System crisis of the Anthropocene. An effective way of
doing so, I propose, is to take one’s cue from East Asian wisdom, Daoism
especially, and Laozi’s Daodejing in particular. A Daoist turn that is geared
toward Laozi (rather than Zhuangzi 莊子 or Liezi 列子) will allow
phenomenology to embrace the needed epistemic realism in the spirit of a
well-informed ontology.
If phenomenology can find a way out of its anti-realist maze, by using a
Daoist map, then the fourfold will constitute the magnetic north, and the
sage will function as a compass needle. The fourfold is where phenomenology
will have to go, and the sage is the guide on this journey. Traversing on this
route, I contend, would empower phenomenology to roll with the punches
thrown by the Anthropocene—punches that are swung at all branches of
learning now, but that hit the humanities and philosophy harder than others.
Capable of deflecting the blows, and freed from the maze, phenomenology
could reconnect to other fields, from the arts to the sciences, in the historic
enterprise of cultivating a healthier and more mindful human identity. The
two Heideggerian concepts, in a Daoist reading, would allow phenomenology
to grow out of the subjectivist, relativist reflections that had been its past
and mature into an empathy-based, co-evolutionary doctrine of wisdom,
which is just what is needed for transitioning to an Ecological Civilization.
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1. The Continental Fork: Skeptical vs.

Dogmatic Philosophy
If we consider the arc of development of phenomenology from an
Anthropocene perspective, one cannot help noticing the gap between its
postmodern legacy and the problems that civilization is facing. Indeed, a
closer look reveals that the gap is deeper than the surface. If one peers inside,
one finds an epistemic machinery underneath, driven by subterranean
ontological assumptions, which implicates the legacy of phenomenology in
the problems today.
Philosophy has traditionally understood itself as the rational investigation
of human existence in the world. Today, this investigation has acquired an
empirical dimension. Next to the phenomenological inquiry into being-in-
the-world, there is a suite of research programs whose findings have turned
conjecture into knowledge, and which have added an aspect of certitude to
the existential problematic. This problematic consists of questions of the
origin, place, purpose, and destiny of being-in-the-world. Philosophy and
the sciences have generated a parallel series of theories and models regarding
this problematic. However, this parallel series is parallel only to an extent.
In the second half of the twentieth century, one strand of philosophy, the
postmodern legacy of phenomenology, veered off into its own direction.
In veering off from the path of science, the postmodern movement did
not part ways with analytic philosophy, but diverged from continental
philosophy instead. The postmodern divergence does not constitute a split
between continental and analytic philosophy (which already occurred in the
first half of the twentieth century), but a branching in continental philosophy
itself. This branching is also visible in the transcultural geography of thought.
Continental philosophy hails from Europe, of course, but its branches point
in different directions overseas. The postmodern branch extends from
Europe to the Anglophone hemisphere, and is being taught in countries such
as Australia, Canada, and the United States. The other branch of continental
philosophy, which does run parallel with science, has spread to the Global
South instead, and to Latin America in particular. This science-oriented
branch has utopian, earthy, and mystical aspects. It was inspired by, and
keeps drawing inspiration from, the likes of Meister Eckhart and St. Francis,
Baruch Spinoza and Immanuel Kant, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, and
from Laozi.
The Daoist inspiration is an influence both branches have in common,
but is explicit in only one of them. The branch that led from Hegel to Franz
Brentano to Husserl absorbed this influence through Heidegger. Tutored by
a visiting foreign scholar, Paul Shih-Yi Hsiao (Xiao Shiyi 蕭師毅), Heidegger
studied the Daodejing and translated parts of it. Comparative scholarship
has revealed this influence and its significance.
But this already marks the difference. In the other branch, which involves
normative humanism, existential logotherapy, Deep Ecology, and religious
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existentialism, the Daoist influence had not been a scholarly revelation. It

could not have been, because there was nothing to be revealed. The thinkers
who embraced Daoism, such as Erich Fromm, Martin Buber, and Arne
Naess, had been completely open about their indebtedness to Laozi. Martin
Buber taught a seminar on Laozi at the artists’ colony at Monte Verità in
Switzerland in the 1920s. Zhuangzi makes recurrent appearances in Buber’s
work. Erich Fromm used a quote from the Daodejing as the motto of his
work, To Have or To Be? and characterized Laozi’s role in history as one
of the first truly progressive thinkers in The Heart of Man.1 Arne Naess
incorporated Daoist ideas in his essays and was outspoken about the
“powerful premises” of Chinese philosophy.2
By contrast, Heidegger was so reticent about his Daoist inspiration
that his conduct borders on plagiarism. This prompted Graham Parkes, the
translator of a German monograph—Reinhard May’s Ex oriente lux:
Heideggers Werk unter ostasiatischem Einfluss—to render the English title
of the study, deservedly so, as Heidegger’s Hidden Sources.3 Apart from
Chinese scholars, such as Paul Hsiao, Japanese correspondents, such as
Tezuka Tomio, and German friends, such as Ernst Jünger, hardly anyone
knew about this influence, despite Heidegger’s growing fondness for Daoism
in his later life. Jünger, in particular, was amused by the old Heidegger’s
enthusiasm for Laozi, such as by the quirk that the aging philosopher kept
mailing German copies of the Daodejing to friends as a gift. But as May
and others have shown, this private enthusiasm is in contrast to his public
reticence, which made Heidegger credit Western sources, but not non-
Western ones, even though Ellen Chan’s interpretive analysis4 and Lin Ma’s
archival work5 show how deep Laozi’s influence runs in his later thought.
The Daoist influence on the writings of Buber, Fromm, and Naess is
obvious, and they, unlike Heidegger, credit their sources. These thinkers
represent some of the alternatives to postmodernity—Buber, with his
religious philosophy based on Judaism; Fromm, with his normative
humanism; and Naess, with his Deep Ecology. Another representative is
Victor Frankl, with his existentialist logotherapy. On the non-secular side
of the continental alternative there is the religious philosophy based on
Christianity. It has flourished in Latin America in the clerical framework of
the Roman Catholic Church. This overseas branch of continental philosophy
fused with indigenous traditions and converged with Marxism. The
Catholic-indigenous synthesis gave the Marxist critique of the political
economy a spiritual direction. This critique is tied to solidarity and societal
evolution, and it culminated in liberation theology.
Liberation theology is a collective project of philosopher-priests such as
Ernesto Cardenal of Nicaragua, Leonardo Boff of Brazil, Gustavo Gutiérrez
of Peru, Juan Luis Segundo of Uruguay, and Jorge Mario Bergoglio of
Argentina, who was elected in 2013 as Pope Francis I. A distinguishing
feature of liberation theology, vis-à-vis postmodernity, is its simple acceptance
of science, both over its findings and its epistemology. This difference is not
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without irony, since postmodernity is secular, while liberation theology is

based on faith. But over science, postmodernity bears closer resemblance
to evangelical Protestant Christianity, because both evangelicals and
postmoderns harbor misgivings over scientific propositions. Both doubt the
validity of the scientific Standard Model, which constitutes the peer-reviewed
understanding of the natural universe, of Earth’s place in the natural
universe, and of the human place on Earth. Especially worrisome to
evangelicals and postmoderns are the conceptual implications of evolution.
Evangelical Protestant Christians are troubled by the idea of an animal
pedigree of humankind, and thus by the notion of biological evolution.
Postmodern philosophers tend to be troubled by the idea of a civilizational
ranking of societies, since they lean toward cultural relativism, and thus
harbor misgivings about the notion of societal evolution.
By contrast, liberation theologians do not see any conflict between the
Christian Bible and evolutionary biology, and neither are they troubled by
the notion of societal evolution. On the contrary, being progressives, societal
evolution is their ethical and political desideratum. Marxist doctrines of
Dialectical and Historical Materialism put evolutionary biology in a
larger metaphysical narrative. Dialectical Materialism anticipates the self-
organization of matter, which is studied in cosmology and physics, the
emergence of complexity, which is studied in chemistry, and the progression
of life from cells to organisms studied in paleontology and biology. Many of
the conjectures of Dialectical Materialism are now building blocks of the
Standard Model. Historical Materialism has remained more conjectural
to date, and unlike Dialectical Materialism, it is also normative. Historical
Materialism extends the evolutionary idea to culture and conceptualizes
progress as a political and cultural aspiration of societies. Regardless of
what one wants to make of this in detail, significant is the attempt of the
faithful to resolve a potential conflict with science by offering a creative
solution: science tells us that there is evolution in nature, and philosophers
and theologians, seconding this, add a friendly amendment: there is and
there ought to be evolution in collective human existence as well.
This philosophical harmony with science is also visible in the other,
Jewish, branch of religious philosophy. In Buber’s case, it is already illustrated
in his biography: when he fled from the Nazis, he settled in Palestine and
resumed teaching—in a science department. The religious philosopher
henceforth taught as a professor of anthropology.
The harmony characterizes the secular strand of the continental
alternative as well. Relevant for Fromm’s work in normative humanism
were the social sciences, such as anthropology, the medical sciences, such as
psychology, and the environmental sciences, which inform his blueprint of
a human evolution toward sustainability. Frankl’s work in logotherapy
relates to clinical psychiatry and is generally a reflection on the medical
sciences. Naess’s work in Deep Ecology is oriented on the eponymous
science. Naess is careful to emphasize that Deep Ecology is not reducible to
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the findings of ecology, since Deep Ecology performs a creative and

constructive step beyond the environmental sciences. At the same time, the
performance of this step is yet another illustration of the philosophical
aspiration to harmony with the science.
As different as the secular and religious variants of the continental
alternative are, they have one formal feature in common. In Kantian terms,
one could say they represent the dogmatic type of philosophy. In the final
paragraph of his magnum opus, Critique of Pure Reason, under the rubric,
“the scientific method,” Kant writes that there are many ways of doing
philosophy, but all of them require the need for “systematicity,” by which he
means that philosophical theories, like scientific ones, must be internally
coherent (be non-contradictory) and externally consistent (be in agreement
with the facts). The range of philosophies that conform to the scientific
method, so understood, is defined by “dogmatism” at one end and by
“skepticism” at another. Dogmatism is the affirmation of information;
skepticism is its negation. Kant’s example for dogmatism is Christian Wolff,
and his example for skepticism is David Hume. Answers to the deep
questions that occupy the human mind, Kant concludes, are within reach
provided philosophy stays between the limits. The middle path between
dogmatism and skepticism that Kant prefers and which, as he contends, is
the one still open, is the “critical path.” Thus there is a range of inquiry, its
limits are dogma and doubt, and in between is critique.
From a Kantian point of view, the continental alternative consists of
versions of the critical path that run closer to the dogmatic boundary of
reason. They are dogmatic in their affirmation of scientific knowledge.
Fromm, Frankl, Naess, Buber, and Francis, by this definition, are dogmatists,
because they take the results of scientific peer-review at face value. For them,
scientific findings are facts, without qualification. They trust in scientific
expertise in a fundamentally respectful way. This is not only illustrated
in the aspirational harmony just described, but also in specific reactions
to scientific progressions, as in the transformation of the Roman Catholic
Church under Pope Francis I with regard to climate change. After the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of the United Nations
issued the Fifth Assessment Report on the state of the world’s climate in
2013 with the updated volume on the physical science basis, and in 2014,
with the updated volumes on vulnerability and mitigation, the pontiff
responded in 2015 by issuing the encyclical Laudate Si—an admonition to
the faithful that time on stabilizing the climate is running out, an exhortation
that environmentalism is a sacred duty, and an exegetical assertion that
stewardship theology is the correct reading of the role of humans in God’s
creation. This is dogmatic: scientific findings are regarded as facts. And it is
philosophy: these facts ground a reflection that opens new vistas.
In sum, dogmatic thinkers do not regard scientific findings as constituting
problems or raising questions, or to serve as foils for critical reflection. For
dogmatic thinkers, science has the truth of it. Science is the basis, and the
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purpose of philosophy is to advance conjectures upon and beyond this

