Computer science

Computer science is the study of computation, automation, and information.[1][2][3] Computer science spans Fundamental areas of computer science
theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, information theory, and automation) to
practical disciplines (including the design and implementation of hardware and software).[4][5][6] Computer
science is generally considered an academic discipline and distinct from computer programming.[7]

Algorithms and data structures are central to computer science.[8] The theory of computation concerns abstract Programming language theory Computational
models of computation and general classes of problems that can be solved using them. The fields of complexity
cryptography and computer security involve studying the means for secure communication and for preventing theory
security vulnerabilities. Computer graphics and computational geometry address the generation of images.
Programming language theory considers different ways to describe computational processes, and database
theory concerns the management of repositories of data. Human–computer interaction investigates the interfaces
through which humans and computers interact, and software engineering focuses on the design and principles
behind developing software. Areas such as operating systems, networks and embedded systems investigate the
principles and design behind complex systems. Computer architecture describes the construction of computer Artificial intelligence Computer architecture
components and computer-operated equipment. Artificial intelligence and machine learning aim to synthesize
goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, planning and
learning found in humans and animals. Within artificial intelligence, computer vision aims to understand and process image and video data, while natural language
processing aims to understand and process textual and linguistic data.

The fundamental concern of computer science is determining what can and cannot be automated.[2][9][3][10][11] The Turing Award is generally recognized as the
highest distinction in computer science.[12][13]

History
The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines
for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such as multiplication
and division. Algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated
computing equipment.[17]

Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623.[18] In 1673, Gottfried Leibniz
demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner.[19] Leibniz may be considered the first computer scientist
and information theorist, because of various reasons, including the fact that he documented the binary number system. In 1820,
Thomas de Colmar launched the mechanical calculator industry[note 1] when he invented his simplified arithmometer, the first
calculating machine strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. Charles Babbage started the
design of the first automatic mechanical calculator, his Difference Engine, in 1822, which eventually gave him the idea of the first
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
programmable mechanical calculator, his Analytical Engine.[20] He started developing this machine in 1834, and "in less than two (1646–1716) developed
years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer".[21] "A crucial step was the adoption of a punched logic in a binary number
card system derived from the Jacquard loom"[21] making it infinitely programmable.[note 2] In 1843, during the translation of a system and has been
French article on the Analytical Engine, Ada Lovelace wrote, in one of the many notes she included, an algorithm to compute the called the "founder of
Bernoulli numbers, which is considered to be the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer science".[14]
computer.[22] Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information;
eventually his company became part of IBM. Following Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, Percy Ludgate in 1909
published[23] the 2nd of the only two designs for mechanical analytical engines in history. In 1937, one hundred years after
Babbage's impossible dream, Howard Aiken convinced IBM, which was making all kinds of punched card equipment and was
also in the calculator business[24] to develop his giant programmable calculator, the ASCC/Harvard Mark I, based on Babbage's
Analytical Engine, which itself used cards and a central computing unit. When the machine was finished, some hailed it as
"Babbage's dream come true".[25]

During the 1940s, with the development of new and more powerful computing machines such as the Atanasoff–Berry computer
and ENIAC, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors.[26] As it became clear that
computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study
computation in general. In 1945, IBM founded the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory at Columbia University in New York Charles Babbage is
City. The renovated fraternity house on Manhattan's West Side was IBM's first laboratory devoted to pure science. The lab is the sometimes referred to as
forerunner of IBM's Research Division, which today operates research facilities around the world.[27] Ultimately, the close the "father of computing".[15]
relationship between IBM and Columbia University was instrumental in the emergence of a new scientific discipline, with
Columbia offering one of the first academic-credit courses in computer science in 1946.[28] Computer science began to be
established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s.[29][30] The world's first computer science degree program, the Cambridge Diploma in
Computer Science, began at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953. The first computer science department in the United States was formed at
Purdue University in 1962.[31] Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own
rights.

Etymology
Although first proposed in 1956,[32] the term "computer science" appears in a 1959 article in Communications of the ACM,[33] in which Louis Fein argues for the
creation of a Graduate School in Computer Sciences analogous to the creation of Harvard Business School in 1921.[34] Louis justifies the name by arguing that,
like management science, the subject is applied and interdisciplinary in nature, while having the characteristics typical of an academic discipline.[33] His efforts,
and those of others such as numerical analyst George Forsythe, were rewarded: universities went on to create such departments, starting with Purdue in 1962.[35]
Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have
been proposed.[36] Certain departments of major universities prefer the term computing science, to emphasize precisely that difference. Danish scientist Peter Naur
suggested the term datalogy,[37] to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not
necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of
Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the Scandinavian
countries. An alternative term, also proposed by Naur, is data science; this is now used for a multi-disciplinary field of data
analysis, including statistics and databases.

