Section IV

THE PHILOSPHIC, PAURANIC AND EARLY BHAKTI PERIOD (300 – 1200 AD)

THE PHILOSPHICAL SYSTEMS (SHAD-DARSANAS)

According to the traditional principles of classification, these enlightened philosophic thought flows of the
sages are classified into two broad categories viz., orthodox (astika) and heterodox (nastika). These words
normally convey a division of thinkers into ‘theist’ and ‘atheist’. Orthodox systems are those which accept
the authority of the Vedas, while the heterodox  systems are those which reject it.  To the latter group
belong the three systems of Charvaka, Buddhism and Jainism.
The  ‘Shaddarshanas’, or the six systems of Indian  philosophy belong to the former group.   These
systems are called Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimasa, Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta. They
generally deal with four topics: (i) Existence and nature of Brahman (ii) Nature of the jiva or the individual
soul (iii) Creation of the jagat or the world (iv) Moksha or liberation and the disciplines that lead to it.

I. NYAYA DARSANA
Almost all the branches of Indian philosophy deal with two subjects viz. pramanas or valid sources
of knowledge and prameyas or things to be known  from them. Since Nyaya Darshana gives priority to the
first subject, thereby laying the foundation for Indian logic, it is also called Nyaya Vidya or Tarka  Sastra. The
Nyaya school of philosophical speculation is based on texts known as the Nyaya Sutras, which were written
by Sage Gautama .
According to the Nyaya school, there are four sources of knowledge (pramanas): (i) perception
(pratyaksha), (ii) inference (anumana), (iii) comparison (upamana) and (iv) verbal testimony (shabda).
When a sense organ comes  into contact with a sense object it produces a true, clear and an unerring 
knowledge of the object perceived which is termed as direct perception. Inference, called Anumana, is
knowledge of an object based on the knowledge of another object. Comparison, which is Upamana,  is the
knowledge produced by a given description of an object which is already  known. Verbal Testimony or
Word, or Shabda  is also accepted as a pramana.  It can be of two types, Vaidika  (Vedic), which are the
words of the four  sacred Vedas, and are described as the Word of God, and Laukika, or words and writings
of trustworthy human beings. Knowledge obtained through each of these can, of course, still be either valid
or invalid. As a result,  Nyaya scholars again went to great pains to identify, in each case, what it  took to
make knowledge valid, creating in the process a number of explanatory  schemes based on pure logic.
The Nyaya philosophy's another important achievement was to prove the existence of God (one
Supreme God, called Ishwara), mostly by logic, in answer to repeated attempts by Buddhists to disprove the
existence of  God. Some of their arguments are given below:
An effect is produced by a cause, and similarly, the universe must also have a cause. The efficient
cause of the world must have an absolute knowledge of all the materials of creation, and hence it must be
God. Hence from the creation, the existence of the Creator is proved.
Atoms are inactive and properties are unphysical. So it must be God who creates the world with his
will by causing the atoms to join. Self-combination of inanimate and lifeless things is not possible as
otherwise atoms would only combine at random, creating chaos. Hence there is an invisible hand of a wise
organiser behind the systematic grouping of the ultimate atoms into molecules. Such a final organiser is
God.
Just as a material thing falls off without a support, similarly, God is the supporter and bearer of this
world, without which the world would not have remained, integrated. This universe is hence superintended
within God, which proves his existence.
The size of a molecule depends on the number of the atoms that go to constitute it. This requisite
number of the atoms that go to form a particular compound could not have been originally the object of
the perception of any human being; so its contemplator must be God.
 It is seen that some people in this world are happy, some are in misery. Some are rich and some
poor. The Naiyayikas explain this by the concept of Karma and reincarnation. The fruit of an
individual's actions does not always lie within the reach of the individual who is the agent. There ought to
be, therefore, a dispenser of the fruits of actions, and this supreme dispenser is God.