foundation. For Laudate Si, climatology is the basis, and the ensuing
reflection leads to the creation of something new: the appropriation of
stewardship ethics in Catholic theology. In hindsight, Kant’s dogmatic
exemplar, Christian Wolff, was a good choice in more ways than one.
Chinese philosophy gave Wolff the idea of societal progress congruent with
natural evolution, and the dialectical and historical doctrines that Marx
and Engels constructed one and a half centuries later go back to Wolff’s
evolutionary conjecture.
As soon as one conceptualizes the continental alternatives as dogmatic
and defines dogmatism as thinking in harmony with scientific findings, the
therapeutic aspect comes into view. Dogmatic thinkers conceptualize the love
of wisdom as an insight-driven endeavor, which proceeds from the assumption
that wisdom is in human reach, and that grasping it will make an existential
difference for the better. The meaning of “better,” in the therapeutic variants,
is oriented on medicine. It concerns the poles of the human condition, sickness
and health. Logotherapy, for example, aims to heal damaged souls and
broken spirits. It shares with psychotherapy and clinical psychiatry the
therapeutic goal of mental health, but it differs from these medical sciences—
and thus remains philosophy—in that its conception of this goal is not
reducible to mental health in a narrow medical sense. Instead, its goal is
a holistic concept, in a broader spiritual sense, which involves also an
existentialist dimension, thus warranting the use of metaphorical language
on souls and spirits.
The impetus for logotherapy was the therapeutic practice of suicide
prevention. In its later iterations, logotherapy concerned trauma management
in the context of boundary situations of human existence, such as the
exposure to genocide and the capacity of survivors to return to normalcy.
Obviously, such exposure is traumatic also in the emotional sense in that it
leaves survivors profoundly sad if not despairing. Clinical psychiatry treats
such sadness, under the rubric of depression, as a medical condition internal
to the patient, stipulated to have physiological or neurological reasons.
As such a condition, it can be treated pharmaceutically, and it ought to be
cured. Logotherapy, by contrast, targets the type of sadness or depression
that is not a medical condition per se, because their presence is arguably a
sign of mental health. A survivor who lost her family to genocide and who
has not lost her mind should be sad; her depression is not an effect of an
internal disorder but a sane response to an external cataclysm.
The existentialist dimension of logotherapy runs parallel to science
without being reducible to it. It taps into the universal experience that
existence involves luck; that bad things can happen to good people, and no
higher meaning can be found for the randomness of evil. Logotherapy
responds to this experience with a quasi-proletarian call to work. Meaning
is not something dropped in one’s lap by the grace of a higher power. Instead,
meaning is a sense that one creates and gives to life. These acts of creating
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and giving are done freely and energetically; they are not one-time gestures
but a continuous, daily toil. They are activity understood as hard labor. This
activity of giving sense to life (dem Leben einen Sinn geben) requires wisdom
and courage, as well as wit and stamina. The sense-giving serves survival,
well-being, and flourishing. As such, this creation of meaning is subservient
to an existential universal.
The integration of dogmatism with therapy reveals a pattern. Logotherapy
appeals to wisdom in harmony with science for helping people put their
lives back together. Normative humanism appeals to wisdom in harmony
with science for realizing a sane society, as Fromm puts it. Liberation
theology appeals to wisdom and faith, while accepting the findings of science
as positive data, for curing civilization from the disease of social inequality,
for mending the rift between the haves and the have-nots. Deep Ecology,
finally, appeals to wisdom, inspired by science, for mending the rift between
humans and nature caused by economic expansion and population growth.
The goal of logotherapy is spiritual health; the goal of normative humanism
is a sane society; the goal of liberation theology is a compassionate if not
communist social compact, and the goal of Deep Ecology is a sustainable
interface of civilization with the Earth System. In each case, the framework
of reality is science; the philosophical means is wisdom, and the therapeutic
goal is existential flourishing.
The final aspect of dogmatic-therapeutic philosophies is their progressive
character. Progressiveness is implicit in the therapeutic dimension, because
therapy involves a teleological trajectory, which starts at a given existential
or societal situation and ends in the realization of an optimal potential of
that existence or society. The trajectory from actuality to potentiality is
progressive. This progression is both a movement going forward, from an
earlier to a later point, and a movement upward, from a lower level or a
worse situation, to a higher level, a better situation.
While the vector of progress in logotherapy is closely aligned with the
meaning of progress in medicine, its vector in the other branches it is more
aligned with is the meaning of progress in politics, which, by definition, is a
leftist concept. Liberation theology, normative humanism, and Deep Ecology
are all committed to the thesis of an upwards development in history. While
Buber’s Jewish thought may seem to have little to do with this vector, once
more his biography is illustrative: Buber was not only a Talmud scholar but
also a card-carrying socialist, and therefore a progressive par excellence. In
the context of justice and rights, this upward development is the evolution
from the slaveholder feudalisms of antiquity to the liberal democracies of
modernity. In the context of welfare and security, this upwards development
is the evolution from market-liberal societies with high levels of inequality
to social democratic or socialist societies with low levels of inequality. In
the context of sustainability and humaneness, it is the evolution from
growth-based capitalistic economies to steady-state ecological economies.
As mentioned, the idea of such progressive-evolutionary trajectories grew
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out of Wolff’s reading of the Confucian classics during the early German
Enlightenment. Later it was expanded to the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of
Historical Materialism. Its contemporary scientific analog is given by various
quantitative metrics, such as the Human Development Index (HDI) used by
the United Nations Development Program, which measures the height of
societal development of nation-states with gauges such as infant mortality,
life expectancy, gender equality, years of schooling, and average standard of
living differentiated by wealth distribution to adjust for levels of inequality.
Another such metric is the Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) to measure
the level of social evolution by qualifying the capitalistic yardstick of Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) with criteria such as unpaid labor, community
service, environmental integrity, and carbon footprint. HDI and GPI are
indices of upward trajectories of existence that are quantifiable rankings of
life quality.
The therapeutic and progressive aspects of the dogmatic alternative make
the postmodern legacy of phenomenology appear as a conservative and
libertarian indulgence. The postmodern branch of continental philosophy,
which has been so much better received in the Anglophone Far West than
the dogmatic alternatives just described, comprises the liberal approaches
whose shared pedigree is phenomenology, in the guise of Heidegger, and
which is represented by his students, such as Hans-Georg Gadamer, and his
readers, such as Jacques Derrida and Richard Rorty.
Unlike the parallel series of science and philosophy instantiated by
analytic thought and by the dogmatic strand of continental thought,
postmodernity struck out in its own direction, with theories that have little
to do with science and that are often at cross-purposes with its results. In the
liberal democracies, this departure from science makes postmodernity
converge with political conservativism. This convergence is not coincidental,
because postmodernity shares with political conservativism an emphasis
on liberty. Whereas dogmatic philosophers operate within self-imposed
constraints of reasoning, postmodern philosophers do not. Dogmatic
philosophers constrain their reflection by affirming an interdisciplinary
basis of knowledge that is external to them, and by embracing a therapeutic
goal that serves as a condition of the value of information. While dogmatic
philosophers pursue insight-driven endeavors, postmodern philosophers
pursue purely heuristic goals with problem-driven endeavors. Dogmatic
philosophers strive for a synthesis of information, by connecting the dots in
a rational matrix of knowledge and wisdom. Postmodern philosophers, by
contrast, strive for an analysis of information, by separating the dots, in
a process of deconstruction, which leaves one with an uncertain web of
perspectives and narratives.
The postmodern legacy of phenomenology stands in diametrical
opposition to the dogmatic philosophies laid out above. In Kantian terms,
one could say that postmodernity exemplifies skeptical philosophy.
Postmodernity is skeptical in assuming a fundamentally negative stance
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toward established knowledge. Postmodern skeptics take the information

produced by scientific peer-review not at face value. They do not trust in
expertise, and they are suspicious of claims to objectivity and rationality.
Like political conservatives, postmodern skeptics suspect that such claims
are overblown. Political conservatives dismiss the credibility of science
through allegations of fraud and corruption (such that climatologists
perpetuate the “myth” of global warming in order to “get rich”), but
postmodern skeptics dismiss it for more considered and technical reasons:
science involves representing and intervening, as Ian Hacking puts it; science
is merely a model, as Bas Van Fraassen puts it; and scientific revolutions
involve irrational arbitrariness at the very cusp of a paradigm change, as
Thomas S. Kuhn puts it. Or, as Bruno Latour, the postmodern disciple of
Van Fraassen, sees it: science is merely the attempt at modeling reality and
therefore, at best, a simulacrum of reality, but not reality itself. Add to this
the long-standing postmodern concern that the scientific community is
disproportionately made up of one gender, one class, and one ethnicity, and
this simulacrum of reality becomes a fun house mirror, whose reflection is
warped by gender-bias and other types of prejudice. Lacking diversity in its
community of workers, the community’s findings are therefore lacking
in diversity, too. When scientists unanimously agree on one monolithic
consensus (as over climate change, sustainability, or planetary boundaries),
then such mostly male, middle-class, white agreement must surely harbor
hidden complexities. For postmodern skeptics, science is only one side of
a more complicated story. Only naïve minds—dogmatic thinkers—would be
foolish enough to believe in truth and take science by its peer-reviewed
word. From a postmodern viewpoint, science is not a simple foundation but
a sophisticated challenge instead.
Another difference between dogmatic and skeptical philosophy obtains
over wisdom. For postmodern philosophers, wisdom is not within reach,
and even the greatest exponent of skeptical philosophy, Socrates, was only
in love with wisdom without possessing it, merely knowing that he knew
nothing. In the postmodern variant of continental philosophy, the love of
wisdom is problem-driven, not insight-driven, and it proceeds from the
assumption of the Greek sophists of antiquity that wisdom dissolves into
contingency, irony, and, perhaps, also in the solidarity of shared ironic
contingencies, as Rorty would have it.
In line with the skepticism and conservativism of postmodern thought,
there is also no conception of a genuine progression in the development of
cultures. From a postmodern point of view, all cultures deserve respect,
and pluralism in the context of tolerance is the shared desideratum. There
is accordingly no such thing as a “primitive” culture; older cultures are
simply different from modern ones. Hence, there is no “superior” or
“inferior” in the postmodern framework. Over its rejection of progressivism,
the postmodern heirs of phenomenology remain faithful to Heidegger’s
historicism. Heidegger maintained (without a shred of evidence, it must be
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said) that different cultures, representing distinct metaphysical epochs,

are inherently incommensurate with one another. It is impossible to make
comparisons among them, and each needs to be regarded and appreciated in
its isolated uniqueness.
Thus a progressive development, from a lower state to a higher state,
with the presupposition that there are universal tools for gauging existence
across cultures, is anathema to historicism. This stands in evident contrast
to dogmatic variants of continental philosophy, and it results in a nice
comparative symmetry: dogmatic philosophers and their scientific peers
proceed from the hypothesis that collective existence, whether as societies or
as epochs, is defined by material parameters: for example, by the likelihood
of infants surviving birth, by the length of average life expectancy, or by the
statistical distribution of wealth and access to education, health care, and
legal representation. The hierarchical ranking of cultures is determined by
how they measure up over life span, equality, literacy, health, and justice.
Dogmatic philosophers and their scientific peers operate in a materialistic
framework. Skepticist philosophers, by contrast, dismiss the earthy criteria
and operate in an idealistic framework.
The idealistic framework of historicism rules out the possibility of an
upward trajectory of civil evolution. This points to the final difference of
postmodern skepticism. Unlike dogmatic philosophy, there is no therapeutic
goal to postmodern thought. Its goal is entirely critical, deconstructive,
and context-dependent. Different answers work for different identities, and
“better” and “worse” are reducible to context. Instead of the fixed poles of
the human condition, sickness and health, and birth and death, postmodern
philosophy is interested in the infinite variety of existential identities between.
Whatever is better for one set of identities is not necessarily better for another.
For postmodern skeptics, the meaning of “better” is irredeemably contextual
and subjective. To the extent it is grounded at all, it would be grounded in art.
2. The Dogmatic Turn of the Academy:

Enter the Anthropocene
In the scientific series of answers to the question of human existence in the
world, we find a growing concern about the increasingly fraught relationship
to the natural environment over the past sixty years. This concern started as
a worry about human impacts on the natural environment, and evolved into
a worry about the blowback of these impacts on humankind. The latest
iteration in this series of answers is that the worry has turned into a
prediction, and the prediction is turning into observations. The blowback is
now happening, and it is jeopardizing our common future.
For the purposes of a Daoist grounding of future-oriented phenomenology,
the parting of the ways in continental philosophy is therefore not an innocent
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split. Or rather, it would have been, had the postwar trajectory of civilization
continued indefinitely. In a cultural framework of ever more liberties, ever
larger prosperity, and ever greater diversity, one can celebrate postmodernity’s
libertarian aspirations. As long as the framework keeps expanding, there is
no need to tie philosophical inquiry to anything but freedom. Equality will
eventually take care of itself; justice is a natural consequence of free markets;
and solidarity is not needed in times of plenty. Science is nothing but the
competition; it needs to be bested before it bests the arts. The problems of
the postmodern heirs of phenomenology identified in the first section would
never have come into being if this libertarian dream of the “end of history”
culminating in free markets and free people had come to fruition. But since
the hope for never-ending human and economic growth was dashed
by planetary boundaries such as that of the carbon cycle, the continued
libertarian aspirations of postmodernity have turned out to be liabilities.
The answers produced by science have registered the steady deterioration
of the human–nature relationship as the decades went by. A first wave of
findings, in the 1960s, showed that some species were endangered, some
wilderness areas were at risk of destruction, and some regions experienced
degradation. All of this seemed to be problems for experts, which could be
addressed with better technologies and policies. A second wave, in the
1970s, challenged the hope that this is an expert problem without larger
significance for the public. This wave concerned findings of the overshoot of
human demand on planetary bioproductivity and environmental services.
A third wave of findings, in the 1980s, drove home the message that the
overshoot is gaining in existential significance because it caused climate
change through the human-induced overshoot of the assimilative capacity
of the global carbon cycle.
There was not really a fourth wave of findings after the turn of the
new millennium. Instead, the three waves, of regional issues, of a general
overshoot, and of global consequences, are now surging ever higher. In the
new millennium, the first wave, of biodiversity loss, escalated into the sixth
great mass extinction in Earth history. The hemorrhaging of biological
diversity has fused with the decimation of common biota to result in an
unfolding defaunation of such magnitude that field workers describe it as
“biological annihilation.”6
The second wave, ecological overshoot, has escalated into a conflict
between civilization and the biosphere of such intensity that it has made the
prevailing growth-based model of market economies unsustainable. The
overshoot began in the 1970s when annual human demand on natural
supply crossed the maximum annual productivity of the biosphere and the
maximum annual capacity of environmental services. Since then, this
overshoot has widened. At present, global civilization operates as if it had
nearly two planet Earths at its disposal.
By crossing the sustainable yield threshold of service capacity, humankind
has altered the quality of its interaction with the Earth System. Before the
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overshoot, human demand on planetary supply was analogous to consuming

the interest accrued by capital stock. Now, in the overshoot, demand on
supply is akin to dipping into the stock itself. This reduces the principal and
proportionately diminishes interest earnings. When demand exceeds supply,
the relationship of human consumers to natural producers grows unstable
similar to that of a person who lives off interest earned by savings in the
bank, and whose cash withdrawals, year after year, exceed the interest
earned, dipping ever deeper into the savings instead. This shrinks the
principal on whose presence the person’s existence depends. Since the
demands remain constant, and since the principal is shrinking, the demands
take away ever larger portions of the supply, first slowly, and then swiftly,
until supply is gone.
Annual withdrawals in excess of interest earnings can be rational for a
person whose unsustainable demand on supply lasts for her lifetime, and
who can expect to die before her savings are used up. But rational behavior
for senior citizens is not rational behavior for a civilization whose structure
is intergenerational. Young adults, children, and infants will be left with a
depleted planet and a destabilized Earth System.
That humans transform their environment is not new; it is as old as
civilization. New is that the present-day transformation is unprecedented
in its rate and magnitude.7 New is also a qualitative shift: in the past, the
environmental transformation involved changes to the biosphere, but now
it involves “changes in the structure or functioning of the Earth System.”8
It is hard to overestimate the implications. The 2019 Global Risk Report
of the World Economic Forum (WEF) begins with the question: “Is the
world sleepwalking into a crisis? Global risks are intensifying but the
collective will to tackle them appears to be lacking. Instead, divisions are
hardening.”9 The WEF parses the implications as follows:
Environmental risks continue to dominate the results of our annual

Global Risks Perception Survey . . . This year, they accounted for three of
the top five risks by likelihood and four by impact. Extreme weather was
the risk of greatest concern, but our survey respondents are increasingly
worried about environmental policy failure: having fallen in the rankings
after Paris, “failure of climate-change mitigation and adaptation” jumped
back to number two in terms of impact this year. The results of climate
inaction are becoming increasingly clear. The accelerating pace of
biodiversity loss is a particular concern. Species abundance is down by 60
percent since 1970. In the human food chain, biodiversity loss is affecting
health and socioeconomic development, with implications for well-being,
productivity, and even regional security.10
The risks of greatest concern—extreme weather, climate change, and

biodiversity loss—are entangled symptoms of the human impact on the
Earth System. The unprecedented rate and magnitude of this transformation
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is visible in the human footprint on the terrestrial surface. By the most recent
estimate, based on data up to 2018, and released in 2019, “just 5 percent of
Earth’s landscape remains untouched.”11 By the most comprehensive
previous estimate, in 2016, and based on data up to 2015, 19 percent
remained untouched.12 Pristine wilderness is now disappearing at lightning
speed, as its reduction from 19 percent to 5 percent in less than five years
illustrates.
The loss of wilderness, in the past, was associated with the extinction of
rare species. After the turn to the new millennium, a sign that something else
was going on, in addition, was the uncanny worldwide decline of honey
bees; the so-called colony collapse disorder of bee populations.13 When
biologists turned from measuring biodiversity loss to measuring ecological
health, and from counting species to counting populations (e.g., by weighing
flying insect biomass caught in malaise traps), a trend came into view that is
now called “defaunation” and, informally, “the Great Thinning.”14 In the
second decade of the twenty-first century, the Great Thinning spread to
common flying insects, with a loss of biomass of 75–82 percent from 1989
to 2015 in some developed countries.15 As we are approaching the third
decade of the century, the Great Thinning affects nearly all wildlife,
vertebrates and invertebrates alike. A 2018 index tracking population sizes
of vertebrate species (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes)
shows a 60 percent decline in the northern hemisphere since 1970, with a 90
percent decline in the tropics.16
This staggering decline, whose full extent became visible only in 2018,
is a problem for civilization through the feedback of biota and climate.
Nonhuman life and the climate system are interdependent. Types of life
shape types of climate, obviously, but more specifically, biodiversity (the
variety of species) and biota (the size of populations) shore up climate
stability. The converse is also true: the loss of biodiversity and biota weakens
climate stability.17 But it does not stop there, because the positive feedback
of declining life and climate change goes both ways; it is bidirectional. The
loss of biodiversity and biota drives climate change by making the climate
system more sensitive to external forcings such as human carbon emissions.
And, climate change drives the loss of biodiversity and biota by sterilizing
organisms and impairing reproduction. Climate change causes heat waves,
whose longer duration, stronger intensity, and greater frequency have begun
to impair plant and insect fertility.18 Since plants and insects are close to the
bottom of the trophic pyramid, this is bound to trigger losses higher up the
food chain, and this cascading loss of life loops back into an unstable climate
ever more sensitive to human impacts.
While the loss of wilderness, the vanishing of insects, and the vertiginous
drop in vertebrate populations all made news in 2018, climate change has
steadily continued. In a special report released in October, Global Warming
of 1.5°C (SR15), the IPCC summarized that for the decade from 2006 to
2015 the average global temperature was 0.87°C higher than temperatures
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had been in 1750, before the Industrial Revolution (IPCC 2018).19 In