In the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested in the
Communications of the ACM—turingineer, turologist, flow-charts-man, applied meta-mathematician, and applied
epistemologist.[38] Three months later in the same journal, comptologist was suggested, followed next year by hypologist.[39] The
term computics has also been suggested.[40] In Europe, terms derived from contracted translations of the expression "automatic
information" (e.g. "informazione automatica" in Italian) or "information and mathematics" are often used, e.g. informatique
(French), Informatik (German), informatica (Italian, Dutch), informática (Spanish, Portuguese), informatika (Slavic languages and
Hungarian) or pliroforiki (πληροφορική, which means informatics) in Greek. Similar words have also been adopted in the UK (as
in the School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh).[41] "In the U.S., however, informatics is linked with applied computing, or Ada Lovelace published the
first algorithm intended for
computing in the context of another domain."[42]
processing on a
[16]
A folkloric quotation, often attributed to—but almost certainly not first formulated by—Edsger Dijkstra, states that "computer computer.
science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes."[note 3] The design and deployment of computers and
computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of
computer hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called
information technology or information systems. However, there has been exchange of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science
research also often intersects other disciplines, such as cognitive science, linguistics, mathematics, physics, biology, Earth science, statistics, philosophy, and logic.

Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines, with some observers saying that
computing is a mathematical science.[29] Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as Kurt Gödel, Alan Turing, John
von Neumann, Rózsa Péter and Alonzo Church and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as mathematical logic,
category theory, domain theory, and algebra.[32]

The relationship between Computer Science and Software Engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term "Software
Engineering" means, and how computer science is defined.[43] David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines,
has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is
the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.[44]

The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department is formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an
engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment with computational
science. Both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research.

Philosophy

Epistemology of computer science

Despite the word "science" in its name, there is debate over whether or not computer science is a discipline of science,[45] mathematics,[46] or engineering.[47]
Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon argued in 1975,

Computer science is an empirical discipline. We would have called it an experimental science, but like astronomy, economics, and geology, some of
its unique forms of observation and experience do not fit a narrow stereotype of the experimental method. Nonetheless, they are experiments. Each
new machine that is built is an experiment. Actually constructing the machine poses a question to nature; and we listen for the answer by observing
the machine in operation and analyzing it by all analytical and measurement means available.[47]

It has since been argued that computer science can be classified as an empirical science since it makes use of empirical testing to evaluate the correctness of
programs, but a problem remains in defining the laws and theorems of computer science (if any exist) and defining the nature of experiments in computer
science.[47] Proponents of classifying computer science as an engineering discipline argue that the reliability of computational systems is investigated in the same
way as bridges in civil engineering and airplanes in aerospace engineering.[47] They also argue that while empirical sciences observe what presently exists,
computer science observes what is possible to exist and while scientists discover laws from observation, no proper laws have been found in computer science and
it is instead concerned with creating phenomena.[47]

Proponents of classifying computer science as a mathematical discipline argue that computer programs are physical realizations of mathematical entities and
programs can be deductively reasoned through mathematical formal methods.[47] Computer scientists Edsger W. Dijkstra and Tony Hoare regard instructions for
computer programs as mathematical sentences and interpret formal semantics for programming languages as mathematical axiomatic systems.[47]

Paradigms of computer science

A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate paradigms in computer science. Peter Wegner argued that those paradigms are
science, technology, and mathematics.[48] Peter Denning's working group argued that they are theory, abstraction (modeling), and design.[49] Amnon H. Eden
described them as the "rationalist paradigm" (which treats computer science as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and
mainly employs deductive reasoning), the "technocratic paradigm" (which might be found in engineering approaches, most prominently in software engineering),
and the "scientific paradigm" (which approaches computer-related artifacts from the empirical perspective of natural sciences,[50] identifiable in some branches of
artificial intelligence).[51] Computer science focuses on methods involved in design, specification, programming, verification, implementation and testing of
human-made computing systems.[52]

Fields
As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing
computing systems in hardware and software.[53][54] CSAB, formerly called Computing Sciences Accreditation Board—which is made up of representatives of
the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), and the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE CS)[55]—identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline
of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture.
In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database
systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, human–computer interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic
computation as being important areas of computer science.[53]

Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes.