II. VAISESIKA DARSANA

Historically, Vaisheshika system has been closely associated with the Nyaya school of logic. The Vaisheshika
school was founded by Sage Kanaada (Kana-ad, literally, atom-eater).  It postulates an atomic pluralism in
terms of which all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a certain number of finite atoms. God is
regarded as the fundamental force who causes consciousness in these atoms. The basic text is Kanaada’s
Vsisheshika  Sutras.
Being associated with the school of logic, Vaisesika texts use logical arguments to prove that the
world is made of finite number of indivisible atoms (paramanus). Later, Vaisesika philosophers developed a
theory to explain the properties of materials as the interaction of different types of atoms that make up the
material. These materials are called padarthas. According to them the functioning of atoms was guided or
directed by the will of the Supreme Being. They accept the existence of God called Ishwara or Maheshwara
which is the Supreme Intelligent Being under whose will and guidance this world is created, sustained
and dissolved.
The starting point of the creation is the Will of God. The first product of the Divine Will is Brahma
who is the chief architect of creation. Brahma proceeds with further creation in accordance with the totality
of the unseen merits and demerits of the individual souls by setting  in motion the atoms to combine with
one another causing the world. The process of dissolution is in the reverse order where Brahma gives up his
body and Ishwara takes charge of the process of dissolution. The whole world is then reduced to the
primary state of padarthas.
Therefore this system is a theistic form of atomism suggesting that creation is not a process of
chance but a choice executed by God in a well planned manner according to the karmas of the individual
jivas for the proper realization of their ultimate perfection. Over the centuries, the school merged with the
Nyaya system of Indian philosophy to form the combined school of Nyaya-Vaisesika because of their closely
related metaphysical theories.

III. SAMKHYA DARSANA

Samkhya (or Sankhya),  is regarded as the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism. The
sage Kapila is traditionally considered to be the founder of the Samkhya school. His text is called Samkhya 
Sutras.  However, the earliest available and reliable text of classical Samkhya is the Samkhya Karika, 
written by Ishvara Krishna. Unlike many of the other systematic schools of Hindu philosophy, the Samkhya
system does not explicitly attempt to align itself with the authority of the Vedas.
Its philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two eternal realities: purusha and prakrti. It is
therefore a strongly dualist and philosophy. Metaphysically, Samkhya maintains a radical duality between
spirit/consciousness (Purusha) and matter (Prakrti). All physical events are considered to be manifestations
of the evolution of Prakrti. Each conscious being is a Purusha, and is limitless and unrestricted to its body.
Samkhya (unlike Advaita Vedanta and other schools) admits plurality of purusas. Bondage arises when the
Purusha is misled as to its own identity and confuses itself with the physical body. Jiva is that state of
Purusa in which Purusa lies bonded to Prakriti through the glue of desire. The spirit is liberated with the
realization that it is distinct from and not restricted to physical matter.
Samkhya does not describe what happens after moksa and does not mention anything about God.

IV. YOGA DARSANA

Yoga is that which helps a jiva to attain  concentration on Ishwara and ultimate union with Him. Sage
Patanjali’s work entitled the Yoga Sutras is the influential text for this school of thought. Historically, the
Samkhya school has been closely associated  with the Yoga school of philosophy.
Samkhyan doctrine of the relationship between Purusha  and Prakriti is crucial to Patanjali's Yoga
Darshana. The Samkhya system accepts only purusha (the individual soul) and prakrti or pradhana
(nature or matter) as fundamental realities and does not accept Ishwara or God. The Yoga Darshana
accepts all the principles of the Samkhya, and in addition, also accepts Ishwara or God. The Samkhya gives
primary importance to tattwajnana or enquiry  into the nature of truth while the Yoga deals primarily with
sadhanas or spiritual disciplines.
The significant variation of the Yoga from the Samkhya  is not only the incorporation of the concept
of Ishvara (a personal God) into its  metaphysical worldview (which the Samkhya does not) but also
upholding of  Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate.
The Yoga system lays down elaborate prescriptions for  gradually gaining physical and mental
control and mastery over the  "personal self", both body and mind, until one's consciousness has 
intensified sufficiently enough to allow for the awareness of one's "real  Self" (the soul, or Atman), as
distinct from one's feelings, thoughts and  actions. By following these prescriptions or sadhanas (ashtanga
yoga or eight steps of yoga) one realises his essential nature and instantly freed from samsara, the cycle of
transmigration, and attains kaivalya. [It also utilizes the Brahman/Atman terminology and concepts that
are  found in the Upanishads, thus  breaking from the Samkhya school by adopting concepts of Vedantic
nondualism.]
Realization of this goal of Yoga is known as moksha, nirvana and samadhi. This realization of the
Atman is nothing other than attaining the infinite Brahman.