December, the World Meteorological Organization reported that for the
decade from 2009 to 2018, the average global temperature was already
0.93°C above the pre-industrial baseline (WMO 2018).20 According to the
WMO, “the 20 warmest years have all occurred in the past 22 years,” and
“the past four years—2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018—are the four warmest
in the series.”21
The SR15-report was released some months after publication of a
landmark study (Steffen et al. 2018). This study concluded that warming at
2°C above the baseline may trigger a slide to an inhospitable climate balance,
so-called Hothouse Earth, on which civilization at current levels of
development and population cannot be sustained anymore.22 In the SR15-
report, the IPCC accordingly revised the upper boundary of our safe
operating space downwards. The 2015 Paris Accord had left the aspirational
commitments still open, with the goal of stabilizing warming at a range of
1.5–2°C above the baseline, with 2°C as the upper boundary. Since 2018,
this so-called two-degree guardrail is no more. In light of the hothouse
trajectory, we are now looking at a 1.5°C guardrail. The SR15-report adds
that we have about a decade left to make the necessary political and economic
adjustments, before the forces set in motion will run away from us.
Making the adjustments would amount to radical action, since roughly
80 percent of global energy needs are presently being met by fossil fuels.
CO 2 emissions must be cut by half before 2030 and cease altogether by
2050, otherwise we will sail through the 1.5°C-degree guardrail, beyond
which bad things await.23 The Earth System, the ensemble of environmental
cycles and balances, and speaking to us through the scientific community,
has issued a categorical demand to the world’s policymakers on our collective
prospects. We have been handed an ultimatum.
The fraught interface of collective human existence and the natural
environment is captured in a figure in the mentioned flagship paper that
prompted the United Nations to issue its ultimatum in 2018 (fig. 1).24
This figure, the “Stability Landscape,” of existential trajectories, shows our
current situation, the recent past, compared to the backdrop of historical
normalcy, and the fork in the road over our common future.
On the left of the Stability Landscape is a trough or a swale, a topological
feature that skateboarders call a halfpipe. This is the glacial-interglacial
limit cycle. For hundreds of thousands of years, the Earth slalomed down
this halfpipe until about half a century ago. The Earth System had been in a
stable pendulum swing from one ridge of the halfpipe to another, from ice
ages at the left to warm periods (interglacials) at the right.
Had everything else stayed equal, the most recent warm period, the
Holocene, would be ending in the foreseeable future. The Earth would have
swerved back in the halfpipe through the trough towards the ice age ridge
on the left. But something else happened instead: the human overshoot on
environmental services such as the carbon cycle. As the carbon cycle could
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FIGURE 1 Stability Landscape showing the pathway of the Earth System out of
the Holocene and, thus, out of the glacial-interglacial limit cycle to its present
position in the hotter Anthropocene.
not assimilate human carbon emissions anymore, CO 2 concentrations in the

atmosphere kept rising, which kept trapping solar radiation, which kept
pushing global surface temperatures higher. Thus the human carbon pulse
had kicked the Earth outside its halfpipe. Instead of slaloming to the next ice
age, it found itself moving from the interglacial ridge into warmer territory.
This happened forty years ago. We pushed the Earth System outside its
glacial-interglacial limit cycle around 1980.
The far horizon, the backside, of the Stability Landscape shows the recent
past of the Earth System: planet Earth, sitting atop the ridge of the halfpipe,
but already outside of the halfpipe. Instead of rolling back down into the
trough, as programmed into the oscillations of its climate pendulum, the
Earth found itself leveraged outside, sitting in unfamiliar terrain, and rolling
down an artificially created age of global warming. This is the horizon of the
Stability Landscape and the beginning of the story it tells.
In the intervening decades, from policy milestone to policy milestone,
from the UN Earth Summit in 1992, to the Kyoto Protocol in 1999, to the
Copenhagen talks in 2009, to the Doha Action Plan in 2012, to the Paris
Accord in 2015, human carbon emissions have only continued; atmospheric
CO 2 concentrations have only gone up, and the Earth kept steadily rolling
into ever warmer conditions. Around the turn of the millennium, the human
impact on the Earth System had grown so large that the Holocene yielded to
the hotter Anthropocene. Meanwhile the Earth careened steadily farther
away from its former limit-cycle halfpipe, and as it did, it found itself in a
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new, warmer gutter, whose trough is defined by deepening instability. The

end of the continuous black arrow is where the Earth is now. This is, in one
picture, the existential situation we are in.25
The Stability Landscape is shown from the vantage point of the future.
Looking at the image is as if we were our own posterity and we could look
back in time and see, there, in 2018, the Earth having arrived in the new
hotter gutter and on track toward a planetary threshold. If it goes over the
edge, the Earth will plummet down into the unstable sinkhole of Hothouse
Earth. Just as the continuous arrow behind Earth at the fork is the recent
past, the dotted arrow in front of the Earth is the near future.
The hatched ridge of the Planetary Threshold is the outer limit of the
stable operating mode of the complex system that is our planetary
environment. Beyond this limit, nonlinear behavior takes over. This nonlinear
behavior is characterized by abrupt changes and by feedback loops kicking
in, which will pull the Earth deeper down into the hothouse sinkhole, no
matter what we would do then.
In concrete terms, it means this: Earth, outside its former interglacial-
glacial halfpipe, is now defined by global mean surface temperatures of
c. 1°C above the pre-industrial baseline of global temperatures. Global
mean surface temperatures are climbing higher, year by year, and the Earth
System will be 1.5°C above the baseline not long after mid-century. This
would be the point at which Earth, on the straight dotted arrow, crosses the
hatched ridge.
If and when Earth adds on this extra 0.5°C level of global warming—the
outer boundary of the remaining room for maneuverability of environmental
policy—the surface temperatures in the Arctic, which is heating much faster
than the rest of the planet, will have become so hot that the permafrost,
which, in 2017–18, was thawing only in some spots, will start to melt
generally. The permafrost locks in large amounts of semi-decomposed
organic material, the giant subarctic compost heap that goes for soil in the
tundra. When it melts, the organic material will liquify and its natural
chemical breakdown, which is held in suspension by the ice, will continue.
This will release methane (CH 4), a greenhouse gas and byproduct of organic
decomposition, which, molecule for molecule, is twenty times as potent as
carbon dioxide. Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere will soar,
and the planet will heat up so strongly that it will plummet into the Hothouse
Earth stage.
Note the steep angle of the walls of the sinkhole. The sinkhole is unstable
because of the positive feedback loops that transform human-induced global
warming to a runaway process. If and when the permafrost melts and the
currently frozen CH 4 is released into the atmosphere, it would be too late
for conventional mitigation strategies. Even if, after crossing that boundary,
all CO 2 emissions would stop overnight; the global economy would derive
all of its energy from sun and wind; all transit would be carbon neutral, with
everyone riding bicycles, taking the train, or, perhaps, driving electric vehicles
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(fueled by batteries charged by sun and wind); and, furthermore, even if

the world population would overnight become vegetarian, give up on
meat, rewild livestock pastures, plant forests, protect sanctuaries—even if
civilization did all this, after crossing the hatched ridge, it would get hotter.
The window of opportunity will have slammed shut. The game would be
over, and humanity will have lost.
May the patient reader kindly forgive me for this in-depth account, but
the point is that this scientific knowledge and this policy response have come
into view only in the past year; and that both constitute game changers in
the understanding of the human–nature interface. In the past, this interface
had been fraught; now, it has become suicidal. In the past, the scientific
community had expressed concerns; now, the scientific community has
sounded the alarm.
It does not take much imagination to visualize what life on Hothouse
Earth would look like. For one thing, the current number of people on Earth
is an adaptation to the optimal bioproductivity of Holocene Earth. On
Hothouse Earth, however, weather will change to harsher conditions,
climate will be hotter, oceans will be more acidic and contain less oxygen,
and melting icecaps will release the ice landlocked on the Greenland interior
and on the Antarctic continent into the oceans. Cascades of consequences:
when the weather turns harsh, agricultural productivity will go down. When
the climate turns hotter, most regions on Earth will experience water
scarcities, and some regions, such as the Australian outback and the Arab
interior, will be so inhospitable that just being outdoors without protection
for a duration of time will kill you. When the oceans acidify and deoxygenate,
fish stocks will collapse. When the landlocked ice will pour into the seas,
beaches and atolls will vanish first, coastal plains will disappear next.
The event-cascade will not end here: when agricultural productivity goes
down, when water scarcities become chronic, when some areas become
uninhabitable, when fisheries collapse, and when the densely populated
coastal regions will be flooded, the Great Collapse will begin. Poverty will
soar, migration explode, states fail, wars start, and turmoil begin that will
last until civilization, or what will be left of it, succeeds at stabilizing at a
fraction of its former size. Sure, life will go on, at least for some, and humans
have a way of muddling through. But at what cost?
For grasping the extent of the crisis, it will not do to identify the meaning
of climate change with mainstream media visualizations such as a bedraggled
polar bear on a melting ice flow. This was the past of global warming, when
Earth was still slaloming down its halfpipe. But if Earth rolls over the ridge
into the sinkhole, the new icon of climate change will be the gun, more likely
an AK-47 than an AR-15, since the old Avtomat Kalashnikova is cheap,
rugged, and ubiquitous in the Global South. Even children can handle it. On
Hothouse Earth, they will.
Lest more fortunate nations in the Global North, such as Canada and
Russia, may think they will be spared the worst, they’d better think again.
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These will become the destinations for everyone south of them, who will
struggle to survive and will migrate as an adaptive response. Russia may
cede Siberia to China when the deglaciation of the Himalayas turns the
Yellow River and Yangtze into seasonal rivers. Canada will be occupied and
annexed by the United States when the Southwest is a desert and the
Midwest a dust bowl. Siberia will become a Special Administrative Zone of
China, just like Hong Kong, and Canada will become a U.S. territory, just
like Puerto Rico. On Hothouse Earth, everyone loses.
This is the crisis. We have ten years to turn things around. Old bourgeois
indulgences of anti-realism, relativism, and skepticism, as cultivated by
postmodern heirs of phenomenology, are becoming intolerable in the
Anthropocene. Faced with the crisis, these indulgences are hooligan attitudes
of criminal negligence. They will not do anymore. An alternative is needed,
and it must be future-oriented, wise, and aggressive. In short, it must be
dogmatic.
3. Grounding Phenomenology in

the Daodejing
Philosophically provocative about the Daodejing is its unabashed naturalism;
that is, the epistemic stance according to which natural facts entail ethical
values and behavioral norms. To the Far West, historically, naturalism has
always seemed improbable; David Hume questioned its logic in the fact–
value distinction, and G.E. Moore claimed that inferring values from facts
is the “naturalistic fallacy.” And yet, this Far Western fallacy is the essence
of Daoist wisdom. If one looks at the Daodejing for counsel on how
phenomenology can get back on track, one finds a suggestion already in the
words that link the Way to the sage. These conjuncts are gu 故 and shiyi 是
以, which mean “therefore” or “this is why.” Time and again, the chapters of
the Daodejing display the same pattern: a stanza about properties of being
or Dao 道, followed by a stanza about the conduct of the sage or shengren
聖人. Being is of a certain kind, and “therefore” or “this is why” the sage
conducts herself accordingly. The sage is wise as she abides in nature.
Perhaps half of the chapters of the Daodejing share this inferential
pattern. Laozi describes how nature works as a matter of fact, then prescribes
what to value and how to act. The sage, in Laozi, is a literary device similar
to the gentleman or junzi 君子 in Confucianism. Both shengren and junzi
are role models who “show how it is done.” If you desire to realize yourself
in a human community, look no further than the junzi, and if you wish to
find yourself in the flow-vector of the universe, then the shengren will show
you how to go about it. The Confucian gentleman and the Daoist sage
represent existence that best corresponds to the environment in which it is
placed—the former is the consummate human in a community, and the
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latter is the enlightened human in the larger ecological, natural, or cosmic