— Edsger Dijkstra

Theoretical computer science

Theoretical Computer Science is mathematical and abstract in spirit, but it derives its motivation from the practical and everyday computation. Its aim is to
understand the nature of computation and, as a consequence of this understanding, provide more efficient methodologies.

Theory of computation

According to Peter Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What can be automated?"[29] Theory of computation is focused on
answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer
the first question, computability theory examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical models of computation. The second question is
addressed by computational complexity theory, which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude of computational
problems.

The famous P = NP? problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems,[56] is an open problem in the theory of computation.

Automata theory Formal languages Computability theory Computational complexity theory

Models of computation Quantum computing theory Logic circuit theory Cellular automata

Information and coding theory

Information theory, closely related to probability and statistics, is related to the quantification of information. This was developed by Claude Shannon to find
fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data.[57] Coding theory is the study of the
properties of codes (systems for converting information from one form to another) and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for data compression,
cryptography, error detection and correction, and more recently also for network coding. Codes are studied for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable data
transmission methods. [58]

Coding theory Channel capacity Algorithmic information theory Signal detection theory Kolmogorov complexity

Data structures and algorithms

Data structures and algorithms are the studies of commonly used computational methods and their computational efficiency.

O(n2)
 Analysis of Algorithm Data Combinatorial Computational Randomized
algorithms design structures optimization geometry algorithms

Programming language theory and formal methods

Programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of
programming languages and their individual features. It falls within the discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting mathematics, software
engineering, and linguistics. It is an active research area, with numerous dedicated academic journals.

Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically based technique for the specification, development and verification of software and hardware systems.[59]
The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate
mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. They form an important theoretical underpinning for software engineering,
especially where safety or security is involved. Formal methods are a useful adjunct to software testing since they help avoid errors and can also give a framework
for testing. For industrial use, tool support is required. However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the development of
high-integrity and life-critical systems, where safety or security is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly broad
variety of theoretical computer science fundamentals, in particular logic calculi, formal languages, automata theory, and program semantics, but also type systems
and algebraic data types to problems in software and hardware specification and verification.

Formal semantics Type theory Compiler design Programming languages Formal verification Automated theorem proving

Applied computer science

Computer graphics and visualization

Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents and involves the synthesis and manipulation of image data. The study is connected to many other fields in
computer science, including computer vision, image processing, and computational geometry, and is heavily applied in the fields of special effects and video
games.

2D computer graphics Computer animation Rendering Mixed reality Virtual reality Solid modeling

Image and sound processing

Information can take the form of images, sound, video or other multimedia. Bits of information can be streamed via signals. Its processing is the central notion of
informatics, the European view on computing, which studies information processing algorithms independently of the type of information carrier - whether it is
electrical, mechanical or biological. This field plays important role in information theory, telecommunications, information engineering and has applications in
medical image computing and speech synthesis, among others. What is the lower bound on the complexity of fast Fourier transform algorithms? is one of
unsolved problems in theoretical computer science.

FFT algorithms Image processing Speech recognition Data compression Medical image computing Speech synthesis

Computational science, finance and engineering

Scientific computing (or computational science) is the field of study concerned with constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and
using computers to analyze and solve scientific problems. A major usage of scientific computing is simulation of various processes, including computational fluid
dynamics, physical, electrical, and electronic systems and circuits, as well as societies and social situations (notably war games) along with their habitats, among
many others. Modern computers enable optimization of such designs as complete aircraft. Notable in electrical and electronic circuit design are SPICE,[60] as well
as software for physical realization of new (or modified) designs. The latter includes essential design software for integrated circuits.[61]
 Numerical Computational Computational Medical Computational Compu
Bioinformatics Neuroinformatics Psychoinformatics
analysis physics chemistry informatics engineering musi

Social computing and human–computer interaction

Social computing is an area that is concerned with the intersection of social behavior and computational systems. Human–computer interaction research develops
theories, principles, and guidelines for user interface designers.

Software engineering

Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying the software in order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast
to build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the application of engineering practices to software. Software engineering deals with the
organizing and analyzing of software—it doesn't just deal with the creation or manufacture of new software, but its internal arrangement and maintenance. For
example software testing, systems engineering, technical debt and software development processes.

Artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) aims to or is required to synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation,
learning, and communication found in humans and animals. From its origins in cybernetics and in the Dartmouth Conference (1956), artificial intelligence research
has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as applied mathematics, symbolic logic, semiotics, electrical engineering, philosophy of
mind, neurophysiology, and social intelligence. AI is associated in the popular mind with robotic development, but the main field of practical application has been
as an embedded component in areas of software development, which require computational understanding. The starting point in the late 1940s was Alan Turing's
question "Can computers think?", and the question remains effectively unanswered, although the Turing test is still used to assess computer output on the scale of
human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in
domains of computer application involving complex real-world data.

Computational learning theory Computer vision Neural networks Planning and scheduling

Natural language processing Computational game theory Evolutionary computation Autonomic computing

Representation and reasoning Pattern recognition Robotics Swarm intelligence

Computer systems

Computer architecture and organization

Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely on
the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory.[62] Computer engineers study computational logic and design
of computer hardware, from individual processor components, microcontrollers, personal computers to supercomputers and embedded systems. The term
"architecture" in computer literature can be traced to the work of Lyle R. Johnson and Frederick P. Brooks, Jr., members of the Machine Organization department
in IBM's main research center in 1959.
 Processing unit Microarchitecture Multiprocessing Processor design

Ubiquitous computing Systems architecture Operating systems Input/output

Embedded system Real-time computing Dependability Interpreter

Concurrent, parallel and distributed computing

Concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other.[63] A number of
mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including Petri nets, process calculi and the Parallel Random Access Machine
model.[64] When multiple computers are connected in a network while using concurrency, this is known as a distributed system. Computers within that distributed
system have their own private memory, and information can be exchanged to achieve common goals.[65]

Computer networks

This branch of computer science aims to manage networks between computers worldwide.

Computer security and cryptography

Computer security is a branch of computer technology with the objective of protecting information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while
maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users.

Historical cryptography is the art of writing and deciphering secret messages. Modern cryptography is the scientific study of problems relating to distributed
computations that can be attacked.[66] Technologies studied in modern cryptography include symmetric and asymmetric encryption, digital signatures,
cryptographic hash functions, key-agreement protocols, blockchain, zero-knowledge proofs, and garbled circuits.

Databases and data mining

A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store,
create, maintain, and search data, through database models and query languages. Data mining is a process of discovering patterns in large data sets.

Discoveries
The philosopher of computing Bill Rapaport noted three Great Insights of Computer Science:[67]

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's, George Boole's, Alan Turing's, Claude Shannon's, and Samuel Morse's insight: there are only two objects that a
computer has to deal with in order to represent "anything".[note 4]

All the information about any computable problem can be represented using only 0 and 1 (or any other bistable pair that can flip-flop
between two easily distinguishable states, such as "on/off", "magnetized/de-magnetized", "high-voltage/low-voltage", etc.).

Alan Turing's insight: there are only five actions that a computer has to perform in order to do "anything".

Every algorithm can be expressed in a language for a computer consisting of only five basic instructions:[68]
move left one location;
move right one location;
read symbol at current location;
print 0 at current location;
print 1 at current location.

Corrado Böhm and Giuseppe Jacopini's insight: there are only three ways of combining these actions (into more complex ones) that are
needed in order for a computer to do "anything".[69]

Only three rules are needed to combine any set of basic instructions into more complex ones:
 sequence: first do this, then do that;
selection: IF such-and-such is the case, THEN do this, ELSE do that;
repetition: WHILE such-and-such is the case, DO this.
Note that the three rules of Boehm's and Jacopini's insight can be further simplified with the use of goto (which means it is more
elementary than structured programming).

Programming paradigms
Programming languages can be used to accomplish different tasks in different ways. Common programming paradigms include:

Functional programming, a style of building the structure and elements of computer programs that treats computation as the evaluation of
mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It is a declarative programming paradigm, which means programming is done with
expressions or declarations instead of statements.[70]
Imperative programming, a programming paradigm that uses statements that change a program's state.[71] In much the same way that the
imperative mood in natural languages expresses commands, an imperative program consists of commands for the computer to perform.
Imperative programming focuses on describing how a program operates.
Object-oriented programming, a programming paradigm based on the concept of "objects", which may contain data, in the form of fields, often
known as attributes; and code, in the form of procedures, often known as methods. A feature of objects is that an object's procedures can
access and often modify the data fields of the object with which they are associated. Thus object-oriented computer programs are made out of
objects that interact with one another.[72]
Service-oriented programming, a programming paradigm that uses "services" as the unit of computer work, to design and implement
integrated business applications and mission critical software programs