V. PURVA MIMAMSA DARSANA

The main objective of the Purva (earlier) Mimamsa  school was to establish the authority of the Vedas. 
Consequently this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the methodology
of interpretation with the help of which complicated Vedic injunctions regarding rituals are understood and
practised. The Mimamsa  Sutras of Jaimini is the basic text of this system.
Its adherents (Mimamsakas) believed that: (i) one must have unquestionable faith in the Vedas
which are infallible (ii) there is a soul which survives the death of the body and enjoys the fruits of the
rituals in heaven (iii) there is a power of potency which preserves the effects of the rituals  performed in the
soul yielding fruits after death (iv) the world is real (v) our life and actions performed here are real and not
mere dreams.
They believe in a magical power of the mantras and yajnas which sustains all the activity of
the universe. In keeping with this belief, they laid great emphasis on dharma, which they understood as
the performance of Vedic rituals. Every human being is bound to perform these Vedic duties for duty’s sake
only because Vedas command them and none has got the  choice not to do them or do them in a different
way.
The Mimamsa accepted the logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, but felt that
they paid insufficient attention to right action (action here refers to sacrifices and rituals). According to the
Mimamsa, the very striving for liberation stemmed from a selfish desire to be free. Only by acting in
accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas could one attain salvation which includes a belief in the
varna and ashrama system.
While Mimamsa does not receive much scholarly attention these days, its influence can be felt in
the life of  the practising Hindu in the performance of rites, rituals and observance of religious  ordinances.
 
VI. UTTARA MIMAMSA DARSANA (VEDANTA)
The Uttara (later) Mimamsa school commonly known as  the Vedanta, concentrates on the philosophical 
teachings of the Upanishads rather  than on the ritualistic injunctions of the Brahmanas. While the
traditional Vedic 'karma kanda' (ritualistic  components of religion) continued to be practised as
propitiatory rites; more jnana (knowledge) centered understandings  began to emerge which focused on
meditation, self-discipline and spiritual  connectivity rather than on rituals and rites. Vedanta
(meaning literally the end or the goal of the Vedas) is the essence of all the four Vedas which are
encapsulated in the Upanishads. Vedantic thought drew on Vedic cosmology, hymns and philosophy.
Brahma Sutras is in the form cryptic Vedantic aphorisms. They are also called Vedanta sutras,
Sariraka  sutras, Uttaramimamsa sutras or Bhikshu sutras. Badarayana wrote the Brahmasutras to
systemize the teachings of the Upanishads into a coherent philosophy. The cryptic way in which the
aphorisms of the Vedanta sutras are  presented leaves the door wide open for a multitude of
interpretations. This led to a proliferation of Vedanta sub-schools. Each of these interprets the texts in its
own way and has produced its own series of sub-commentaries - all claiming to be faithful to the parent
Brahmasutras. The Acharyas of these  different schools of thought are 1. Sankara 2. Bhaskara 3.
Yadavaprakasa 4.  Ramanuja 5. Madhava 6. Nimbarka 7. Srikantha 8.Sripati 9.Vallabha 10. Suka 11.
Vijnanabhikshu and 12. Baladeva.
The  concept of Brahman - the Supreme Spirit or the eternal, self existent,  immanent and
transcendent Supreme and Ultimate Reality which is the divine  ground of all Being - is central to Vedanta.
The concept of God or Ishvara is also advocated. The main difference between these different sub-schools
lies in their portrayal of the relationships among the three concepts of Jiva, Jagat and Jagadishwara. A brief
mention is made here about the three popular schools out of the above twelve.