environment.
Chapter 5 of the Daodejing writes that Nature as such has no humanity
(tiandi buren 天地不仁). Nature can be cruel or kind, harsh or soft. In this
regard, and seen from a cosmic perspective, humans are like straw-dogs or
chugou 芻狗 in temple ceremonies: they are effigies, which are carried
around in pomp and circumstance during the festivities only to be discarded
or burnt in celebration at the end. Nature cherishes us, but only for the blink
of an eye. The values of nature, to the extent she has any, are ambivalent.
And yet, despite this ambivalence, the formal criterion of wisdom is crystal
clear: the sage follows nature. Nature is a given way, and therefore, the sage
abides concordantly. In this ambivalence, the character of this abiding is left
open only to an extent. The latitude of choice is constrained by the facts of
being and by the norms of conduct.
On the side of being, two properties come into view. One is the claim that
Dao is empty yet radiating; it is a void that surges (dao chong 道沖), as
chapter 4 says. In this regard, it is like chapter 11 speaking of the nave of a
wheel from which thirty spokes go to the rim (sanshi fu, gong yigu 三十輻，
共一轂). Another is the claim that this spoking of the wheel, this radiation
of the Way, creates emergence, structure, and flourishing. The ontogenesis or
creation story of Daoism is in chapter 42 of the Daodejing. Today, the
ancient Daoist schema of self-creation laid out there can be nicely explicated
in terms of the scientific Standard Model. Being begins as an energetic void,
call it Dao. This singularity, this void, surges in cosmic inflation and generates
being or reality as the primordial cosmos (dao sheng yi 道生一). The
generation of being takes place in a dimensional field, which splits into time
and space, cools down to a quantum foam that bubbles into interstices and
densities, which condensate into particles, which push and pull one another,
until accreting into the building blocks of the present-day universe, its
chemical elements, and its celestial bodies. On each step of its way, the
primordial being divides and subdivides itself, with one binary unfolding
after another (yi sheng er 一生二). By successive splits, nature organizes
itself, generating higher levels of complexity (er sheng san 二生三). Nature
creates itself, from chaos to order, and from uniformity to diversity (san
sheng wanwu 三生萬物). The singularity creates one entity (道生一), then
two (一生二), then an interplay (二生三), and finally life and mind, including
us (三生萬物).
Is there a lesson for the sage? If this evolutionary arc of emergence (道生
一，一生二，二生三，三生萬物) is nature’s Way, then (“therefore”) the
sage better follow suit. Despite its cyclic destructiveness, nature is like a
valley spirit (gushen 谷神) or a mysterious female (xuanpin 玄牝), who gives
birth to life in chapter 6 of the text. The void births being, being births
diversity, and diversity births life. The Way tends from death to life, from
chaos to flourishing, and the wise person mirrors this tendency. The sage
favors life over death and flourishing over destruction. Thus the sage favors
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softness over hardness, gentleness over violence, and peace over war. The
sage is not driven by profit or power, but by a reverence for life instead.
Throughout the Daodejing, Laozi makes clear that the sage is the guardian
of life. Today, this Daoist tradition is manifest in the canonization of Laozi
as the Guardian Spirit of Ecology by the Chinese Taoist Association.26
The task of the wise is to guard life, rather than to toss it to the elements;
to let life be, not to stifle it; to cultivate it, not to crush it. Of course, not all
Daoist philosophers are as life-affirming and dogmatic about this as Laozi.
Zhuangzi and Liezi, who are more popular among postmodern interpreters,
exhibit relativistic if not nihilistic values. Some passages in the Zhuangzi
suggest there is no difference between life and death, and that enlightenment
is carelessness. The Liezi, furthermore, suggests that selfishness may be wiser
than compassion. While such subversive playfulness was entertaining during
the libertarian dreams of unlimited capitalistic growth in the Holocene, it is
not good counsel as the Earth is rolling toward the ridge of planetary
boundaries beyond which the hothouse sinkhole lurks.
For Laozi, the shengren is a gardener in the garden of the Dao. Her job is
to care for what grows, to nurture the weak, and to protect the small. The
Daodejing explains how to do this best: by the practice of “non-action” or
wuwei 無為. For the likes of another great Daoist sage, Liezi, wuwei is
laissez-faire, but for Laozi, wuwei harnesses the flow of being, like a sailor
capturing wind in the sails, or a martial artist turning an attacker’s fury into
the force that neutralizes the assault. Whatever examples one chooses for
wuwei, Laozi is clear that the style of non-action is one of pliancy (rou 柔),
and that its form is gentleness. As perhaps the famous dictum from chapter
36 of the Daodejing goes: “the soft overcomes the hard, and the weak the
strong” (rouruo sheng gangqiang 柔弱勝剛強), or as chapter 30 elaborates:
Whenever you advise rulers in the way of Dao, counsel them not to use
force to conquer the universe, for this would only cause resistance. Thorn
bushes spring up wherever the army has passed, lean years follow in the
wake of a great war. Just do what needs to be done, never take advantage
of power. Achieve results but never glory in them. Achieve results but
never boast. Achieve results but never be proud. Achieve results because
this is the natural way. Achieve results but not through violence. Force is
followed by loss of strength; this is not the way of the Dao. That which
goes against the Dao comes to an early end.27
This recap of key points of the Daodejing makes it clear where the sage
stands vis-à-vis the Stability Landscape of the Earth System in the early
Anthropocene. As I have argued in section 2 above, the Earth System is at a
fork in the road. One road consists of capitalism, with the practices of
extraction, exploitation, and domination, in the spirit of competition and
advantage, for the purpose of profit and enrichment. This road has been the
Earth System trajectory since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution,
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and it has pushed nature from its cold–warm cycle up on a warmer ridge,
from which it is now rolling toward a hot abyss. The violence our species
has been visiting upon nature, by perpetrating climate change and
biodiversity decline, goes against the Dao. Capitalistic civilization, with Far
Western skeptics and anti-realists in the vanguard, wages war on nature and
nonhuman life. This is now pointing us to an early end.
Philosophers faced with the fork in the road must make a choice. Either
they continue to embrace the cultural ways that are pushing the planet to
the brink, or they embrace an alternative. If they choose the former option,
they can try to justify their choice by the epistemic modes of sophistry and
reality denial described in the first section. If they choose the latter option,
then they will not question reality but embrace it instead; they will cultivate
empathy for life on Earth, and they will act and think according to the Dao.
The former and Far Western option makes philosophers into stooges
of the libertarian forces that are pushing civilization toward collapse.
The latter and Far Eastern option makes philosophers choose solidarity
over individuality, compassion over competition, and sustainability over the
market. The latter option, furthermore, turns philosophers into future-
oriented thinkers grounded in scientific reality. Such philosophers emulate
the shengren. In doing so—and only in doing so—they guide our world
toward a Stabilized Earth destiny.
Analogous to Laozi’s shengren, Heidegger conceives of der Weise. The
meaning of the Chinese and German words is the same; both sheng ren and
der Weise mean “sage” or “wise person.” Heidegger introduces der Weise in
Country Path Conversations (Feldweggespräche, 1944/5). The text is partly
a riff on an obscure Greek-Egyptian concept, áñkhibasié (άγχιβαίη), which
fuses the Egyptian áñkhi, meaning “near,” with the Greek basié, meaning
“come,” into a word that means something like “coming near,” “getting
closer,” or “progressing.” This fused concept is not Heidegger’s invention; it
is the shortest fragment, a single word, by Heraclitus.28
The structure of Conversations is a dialogue, or rather, a trialogue, of a
scholar (der Gelehrte), a scientist (der Wissenschaftler), and a sage (der
Weise). English translators have shied away from translating der Weise as
“the sage”—even though the German weise is evidently a homophone
cognate to the English “wise.” There are reasons for this caution. Heidegger
had second thoughts. There is a passage in Conversations where he seems to
deny that what he means by der Weise is what we mean by “sage,” and Bret
W. Davis, in his translation, accordingly suggests “the guide” instead.29 In a
published excerpt of Conversations (1959), Heidegger replaces der Weise
with der Lehrer, which John M. Anderson and E. Hans Freund rightly
translate as “teacher.”30 There may well be no ideal translation, considering
Heidegger’s misgivings. Yet, “sage” is what the German thinker writes. A
sage is certainly also a teacher, and it surely fits the role of the sage, as
indicated at the beginning of this essay, to serve as a guide in the fourfold.
The future-oriented alternatives in section 1, furthermore, underscore this
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point: the dogmatic thinker is a teacher and guide: informed by insights,

inspired by ideas, and contributing to answers. At the same time, all this
underdetermines the sage. The sage is more.
What are these other qualities? The sage is not an expert, unlike his
interlocutors in Conversations—one being a scholarly historian, and another
being a natural scientist—and unlike guides or teachers. A guide is an expert
in having mastery over a route or a terrain and the information or lore
that comes with it. A museum guide knows the exhibits and can tell a story
about them. A scout knows the lay of the land and can pick his way through
it. A teacher is an expert in a branch of knowledge and in the craft of
pedagogy. Different levels of education require different skill sets. For a
university teacher, knowledge is most important; for a kindergarten teacher,
pedagogy is central. But all teachers as well as all guides are experts, which
the sage is not.
Popular culture sheds light on the non-expertise of the sage. In literature,
one encounters the sage in the figure of Gandalf in J.R.R. Tolkien’s Lord of
the Rings. Tolkien’s figure is carefully drawn; the character has complex
traits, which cohere in a well-rounded persona. In Tolkien’s tale, each
member of the fellowship of the ring is an expert of sorts, and there is
accordingly a division of labor in the cast of characters surrounding the ring
bearer. One is the ring bearer (Frodo), another is his servant (Sam), a third
is a woodsman (Strider/Aragorn), a fourth is a swordsman (Boromir), a fifth
can talk to spirits (Legolas the Elf), and a sixth knows the underground
(Gimli the Dwarf). Two other Halflings in the fellowship (Merry and Pippin)
seem incompetent at first glance, but even they are experts—their interplay
adds the indomitable lightheartedness that carrying such a burden needs. It
also injects a dose of chaos into the fellowship and the plan, which creates
openings for higher powers to intervene and to bring the fellowship the
fortune such a venture cannot do without.
Gandalf, however, stands aside. He is not an expert like any of the other
members of the fellowship; instead, he is not even part of the fellowship’s
division of labor. He puffs his pipe and drops the occasional remark, unless
being diverted by some business or mission. Then he is off again, but
regularly he returns, to check on the fellowship, to aid in the plan, and to
come to the rescue when all else seems lost. As Tolkien’s sage stands aside,
he stands like a leader—even though fellowship has no leader. It is a
collective, in which the sage is on equal footing with everyone else. Tolkien’s
non-hierarchical structure parallels the egalitarian interactions of sage,
scholar, and scientist in Country Path Conversations.
Neither group is ruled by a leader, but der Weise in Conversations, like
Gandalf in Lord of the Rings, is a leader of sorts—a Daoist leader, who
acts by non-action and who leads from behind. The sage, as a leader-who-
follows, leads and follows the group by his counsel. The experts know
certain areas, but the sage sees a bigger picture, which invests him with
authority to advise the experts. He does not issue orders but instead suggests
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answers; he does not possess authority but instead is an authority, and as