Many languages offer support for multiple paradigms, making the distinction more a matter of style than of technical capabilities.[73]

Research
Conferences are important events for computer science research. During these conferences, researchers from the public and private sectors present their recent
work and meet. Unlike in most other academic fields, in computer science, the prestige of conference papers is greater than that of journal publications.[74][75] One
proposed explanation for this is the quick development of this relatively new field requires rapid review and distribution of results, a task better handled by
conferences than by journals.[76]

Education
Computer Science, known by its near synonyms, Computing, Computer Studies, has been taught in UK schools since the days of batch processing, mark
sensitive cards and paper tape but usually to a select few students.[77] In 1981, the BBC produced a micro-computer and classroom network and Computer Studies
became common for GCE O level students (11–16-year-old), and Computer Science to A level students. Its importance was recognised, and it became a
compulsory part of the National Curriculum, for Key Stage 3 & 4. In September 2014 it became an entitlement for all pupils over the age of 4.[78]

In the US, with 14,000 school districts deciding the curriculum, provision was fractured.[79] According to a 2010 report by the Association for Computing
Machinery (ACM) and Computer Science Teachers Association (CSTA), only 14 out of 50 states have adopted significant education standards for high school
computer science.[80] According to a 2021 report, only 51% of high schools in the US offer computer science.[81]

Israel, New Zealand, and South Korea have included computer science in their national secondary education curricula,[82][83] and several others are following.[84]

See also
Computer engineering List of computer science awards
Computer programming List of important publications in computer science
Digital Revolution List of pioneers in computer science
Information and communications technology List of unsolved problems in computer science
Information technology Programming language
List of computer scientists Software engineering

Notes
1. In 1851
2. "The introduction of punched cards into the new engine was important not only as a more convenient form of control than the drums, or
because programs could now be of unlimited extent, and could be stored and repeated without the danger of introducing errors in setting the
machine by hand; it was important also because it served to crystallize Babbage's feeling that he had invented something really new,
something much more than a sophisticated calculating machine." Bruce Collier, 1970
3. See the entry "Computer science" on Wikiquote for the history of this quotation.
4. The word "anything" is written in quotation marks because there are things that computers cannot do. One example is: to answer the question
if an arbitrary given computer program will eventually finish or run forever (the Halting problem).

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Further reading
Overview
Tucker, Allen B. (2004). Computer Science Handbook (2nd ed.). Chapman and Hall/CRC. ISBN 978-1-58488-360-9.
"Within more than 70 chapters, every one new or significantly revised, one can find any kind of information and references about computer
science one can imagine. [...] all in all, there is absolute nothing about Computer Science that can not be found in the 2.5 kilogram-
encyclopaedia with its 110 survey articles [...]." (Christoph Meinel, Zentralblatt MATH)
van Leeuwen, Jan (1994). Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-72020-5.
"[...] this set is the most unique and possibly the most useful to the [theoretical computer science] community, in support both of teaching
and research [...]. The books can be used by anyone wanting simply to gain an understanding of one of these areas, or by someone
desiring to be in research in a topic, or by instructors wishing to find timely information on a subject they are teaching outside their major
areas of expertise." (Rocky Ross, SIGACT News)
Ralston, Anthony; Reilly, Edwin D.; Hemmendinger, David (2000). Encyclopedia of Computer Science (http://portal.acm.org/ralston.cfm)
(4th ed.). Grove's Dictionaries. ISBN 978-1-56159-248-7. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200608005417/https://dl.acm.org/doi/book/
10.5555/1074100) from the original on June 8, 2020. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
"Since 1976, this has been the definitive reference work on computer, computing, and computer science. [...] Alphabetically arranged and
classified into broad subject areas, the entries cover hardware, computer systems, information and data, software, the mathematics of
computing, theory of computation, methodologies, applications, and computing milieu. The editors have done a commendable job of
blending historical perspective and practical reference information. The encyclopedia remains essential for most public and academic
library reference collections." (Joe Accardin, Northeastern Illinois Univ., Chicago)
Edwin D. Reilly (2003). Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology (https://archive.org/details/milestonesincomp0000reil).
Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-57356-521-9.