1. Advaita (Non-Dualism)
Advaita Vedanta is probably the best known of all Vedanta schools. Advaita literally means, “not
two"; thus this is referred to as a "monistic" or non-dualistic system, which emphasizes oneness. Brahman
is the only ultimate reality. There is no second reality. It is because of maya that one views oneself
(jiva/atman) as distinct from Brahman. Again, it is because of maya that one views the creation as distinct
from Brahman. Atman is nothing but Brahman, so also what we think as distinct creation is nothing but
Brahman. Sankara uses the analogy of a piece of rope in the dim light misunderstood as a snake. In this
analogy, snake is not real, it is a misunderstanding; but rope is real. So also thinking that atman and prakruti
are distinct from Brahman is a misunderstanding caused by maya. Maya is a power that hides the reality
and projects the untruth. Maya is neither real nor unreal. It is also indefinable. It is the creative power of
Brahman by which Brahman itself is seen in different form and shapes.
Devotee worships Brahman in the form of god (Isvara) in different ways. Devotees see or worship
in different forms and shapes, not because god is in different shapes and forms; but the unenlightened
human mind visualizes god in different forms and shapes. So, Brahman through the power of Maya appears
to be born or in the form; nevertheless, God himself is unborn and without a shape or form. God could be
worshipped in the crudest form of worshipping an image to the highest form of realization of Brahman. The
crudest form is idol-worship, the second stage is prayer, the third is mental-worship – in which the devotee
concentrates on Brahman who is within, without the need of an image, and the highest form is identifying
oneself with Brahman (self-realization).
Its first great consolidator was Shankaracharya. Continuing the line of thought of some of the
Upanishadic teachers, and also that of his own teacher’s teacher Gaudapada, Shankara expounded the
doctrine of Advaita - a nondualistic reality.
Brahman cannot be qualified with attributes or qualifications because it cannot be limited; it is
limitless and unconditioned. Brahman could only be known in negative terms (neti-neti – not this, not that),
but that does not mean Brahman is nothingness. Brahman in indefinable – anuvachaniam. Brahman is
without characteristics or attributes. According to Sankara, if you give any attributes to Brahman, you are
limiting Him. Therefore, Brahman is nirguna. Since, we cannot attach qualities to Brahman; he is nirvisesha
(without qualities, distinctions). But that does not mean that Brahman is characterless. Brahman is the
source of all qualities and characteristics; but how can an unenlightened mind limit it within the limited
framework. That is why it is better not to define It. But because the unenlightened human mind is not able
to understand this higher level of Brahman; human mind put Brahman as god, the creator or Isvara. In fact,
Brahman is not that. In the lower level (vyavaharika level) of human understanding, Brahman is understood
as saguna Brahman (i.e., with qualities). Sankara says that human mind understands Brahman in the
vyaharika level and not in the paramarthika level. In reality there is no Saguna Brahman.
Soul (atman) is nothing but a part of Brahman (the ultimate Reality, Paramatman). As a spark of fire
has all the qualities of fire; soul, which is a spark of Brahman has got all the qualities of Brahman i.e., soul
has no shape (nirakara), no attributes (nirvisesha), without qualities (nirguna). Soul does not know its
identity that it is Brahman, because of avidya (ignorance). Soul is caught up in the body and misunderstands
the body as well as the universe as real. But in truth, these are not real. There is a point for the soul to
come to the realization of its real nature, but it may take several births and rebirths for the soul to come to
its original nature. Soul has to be in the cycles of samsara i.e., through births and rebirths till it finishes the
result of its past karma and come to the point of realization that it is nothing, but Brahman and in the
fraction of that moment, when the soul identifies itself with Brahman, soul becomes one with Brahman.
Then soul can say, ‘Aham Brahmasmi’ (I am Brahman) and looking at the other souls, it will say ‘Tad tvam
asi’ [that (Brahman) thou art]. At this point soul looses its separate identity; because soul looses itself into
Brahman.
Sankara advocates jivan-mukti i.e., even while a person is alive, the soul can be liberated and even
after soul is liberated, the body can live for some more time. The second way, according to Sankara, is
videha-mukti, which is liberation after death, soul goes out of the body.