such he gets along with his companions, whether conversing with experts on
a country path or journeying alongside a fellowship through Middle-Earth.
This reveals the positive features of wisdom. First, the sage is a generalist,
but this lack of expertise does not make him into an amateur. Instead of
being a specialist, he is a master of holistic knowledge. The others are
experts; the sage is a holist. Second, the sage is an authority without exerting
authority. Laozi’s shengren, Heidegger’s der Weise, and Tolkien’s wizard are
authoritative figures who resist the temptation of authority. They are not
corrupted by power or drawn to domination, and neither are they attracted
to violence and destructiveness. Third, the sage is soft yet tough. At times,
sages may administer a judicious slap, and they see no need to run away
from a fight. They have courage and fortitude, and, in the case of Gandalf,
they have mettle and valor, yet they are pacifists. Sages are not easily cowed,
and this is their strength.
They are also rather old. Age appears to be a fifth feature of the sage, and
it seems related to their fortitude. Picturing a “young sage” inevitably fails;
one envisions a sagacious youngster and merely sees a wiseass, not a wise
person. Age is a symbol, and not a literal condition. For the purpose of
utilizing the figure of der Weise for a path of phenomenology, it would
not do to have an interdisciplinary round table of young to middle-aged
climatologists, biologists, agricultural engineers, ecological economists—
and then add a senior-citizen thinker.
Age as a symbol stands for knowledge experienced and internalized.
The knowledge of symbolic age is not the expertise resulting from study
or training, but the reflective outcome of trials and tribulations. This is
experience, internalized as suffering processed. The symbolic aging of the
sage is that of battle-hardened veterans who had been at the mercy of the
elements. The sage is an outdoors character—and one who has been through
a lot. His skin is creased; his hide is tough. Yet age as a symbol of suffering
processed points to more. A veteran scarred by life is not a sage. Scars must
be absorbed, and pain must be digested, and only then wisdom may come
into view. This is the sixth feature, and it is visible in Tolkien’s tale. Gandalf
is not only old, he is also kind. There are laugh lines at the outer corners of
his eyes. The hallmark of pain, digested, is serenity and with it, joy. Inner
joyfulness opens the mind, widens the heart, and informs one’s ethos with
wit and warmth. The likes of Gandalf fight against evil, but this fight does
not fill them with bile and rancor. The wise age not in bitterness, but in
sweetness, and this is the magic of the sage.
But how does one digest pain and age in sweetness in a symbolic fashion?
What is the age-related trick for phenomenologists guided by the shengren
to join peers of the same biological age group at the interdisciplinary round
table? Symbolic age can advance beyond biological age through an exercise
in cognitive maturity. Part of this exercise is the overcoming of a narrow
mind, and thus the liberation from individual expertise. In this regard,
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Heidegger’s der Weise is not another type of scholar or another kind of

scientist; he is genuinely different. His distinction is the ability to perceive a
total-field image instead of a narrow area of focus. But he is also more than
a mere interdisciplinary jack-of-all-trades or whiz-kid generalist, because his
cognitive maturity is the ability to sense, within the total-field image, items
encountered as what they are in themselves. The sage cognizes items
encountered not only in a conventional phenomenological way of attending
to the nature of the encounter, but also in the unusual and quasi-magical
way of attending to the nature of the encountered. That is, the sage has the
ability to switch identities with what he encounters.
In magic or sorcery, trading identities is the first step to conjuring: a
wizard calls forth a spirit by a spell, and this calling-forth is possible because
the spell links the identity of the one who summons with the one who is
summoned. Granted, magic is make-believe, and sorcery only happens in
fantasy tales such as Lord of the Rings. But the first step to conjuring is also
the first step of attending to the nature of the encountered in phenomenological
precision. The key is to forge a link, or to connect the dots, and for the
cognition of the sage, it is both elementary and advanced.
The elementary aspect of cognition by connection concerns the first,
epistemic feature of the sage mentioned—that the sage is a generalist,
specifically a holist. Being able to see the big picture is not merely a panoramic
vision due to an open mind, but more the result of processing information
differently from how experts do it. Experts process information by analyzing
it; that is, by isolating a piece of information from its context and dissecting
the piece. This is how fine-grained features in the information come into
view. Holists, however, process information by synthesizing it; that is, by
connecting a piece of information to all other pieces in its context, such that
the difference of information and context yields to a network of the given
piece of information with all the others connected to it. Processing a piece
of information holistically does not bring the piece into focus but instead
discloses the web it is linked to. By connecting the dots, patterns in the
information come into view. Instead of simply being a panoramic vision
resulting from open mind, the big picture thus arrived is the product of a
type of rationality that sets wisdom apart from scholarly or scientific
expertise. Just as such expertise turns on analytic reasoning, wisdom hinges
on synthetic reasoning.
The advanced aspect concerns the last, age-related feature of the sage
mentioned above—that the sage is old but kind; that his (symbolic) age is
sweet rather than bitter. Being able to assimilate experiences so as to digest
the pain requires a panoramic vision that puts the pain encountered into
perspective. This vision comes about by trading places of identity. The sage
is able to deal with his existential pain in a more mature fashion than an
average senior citizen would be able to, since the sage is not just old; the
sage is mature, and maturity, qua cognitive advancement, amounts to the
cultivation of empathy. Empathy is nothing but the ability to switch places
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between self and other, and to see the world from the vantage point of
alterity. Empathy, so cultivated, is the cognitive condition of compassion
and benevolence. In this sense, the sage not only “sees” things; the sage
“gets” things, too.
Empathy is how the sage can be life-affirming. Theoretically, there is a big
picture such as the evolutionary arc of Daodejing chapter 42, and the sage
abides by it. Practically, the sage abides by the picture since his maturity lends
him an empathy so keen that he sees himself in any living being. In literature,
on the level of magic, this is how Gandalf can talk to moths and eagles. In
philosophy, on the level of epistemology and ethics, this is how the integration
of the perspective of the other leads to the appreciation of the other’s
existential interests, and how it leads from such appreciation to the moral
choice of according respect to such interests in well-being and existence,
regardless of whether “the other” is an individual life, such as a plant or an
animal, or a network, such as an ecosystem. The other merely wants to live.
Empathizing with this want, the sage affirms it and chooses to guard it.
Heidegger, in Country Path Conversations, coins a term to point to the
sensitivity of der Weise to the web of being, which is the environmental
alterity in which the sage dwells. He calls this cognitive stance die Gegnet, a
blend of Gegend, “region” or “environment”; gegen, “against” or “counter”;
and begegnen, “to encounter.” This stance of wisdom involves several facets.
One facet is that der Weise is someone who picks up on the numinous hints
(Winke) given to collective existence, and on the basis of this reception,
is then capable of pointing to where such hints come from. When the sage
points toward the source, he is also able to decipher their meaning and
guide (or be wise) in the way that follows best the ideal vector of the
numinous hints.31
Another facet of this consummate cognitive interface with the
environment, the Gegnet, is an openness that consists, variously, of waiting
(Warten), gratitude (Danken), attentiveness (Achtsamkeit), and letting-go
(Gelassenheit), in the sense of Meister Eckhart. This is how the magic (der
Zauber) of wisdom can emerge in the Gegnet.32
This brings us to the end of reading the Daoist concept of the sage as
Heidegger uses it. Our interpretive attempt seeks to suggest to philosophers
a future-oriented employment in the collective project of saving civilization
from the crisis against the forces that are pushing us ever closer to the edge.
In times of crisis, it would be irresponsible for the philosopher to be a
skeptic, and it would be pointless to be a better scholar than the scholars,
and to be a better scientist than the scientists. The philosopher, schooled
in phenomenology, but embracing the dogmatic alternative in the spirit of
stewardship, who encounters East Asian wisdom, should be a more mature
thinker than the inchoate exemplars of the past century. Such maturity
requires the empathy of a consummate environmental interface, whose
subjective side Heidegger calls die Gegnet, and whose objective side,
elsewhere, he calls das Geviert or the fourfold.33
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In conclusion, I hope that two remarks may lead the reader further. They are
intended to show that neither the interface (Gegnet) nor the fourfold (Geviert)
is obscure. Both terms, I think, have a secular, interdisciplinary meaning.
Heidegger parses Gegnet as “the lingering openness, which gathers
everything up and thereby opens itself, such that the openness is sustained
and suspended, and in such suspension summoned to let emerge everything
in the way it is.”34 He parses Geviert as the intersection of the skies (Himmel),
Earth (Erde), the gods (Götter), and the mortals (Sterbliche). I suggest
linking these terms as an epistemic stance vis-à-vis an ontological situation,
the stance I hope to have clarified above. Clarifying the situation serves as
the appropriate conclusion of this essay.
The ontological situation is that of our Earth System at the verge of the
third decade of the twenty-first century, having been pushed out of its
halfpipe on a lethal incline by evil forces. This situation, trivially, involves
the skies, in terms of rising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases,
and thus, it involves the skies in terms of climate change.
It involves, existentially, the Earth, in terms of the double whammy of
climate change and biological annihilation, whose positive feedback loops
are now jointly affecting cryosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere alike (ice,
seas, and land), to our collective existential detriment.
It involves the mortals, who are just us, and everyone among alterity
with whom we can empathetically identify—all living beings, from moths to
eagles, from mosquitoes to song birds; in short, all forms of life, from the
morbidly obese to the starving, from the superrich to the migrant poor, and
from the human to the nonhumans. For mortal all of us are.
Last but not least, it involves the gods, whose identity would remain
puzzling if Heidegger were read in disconnect from his hidden Asian
sources. In Far Eastern thought, the gods and the numinous hints they rain
on hapless mortals, only to be picked up by keen sages, are summed up as
tianming 天命 or “Mandate of Heaven.” Yet, both scholarly renditions are
philosophically misleading, which only underscores Heidegger’s point.
Western scholars would look at the gods as cultural artifacts and objects
of worship in human religions. Eastern scholars would look at tianming as
the political authority invested in Confucian rulers. But for a future-oriented
outlook, seen from a synthetic-rational perspective that seeks to integrate
interdisciplinary findings, the gods (Heidegger’s Götter) are the future
vectors at the present fork for mortals on Earth under the sky. One vector,
that of the evil gods, consists of unfettered capitalistic, libertarian practices,
aided and abetted by postmodern sophistry and skepticism. The vector of
evil gods leads down the sinkhole of collective demise.
Another vector, that of good gods, consists of sustainable practices of
stewardship, exemplified politically by the People’s Republic of China, the
Nordic Countries, and the European Union (sans Britain, which exits itself
to the Far West). This vector, the only arrow that is genuinely future-oriented,
is pointed to the wide-open plain of collective stabilization.
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Thus, from a secular point of view, the concept of the gods is intrinsically
dubious. This leaves philosophers of the future with a choice and a question.
The choice is between good and evil, light and dark, demise and survival.
The question, addressed to aspiring sages among the phenomenologists of
the future, is simply this: which of the two kinds of gods do you pray to?
Notes
1 See Eric Fromm, To Have or To Be? (New York: Harper and Row, 1976), and
The Heart of Man: Its Genius for Good and Evil (New York: Harper and Row,
1964).
2 Arne Naess, “The Place of Joy in a World of Fact,” in The Selected Works of
Arne Naess, ed. A. Drengson (Berlin: Springer, 2005), 2371–82.
3 Reinhard May, Heidegger’s Hidden Sources: East-Asian Influences on His
Work, trans. Graham Parkes (New York: Routledge, 1996).
4 Ellen Chan, “How Daoist is Heidegger?,” International Philosophical
Quarterly, 45.1 (2005): 5–19.
5 See Lin Ma, “Deciphering Heidegger’s Connection with the Daodejing,” Asian
Philosophy, 16 (2006): 149–71; and “On the Paradigm Shift of Comparative
Studies of Heidegger and Chinese Philosophy,” Confluence, 4 (2016): 81–98.
6 Gerardo Ceballos et al., “Biological Annihilation via the Ongoing Sixth Mass
Extinction Signaled by Vertebrate Population Losses and Declines,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114 (2017): E6089–E6096;
doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1704949114
7 Will Steffen et al., “The Trajectory of the Anthropocene: The Great
Acceleration,” The Anthropocene Review, 2.1 (2015a): 81–98, esp. 91.
8 Will Steffen et al., “Trajectory of the Anthropocene,” 93.
9 World Economic Forum, The Global Risks Report 2019, “Executive
Summary,” 6.
10 Ibid.
11 Christina Kennedy et al., “Managing the Middle: A Shift in Conservation
Priorities Based on the Global Human Modification Gradient,” Global Change
Biology 2019: 1–16 (early pre-publication view), doi.org/10.111/gcb.14549.
For a map, cf. Ibid., 5, sec. “Results,” figure 1. For a summary, cf. Andrew
Freeman, “Just 5 percent of Earth’s Landscape is Untouched,” Axios (2019),
10 January.
12 O. Venter et al., “Sixteen Years of Change in the Global Terrestrial Human
Footprint and Implications for Biodiversity Conservation,” Nature
Communications 7 (2016): 12558, doi.org/10.1039/ncomms12558; J.E.
Watson et al., “Catastrophic Declines in Wilderness Areas Undermine Global
Environment Targets,” Current Biology, 26 (2016): 2929–34; cf. Kennedy,
loc. cit., “4. Discussion,” 9.
13 Dennis van Engelsdorp et al., “An Estimate of Managed Colony Losses in the
Winter of 2006–2007: A Report Commissioned by the Apiary Inspectors of
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America,” American Bee Journal, 14 (2007): 599–603; Dennis van Engelsdorp