Selected literature
Knuth, Donald E. (1996). Selected Papers on Computer Science. CSLI Publications, Cambridge University Press.
Collier, Bruce (1990). The little engine that could've: The calculating machines of Charles Babbage (http://robroy.dyndns.info/collier/index.htm
l). Garland Publishing Inc. ISBN 978-0-8240-0043-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070120190231/http://robroy.dyndns.info/collier/i
ndex.html) from the original on January 20, 2007. Retrieved May 4, 2013.
Cohen, Bernard (2000). Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer. The MIT press. ISBN 978-0-262-53179-5.
Tedre, Matti (2014). The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis.
Randell, Brian (1973). The origins of Digital computers, Selected Papers. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-06169-4.
"Covering a period from 1966 to 1993, its interest lies not only in the content of each of these papers – still timely today – but also in their
being put together so that ideas expressed at different times complement each other nicely." (N. Bernard, Zentralblatt MATH)

Articles
Peter J. Denning. Is computer science science? (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1053309&coll=&dl=ACM&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN
=6184618), Communications of the ACM, April 2005.
Peter J. Denning, Great principles in computing curricula (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=971303&dl=ACM&coll=&CFID=15151515&CF
TOKEN=6184618), Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 2004.
Research evaluation for computer science, Informatics Europe report (http://www.eqanie.eu/media/Como%20Conference/Tanca-Research_A
ssessment_A_new_Initiative_by_Informatics_Europe.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171018181136/http://www.eqanie.eu/medi
a/Como%20Conference/Tanca-Research_Assessment_A_new_Initiative_by_Informatics_Europe.pdf) October 18, 2017, at the Wayback
Machine. Shorter journal version: Bertrand Meyer, Christine Choppy, Jan van Leeuwen and Jorgen Staunstrup, Research evaluation for
computer science, in Communications of the ACM, vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 31–34, April 2009.

Curriculum and classification

Association for Computing Machinery. 1998 ACM Computing Classification System (https://web.archive.org/web/20080828002940/http://www.
acm.org/class/1998/overview.html). 1998.
Joint Task Force of Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), Association for Information Systems (AIS) and IEEE Computer Society
(IEEE CS). Computing Curricula 2005: The Overview Report (https://web.archive.org/web/20141021153204/http://www.acm.org/education/cur
ric_vols/CC2005-March06Final.pdf). September 30, 2005.
Norman Gibbs, Allen Tucker. "A model curriculum for a liberal arts degree in computer science". Communications of the ACM, Volume 29
Issue 3, March 1986.

External links
Computer science (https://curlie.org/Computers/Computer_Science/) at Curlie
Scholarly Societies in Computer Science (http://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/compsci_soc.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110
623002546/http://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/compsci_soc.html) June 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
What is Computer Science? (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fjMU-km-Cso)
Best Papers Awards in Computer Science since 1996 (http://jeffhuang.com/best_paper_awards.html)
Photographs of computer scientists (http://se.ethz.ch/~meyer/gallery/) by Bertrand Meyer
EECS.berkeley.edu (http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/department/history.shtml)

Bibliography and academic search engines

CiteSeerx (http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/) (article): search engine, digital library and repository for scientific and academic papers with a focus on
computer and information science.
 DBLP Computer Science Bibliography (http://dblp.uni-trier.de/) (article): computer science bibliography website hosted at Universität Trier, in
Germany.
The Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies (http://liinwww.ira.uka.de/bibliography/) (Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies)

Professional organizations
Association for Computing Machinery (http://www.acm.org/)
IEEE Computer Society (http://www.computer.org/)
Informatics Europe (http://www.informatics-europe.org/)
AAAI (http://www.aaai.org/home.html)
AAAS Computer Science (https://web.archive.org/web/20160205000119/http://membercentral.aaas.org/categories/computer-science)

Misc
Computer Science—Stack Exchange (https://cs.stackexchange.com/): a community-run question-and-answer site for computer science
What is computer science (http://www.cs.bu.edu/AboutCS/WhatIsCS.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150218130340/http://www.
cs.bu.edu/AboutCS/WhatIsCS.pdf) February 18, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
Is computer science science? (https://web.archive.org/web/20170810205524/https://www.cs.mtu.edu/~john/jenning.pdf)
Computer Science (Software) Must be Considered as an Independent Discipline. (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306078165_Com
puter_Science_Software_Must_be_Considered_as_an_Independent_Discipline_Computer_Science_Software_must_not_be_Treated_as_a
_Sub-Domain_or_Subset_of_Mathematics)

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