2. Vishista-Advaita (Qualified Non-Dualism)

Ramanuja (11th C. AD) philosophized the bhakti tradition and gave it a structural framework.
Ramanuja was the foremost proponent of Saguna Brahman, the concept of Brahman or God, the ultimate
power, having a definite form, name and attributes. He was opposed to the concept of Nirguna Brahman.
He saw Sri Narayana as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate Reality or Brahman had three
aspects: Ishvara (Vishnu), Cit (soul) and Acit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent Reality, while souls
and matter are dependent on Him for their existence although they are also real.
Because of this qualification of the Ultimate Reality,  Ramanuja's system is known as Vishistadvaita
or qualified non-dualism i.e., non-duality of Brahman, the Absolute, but vishista or qualified by cit and acit.
Brahman is similar to a tree with branches, leaves and fruits. Though the tree is ‘one’, it has several parts
like roots, branches etc., each of them differing from one another but the tree itself remaining as ‘one’.
Ramanuja also speaks of the relationship between Brahman and the world to be like the one between the
soul and the body. They are distinct from each other, but are inseparably related to one another. Body
exists because soul exists, body would not exist if soul does not exist. According to Ramanuja, soul is similar
in essence to Brahman. However, soul is not Brahman, as in Advaita. Brahman is the one ultimate reality
because of whom the world and jivas exist, the latter are dependent realities. Ramanuja negates the theory
of Maya; world is not because of Maya or a manifestation, nor is it a magical creation. It is real, and it is the
creation in the sense that universe is the body of Brahman.
Purpose of human existence – purusarthas is artha, kama, dharma and moksha. The first three are
to be pursued in order to attain moksha. Ramanuja opposed the concept of jivan-mukti, only videha-mukti
is possible. According to Ramanuja, bhakti is the route to moksa. But then, bhakti alone would not be
enough, bhakti combined with right action is essential for salvation (like the kind of bhakti described in the
Gita.) His followers, later, interpreted this into two schools of thought. One school takes up the analogy of
the mother monkey and child monkey (grace + works). When the mother goes from one tree to another
tree, the child clings on to the belly of the mother. Similarly, the devotee has to cling on to God and
experience the grace of God. The devotee has to take the initiative (or, at least has a role to play in order)
to experience the grace of God. The second school of thought takes the analogy of a mother cat and a
kitten (grace alone). Mother cat takes the cat from one place to another. God takes the initiative to save the
devotee. Grace of God is the initiative of God to save the human beings.

3. Dvaita (Dualism)
Madhva (13th C. AD) identified Brahman with Vishnu (Narayana) who is the independent Reality.
Prakrti or matter, and the jivas or souls are entirely dependent on Him although they are co-equal realities.
His view of Reality was purely dualistic and is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic).
Madhva propounds the theory of panchabedas or five eternal differences between (i) Brahman and
jivas (ii) Brahman and prakrti (iii) jivas  and prakrti (iv) jiva and jiva and (v) various objects of prakrti. He
categorizes  jivas into three groups (i) those who are capable of attaining liberation (ii) those who are purely
materialistic craving only for worldly pleasures, always going through the rounds of birth and death and (iii)
sinners who degenerate into lower births and hell.
God is the basic principle of everything and transcends everything else. God is self-created and self-
existing Reality. Soul is also a self-created and self-existing Reality. Though it is self-existing, it depends on
God and grows to perfection. Perfection is liberation i.e., a release from the bondage of Karma. Release or
realization does not mean soul looses its identity or becomes one with Brahman. Madhva opposes the idea
of soul emerging into Brahman. Devotion and religious faith are inevitable for liberation. Liberation is
eternal freedom and eternal freedom is that the soul enjoys the presence of God. Righteous life, non-
attachment, no desire for worldly things, study of the scriptures, meditation, complete dependence on
God, learning at the feet of the Master are the ways to attain liberation. Grace of God makes liberation
possible. Devotee dedicates himself to God and then relies completely on the grace of God thereby getting
freedom from ahamkara (aham – self). That is the point where the soul is liberated. Jivas get liberation
through devotion and the grace of Vishnu. In the state of liberation the jivas are not only free from
suffering but enjoy positive bliss, while the differences among them persist.