et al., “A Survey of Honey Bee Colony Losses in the U.S., Fall 2007 to Spring
2008,” Public Library of Science One, 3 (2008): e4071, doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0004071
14 Rodolfo Dirzo et al., “Defaunation in the Anthropocene,” Science, 345.6195
(2014): 401–6, doi.org/10.1126/science.1251817. The expression “the great
thinning” was coined by Michael McCarthy in The Moth Snowstorm: Nature
and Joy (New York: New York Review Books, 2016).
15 Brooke Jarvis, “The Insect Apocalypse is Here: What does it Mean for the Rest
of Life on Earth?,” New York Times, 27 November (2018): 2. Cf. also
Gretchen Vogel, “Where have All the Insects Gone? Surveys in German Nature
Reserves Point to a Dramatic Decline in Insect Biomass. Key Members of the
Ecosystem may be Slipping Away,” Science, 356 (2017): 576–9, doi.
org/10/1126/science.aal1160. The entomological paper that set the alarms
ringing, the so-called Krefeld Study, is Caspar A. Hallmann et al., “More than
75 percent Decline over 27 Years in Total Flying Insect Biomass in Protected
Areas,” Public Library of Science One (2017), doi.org/10.1371/journal.
pone.0185809
16 M. Grooten and R. Almond, eds., Institute of Zoology (London), and World
Wildlife Fund, Living Planet Report 2018: Aiming Higher (Gland: World
Wildlife Fund, 2018), 7–10; cf. also chapter 3, 88–107.
17 Will Steffen et al., “Planetary Boundaries: Guiding Human Development on a
Changing Planet,” Science, 347.6223 (2015b): 1259855, doi.org/10.1126/
science.1259855
18 Research on climate change and impaired plant fertility has focused on crop
species; e.g., cf. Anida Mesihovic et al., “Heat Stress Regimes for the
Investigation of Pollen Thermo-Tolerance in Crop Plants,” Plant Reproduction,
29 (2016): 93–105, which shows that mild to severe heat stress impairs pollen
development. For a summary vis-à-vis global food security, cf. Jerry L. Hatfield
and John H. Prueger, “Temperature Extremes: Effect on Plant Growth and
Development,” Weather and Climate Extremes, 10 (2015): 4–10. In late 2018,
worrisome experimental evidence of impaired insect fertility induced by
climate change was released; cf. Kris Sales et al., “Experimental Heatwaves
Compromise Sperm Function and Cause Transgenerational Damage in a
Model Insect,” Nature Communications, 9 (2018): 4771 doi.org/10.1038/
s41467-018-072723-z. If the modelled insect–climate link is confirmed by field
work, civilization will be in jeopardy.
19 Myles Allen et al., “Technical Summary,” 4; “TS1: Framing and Context,” in
IPCC, Global Warming of 1.5°C: An IPCC Special Report on the Impacts of
Global Warming Above Pre-Industrial Levels and Related Global Greenhouse
Gas Emission Pathways, in the Context of Strengthening the Global Response
to the Threat of Climate Change, Sustainable Development, and Efforts to
Eradicate Poverty (Geneva: World Meteorological Organization, 2018). Future
references are indicated as IPCC SR15 (2018).
20 World Meteorological Organization (WMO), State of the Global Climate in
2018: WMO Provisional Statement (Geneva: World Meteorological
Organization, 2018), 1.
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21 Ibid.
22 Will Steffen et al., “Trajectories of the Earth System in the Anthropocene,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) 115 (2018): 8252–9,
doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1810141115.
23 For the mitigation window, cf. IPCC SR15 (2018), loc. cit.: “In model
pathways with no or limited overshoot of 1.5°C, global net anthropogenic
CO 2 emissions decline by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030 . . .
reaching net zero around 2050.” Cf. Ibid., Summary for Policymakers
(approved and accepted 6 October 2018; subject to copy edit); section C
“Emission Pathways and System Transitions consistent with 1.5°C Global
Warming”; paragraph C1, 15.
24 Will Steffen et al., “Trajectories of the Earth System.”
25 See Ibid, 8254.
26 The Chinese Taoist Association (CTA) 中國道教協會 is the formal
denomination of Daoism in the People’s Republic of China. It is overseen by
the State Administration of Religious Affairs. With the embrace of
sustainability as an explicitly religious goal, it serves as a political platform for
environmentalism in China. Laozi’s canonization by the CTA in 2006 to the
Guardian Deity of Life (shengtai baohu shen 生態保護神) follows the CTA’s
Qinling Declaration 秦岭宣言, which states, “Harmony between Heaven,
Earth, and Humanity is the crucial guarantee for the sustainability of human
activities on earth. It is the highest aim of Daoists. With the environmental
crisis getting worse day by day, we have a duty to rethink the role of Daoism in
China.” Cf. Alliance of Religion and Conservation; arcworld.org/downloads
27 Laozi, Daodejing, trans. Gia-Fu Feng, Jane English, and Toinette Lippe (New
York: Vintage, 2011), 32. The original Chinese reads: 以道佐人主者，不以兵強
天下。其事好還。師之所處，荊棘生焉。大軍之後，必有凶年。善有果而已，
不敢以取強。果而勿矜，果而勿伐，果而勿驕。果而不得已，果而勿強。物壯
則老，是謂不道，不道早已.
28 Martin Heidegger, “Ein Gespraech selbstdritt auf einem Feldweg,” in Feldweg-
Gespräche (1944/45), (Frankfurt: Klostermann, 2007), 1.
29 Martin Heidegger, Country Path Conversations Bret W. Davis (trans.)
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010).
30 Martin Heidegger, “Conversation on a Country Path about Thinking,”
in Discourse on Thinking, trans. John M. Anderson and E. Hans Freund
(New York: Harper and Row, 1966), 58–90.
31 Heidegger, “Ein Gespraech selbstdritt auf einem Feldweg,” 84–5: “. . .
dies schliesst allerdings nicht aus, das seiner ein Weiser ist, mit welchem
Wort ich jetzt nicht den Wissenden meine, sondern einen solchen, der dahin
zu weisen vermag, von woher den Menschen die Winke kommen; einen
solcen, der zugleich die Weise, die Art, weisen kann, wie den Winken zu
folgen sei.”
32 See Ibid., 99, 100, 108–12, and 113–14 respectively for these terms.
33 See, for example, “Bauen Wohnen Denken” (1951) and “Das Ding” (1950),
both in Martin Heidegger, Vortraege und Aufsaetze (Stuttgart: Neske, 1997),
139–56 and 157–80; these correspond to Heidegger’s Gesamtausgabe vol. 7.
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34 Heidegger, “Ein Gespraech selbstdritt auf einem Feldweg,” 114: “Die Gegnet ist
die verweilende Weite, die, alles versammelnd, sich oeffnet, so dass in ihr das
Offene gehalten und angehalten ist, Jegliches aufgehen zu lassen in seinem
Beruhen.”
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Index
abyss (abgrund) 73, 74, 110, 124, Chiasm 255–6, 266

168, 174, 181–2, 184, 193 n.139, climate change 276–7, 282, 286,
298 288–90, 294, 298, 303, 305 n.18
Allinson, Robert 130, 204, 209 color/colorless 9–15, 17–26, 33, 220,
Angst 201–3, 213 240 n.2, 256, 262
Anthropocene 277–9, 292, 295, 297 Cook Ding 51, 92–3, 95–9, 127–8,
Atman-Brahman 127–8, 130, 148 207–8, 211, 234–5
authenticity (eigentlichkeit; zhen 真) Country Path Conversations 161–4,
12, 16, 21–2, 123, 126, 138, 145–6, 166–8, 170, 173–5, 177–81, 184,
148, 201, 203, 209 190 n.82, 298, 299, 302
Cripple Shu 53
being (Sein), beyng (Seyn) 3, 10, 21,
22, 38, 45–8, 50, 63, 67, 95–6, dao 道 (Way, path) 2–3, 10–12, 16,
98–100, 110, 121, 124, 125, 18–19, 21–5, 32, 40–53, 55–6,
127, 128, 132 n.25, 145, 148–9, 58 n.29, 62, 64, 67, 69, 72, 78,
162, 167–8, 170–1, 173–4, 90–4, 100, 102 n.22, 106–7,
178–9, 184–5, 189 n.49, 189 n.50, 110–15, 124–6, 143–5, 147–9,
193 n.139, 200–1, 203–4, 207, 151, 155 n.34, 162, 164, 166–8,
210, 214 n.11, 252–9, 266, 171–3, 175, 180, 182–4, 198,
268 n.46, 279, 295–7 201, 204, 206, 208, 211–12,
benevolence/humaneness (ren 仁) 68, 234–5, 237, 258–66, 269 n.68,
182, 284, 302 295–8
biodiversity loss 288–90, 298 Daodejing 道德經 2, 15, 18, 32,
biological annihilation 276, 288, 303 41–50, 54–5, 58 n.29, 58 n.30,
black/monochrome 9–11, 13, 73, 77, 106–15, 129–30, 143,
19–24, 241 145, 149, 152 n.1, 161–2,
Brentano, Franz 32–6, 38–9, 41, 166–73, 180, 182–3, 201, 247–8,
54–5, 279 258–66, 275, 278, 279–80,
Brooks, Peter 229, 230, 232, 237 295–7, 302
Buber, Martin 100 n.7, 105–15, de 德 (virtue, power) 43, 53, 64, 67–9,
116 n.6, 117 n.23, 117 n.26, 78, 111, 149, 173, 182–3, 197,
117 n.32, 118 n.69, 121–30, 201–5, 209–12, 259
131 n.1, 132 n.25, 132 n.28, death 2, 31, 32, 36–7, 40, 42, 47–8,
132 n.44, 161, 280–2, 284 51–6, 57 n.6, 57 n.7, 66–7, 75,
butterfly dream 41, 205–7, 256 78, 91, 126, 150, 200, 201, 287,
296, 297
Chan Buddhism 128 de-cultivation (unlearning) 198, 201–2,
Chandogya Upanishad 128 211–12
Changeless 44, 48 deep ecology 279–82, 284
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310 index
defaunation 276, 288, 290 Hegel, G.W.F. 10–16, 18–26, 121, 127,
Derrida, Jacques 258, 285 137–8, 140–1, 268 n.46, 279
descriptive psychology 38–9 Heidegger, Martin 110, 132 n.44, 135,
139–40, 145, 152 n.1, 161–75,
Earth System 276–8, 284, 288–9, 177–82, 184–5, 197–204, 209, 212,
291–3, 297, 303 253, 255, 275–6, 278–80, 285–6,
Écart 95, 255–6 298, 300–3
Eckhart, Meister 167, 170, 189 n.66, Herman, Jonathan 123, 125,
279, 302 132 n.28
emptiness 45, 47, 73, 128, 167–8, 170, Hölderlin, Friedrich 162–5, 178–9, 181
183, 208, 237–8, 249 Hothouse Earth 291, 293–5
Engels, Friedrich 279, 283 Hsiao, Paul Shih-Yi 152 n.1, 166, 279
Enlightenment 91–2, 102 n.22, 212, Huizi/Hui Shi 55–6, 92, 176, 177
297 Husserl, Edmund 1, 10, 35, 88–92,
Epochè 69, 89–92, 100, 198–9, 206, 99, 101 n.12, 106, 135, 139–40,
208 197–200, 204, 208, 277–9
fasting of the heart/mind (xinzhai I and Thou (Ich und Du) 105, 108–9,
心齋) 67, 77–8, 91, 202, 204, 205, 115, 121, 124–7, 129, 131 n.1
207–9, 211, 216 n.43, 237–8 idem-identity 94–5
forgetting (wang 忘)/forgetting the self incompossible 252–3
(zuowang 坐忘) 3, 15, 91, 180, 207, individuation (vereinzelung) 202
209–12, 215 n.26 inexistence 31–4, 252
fourfold (das Geviert) 275, 278, 298, ipse-identity 94–5
302–3 Iser, Wolfgang 223–7, 231, 236, 238
freedom 9–11, 18, 72, 74, 113, 137–8,
141, 146, 155 n.29, 172, 179, Jing Hao 荊浩 17–18, 22
181–2, 185, 208, 288
Fromm, Erich 280–2, 284 Kant, Immanuel 38–9, 142, 153 n.5,
fundamental attunement 279, 282–3, 285
(grundstimmung) 162, 177, 181
Laozi 老子 2, 62, 65, 106–8, 113–15,
Gadamer, Hans-Georg 165, 224–7, 121–4, 126, 129, 131 n.15,
285 136, 139, 142–5, 147–52, 171,
Gegnet 167, 302, 303 191 n.105, 201, 247, 258, 275,
gentleman (junzi 君子) 295 278–80, 295, 297–8, 300
gestalt theories 88, 96 Levinas, Emmanuel 105–6, 109, 228,
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 20, 136 230, 255
great awakening 40 Liezi 列子 278, 297
logotherapy 279–81, 283, 284
Hakuin 128
Harmony 3, 10, 16, 19, 21, 24, 65–6, Marion, Jean-Luc 12, 25
78, 259–60, 265, 281–4 Marx, Karl 138, 279–81, 283, 285
Hassidic 112, 122–3 Mendelsund, Peter 225–7, 235, 238,
heaven (tian 天, Himmel) 3, 16, 40, 242 n.28
43–5, 48–50, 52–3, 56, 66, 68, Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 88–9, 95–6,
71–6, 79–80, 110, 165, 171–3, 184, 98–9, 174, 199, 247–58, 260–2,
204, 207–8, 211–12, 236, 258, 260, 264–6, 267 n.4, 268 n.46,
264, 303, 306 n.26 269 n.58
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index 311
mystery 12, 21–2, 32, 36, 42–3, 46, 48, self-awareness 10, 37, 142
53, 55–6, 110, 121, 139, 147, 149, self-cultivation 91, 93–5,
172, 180, 201, 209, 261, 265 102 n.22, 201
mystical immersion (versenkung) self-examination 90, 212–13
127–8 self-transformation 52, 90–2, 95,
100, 148
Naess, Arne 280–2 sensory perception 33
naturalness/spontaneous (ziran shining (scheinen) 11, 17–25
自然) 2–3, 10–11, 14–15, 17–18, Shitao 石涛 16
50, 52, 66, 68, 74, 105, 108, 109, silence 47, 124, 133 n.51, 145,
111, 113–14, 125, 130, 149, 162, 163–4, 166, 173–5, 180, 183,
165, 167–71, 180–4, 198, 204, 209, 235, 247–53, 255, 257–61,
211, 258, 265, 295, 297 263, 265–6, 269 n.58
nondual correlative perception/ skepticism 88, 111, 201, 282, 286–7,
thinking 198, 201, 207, 210–11 295, 303
non-willing (nicht-wollen) 167, 171 solitariness, solitude (einsamkeit) 198,
nothing/nothingness (wu 無; das 202–3
Nichts) 44–8, 90, 142, 164, Spinoza, Baruch 148, 279
167–8, 185, 189 n.49, 189 n.50, Spirit Resonance (shenyun 神韻)
200–1, 266 10–11, 14–18
Stability Landscape 291–3, 297
Okakura Kakuzo 161 straw dogs (chu gou 芻狗) 260, 296
Su Shi 蘇軾 18
Paris Accord 291–2 sympathetic resonance (ganying
Potter’s Wheel 72–3, 76, 184, 236 感應) 79
Poulet, Georges 222–3, 225–7, 238
pre-objective order 88–9, 93, Taborn, Craig 227
96–7, 100 the necessity of the unnecessary
(die notwendigkeit des unnötigen)
Qian Zhongshu 錢鍾書 219 162, 175–6, 178, 181, 185
Tolkien 299–300
releasement (gelassenheit) 132 n.44,
162, 164, 167–72, 174, 177, 302 Ultimate Reality 3, 10, 32, 39, 41–3,
representational thinking 95 46–7, 50, 55
Umwelt 252, 255
sage (shengren 聖人) 3, 50, 52, 71–3,
75–6, 78–9, 90, 97, 111, 112, 129, Valery, Paul 252
131 n.15, 139, 143, 148, 151, virtue 53, 68, 111, 149, 173, 182–3,
170–3, 181, 184–5, 233–4, 236, 197, 201–2, 205, 209–12, 228, 235
238, 260, 262, 265, 275, 278, void 13, 44–6, 67, 95–6, 173, 185,
295–304 235, 248, 266, 296
Sallis, John 17, 25, 193 n.139 von Strauss, Victor 62, 107, 110, 148
Sartre, Jean-Paul 199, 255, 257
Saussure, Ferdinand de 257–8 Wang Wei 王維 13, 21–2
savage spirit 98–100 way, path (Weg) 107, 162, 164, 166–9
Scarry, Elaine 230–1, 238 Weiser 173, 300–1
scholastic philosophers 32–3 Wheelwright Pian 92, 97–9, 233–4
secret essence 47 will (wille) 162, 171, 177
sedimentation 69, 253, 261 will to power 63–6, 71–3, 78–9, 111
36138.indb 311 03/09/2019 11:16

312 index
without desire (wu yu 無欲) 78, 171–2 Zen 128, 152 n.1, 163–4, 174, 180,
Wolff, Christian 282–3, 285 203
wuwei 無為 (inactivity, non-action) Zhang Yanyuan 張彥遠 14–16, 23
3, 45, 47, 50, 111–12, 115, 125, Zhuangzi 莊子 2, 11, 14–15, 18–19,
129–30, 132 n.44, 143, 145–9, 162, 22–4, 31–2, 40–2, 48–56, 58 n.29,
164, 167–9, 171, 177, 204, 253, 61–5, 67–72, 74–80, 87–90, 92–5,
262, 297, 299 98–100, 100 n.7, 105–6, 108–11,
115, 121–3, 126–8, 131 n.15,
Xie He 謝赫 13, 15 150, 161–2, 169, 175–7, 179–85,
Xu Bing 徐冰 219, 239–40 186 n.4, 191 n.105, 192 n.137,
197–8, 200, 203–14, 215 n.26,
Yijing 易經 43, 70 216 n.42, 232–4, 236–9, 254, 256,
Yin-Yang 陰陽 45, 47–8 278, 280, 297
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Chapter · January 2020

Mary Irene Bockover

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Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early Twentieth-Century

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BLOOMSBURY, BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC and the Diana logo are trademarks

First published in Great Britain 2020

Copyright © David Chai and Contributors, 2020

For legal purposes the Acknowledgements on p. xii constitute an extension of this

Cover design: Louise Dugdale

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ISBN: HB: 978-1-3500-6958-9

Typeset by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk

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Herbert Fingarette (1921–2018)

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Part One: Precursory Encounters: Unearthing

1 Daoism and Hegel on Painting the Invisible Spirit:

2 Two Portrayals of Death in Light of the Views of

3 In the Light of Heaven before Sunrise: Zhuangzi and

Part Two: Early Encounters: Nourishing the Sprouts

4 The Pre-­objective and the Primordial: Elements of a

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5 Martin Buber’s Phenomenological Interpretation

6 Martin Buber’s Dao 121

7 The Dao of Existence: Jaspers and Laozi 135

Part Three: Mature Encounters: A Forest of Ideas

8 Heidegger and Daoism: A Dialogue on the Useless

9 Heidegger and Zhuangzi: The Transformative Art

10 The Reader’s Chopper: Finding Affinities from

11 Unknowing Silence in Laozi’s Daodejing and

Part Four: A Most Urgent Encounter: Re-Rooting

12 Grounding Phenomenology in Laozi’s Daodejing:

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Mary I. Bockover is Professor of Philosophy at Humboldt State University,

David Chai is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at the Chinese University of

Bret W. Davis is Thomas J. Higgins, S.J. Professor of Philosophy at Loyola

Katrin Froese is Professor of Philosophy and Religious Studies at the University

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Patricia Huntington is Professor of Philosophy and Religious Studies at

Kwok-Ying Lau is Professor of Philosophy at the Chinese University

Sarah A. Mattice is Associate Professor in the Department of Philosophy

Eric S. Nelson is Professor of Humanities at the Hong Kong University of

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Graham Parkes taught Asian and comparative philosophy at the University

Martin Schönfeld is Professor in the Department of Philosophy and in the

Mario Wenning is Associate Professor at the University of Macau and Vice

Jason M. Wirth is Professor of Philosophy at Seattle University, and works

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I am honored to be joined by such an illustrious group of contributors,

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4 The Pre-objective and the Primordial: Elements of a

the multi-perspectival fluidity of grayness. Chinese ink-wash paintings are

In other words, if one wishes to capture the inner-spirit of a subject or

is the study of psychological phenomena from a first-person point of view—