THE PURANAS

Puranas means ancient narratives belonging to an old/ancient period - narratives explaining the history of
the universe from creation to destruction. Some of the Puranas belong to a period before the Christian era.
The extensive Puranic literature of India has a vast number of ancient legends and myths.
The Puranas may be divided into two: major (maha) Puranas and minor (upa) Puranas. There are
eighteen maha Puranas, they are: Vayu, Brahmanda, Markandeya, Vishnu, Matsya, Bhagavata, Kurma,
Vamana, Linga, Varaha, Padma, Narada, Agni, Garuda, Brahma, Skanda, Brahmaivya and Bhaveesha Purana.
Puranas can also be divided into 3 sections: (i) Vaisnava Puranas (ii) Brahma Puranas and (iii) Saiva Puranas.
Vaisnava Puranas focuses on the different Visnu avatars. (Avatars of Vishnu: 1. Matysa, 2. Kurma, 3. Varaha,
4.Mahini, 5. Nrasimha, 7. Vamana, 7. Parashurama, 8. Rama, 9. Krishna, 10. Kalki). Brahma Puranas focuses
on creation stories, while Saiva Puranas focuses on rituals.
Most of these Puranas are of later origin and the original materials of them are not available today.
Besides these Puranas, there are a number of secondary Puranas. In fact Puranas claim to be next to the
Vedas in antiquity, but nobody knows the exact period of the origin of these Puranas. In some Vedic works,
as well as in the early Buddhist literature the Puranas are called as the fifth Veda. Thus, the original Puranas
could trace its origin-period to Vedic period and basically, it could have originated as a Vedic sacrificial
period (Brahmana period) literature. The Puranas are mostly mentioned in connection with Ithihas. At the
same time, some Vedic works like Atharva Veda, Satapatha Brahmana, Brahadaranyaka Upanishad etc.,
recognize the sacred origin of the Puranas and also assign a place equal to the Vedas.
Amara Kosa – the grammatical literature of Sanskrit literature-dated around 6 th cent. A.D. which
contains an old definition of Purana and it is repeated in many of the now existing Puranas. According to
Amara Kasha, a Purana is to deal with five main topics. They are (i) sarga-the creation and evolution of the
world from natural cause, (ii) prati sarga – creation of the world from is constituent elements in which it is
merged at the end of each kalpa or a day in the life of Brahma, the creator (iii) vamsa- the genealogies of
gods, demons, patriarchs sages and kings, especially the last two, (4) manvantara (age or dispensation) –
cosmic cycles each of which is ruled by a Manu, the first father off humankind ,(5) Vamsanucharita –
accounts of royal dynasties like Suryavamsa, Chandravamsa, etc.
Mahapuranas (most of them) are not dealing with the five characteristics are either omitted or
vaguely dealt with. On the other hand, some puranas go for extensive glorification of one of the sectarian
deities like Brahma, Vishnu or Shiva and add several myths or topics concerning the legends. They also
discuss duties of different castes, sacraments, customs in general, purity and expiations, purification of
things, names and descriptions of hell results of good and bad deeds classification of unfavorable plants
donation of various types, dedication of wells and tanks, etc., they also give the important places of worship
pilgrimage, consecration of temples and images of gods, imitation and various mystic rituals, etc.
Some of the major Puranas and its contents are discussed below: Agni Purana deals with
vastushastra, gemology and rituals; Bhagavata Puranas deals with Vishnu’s ten avatars, especially of
Krishna; Bhavishya Purana is believed to predict the future; Brahma Puranas describes Godavari and its
tributaries; Brahmanda Purana deals with creation of the universe among other things; Brahma Vaivarta
Purana describes worshipping protocols of devis, Krishna and Ganesha; Garuda Puranas deals with what
happens after death; Harivamsa Purana deals with the history of Hindus, origin of Krishna, etc.; Linga
Purana is a staunch Shaiva theological Purana, Kurma Purana describes Kurma avatar of Vishnu;
Markandeya Purana is an important text of the Saktas; Matysa Purana deals with the matsya avatar of
Vishnu; Narada Purana describes greatness of Vedas; Padma Puranas describes the greatness of Gita,
describes Ram, and the dialogue between Shiva and Parvati; Shiva Purana extols Shiva and his exploits;
Skanda Purana is a pilgrimage guide, describing pilgrimage centres and related legends; Vamana Purana
describes vamana avatar of Vishnu; Varaha Puranas describes varaha avatar of Vishnu; Vayu Purana is a
Shaiva purana, dedicated to god vayu; Vishnu Purana describes creation myths, battles between asuras and
devas, and avatars of Vishnu. Of these, Bhagavata Purana seems to be the most influential because of its
detailed records of Vaishnava traditions and doctrines. The biography of Krishna forms a very important
part of this purana.

THE EARLY BHAKTI MOVEMENTS

Bhakti, Bhagavat/a is derived from a Sanskrit word “bhaj” which means “to adore.” Bhakti is an affection
fixed upon the Lord.
Some major doctrines found within bhakti traditions are as follows:
i. Monotheism and a God of grace – God is endless (ananta), imperishable (achyuta) and
indestructible (avinasin). He created all things out of matter. From God issues all souls (jiva), which
henceforth exist forever as distinct indestructible individuals. He himself became incarnate to
relieve the world from sin and his followers from trouble.
ii. Bhakti and salvation – bhakti must be directed towards the Adorable One and is the only means to
salvation. It must be directed to Him or one of his incarnations.
iii. Works and salvation – every work, good or bad, has its ‘phala’. A good work done for the sake of its
fruits will have only temporary benefit. Niskama karma – dedicated to the Adorable One results in
immortal nature of its fruits.
iv. Immortality of the souls – individual souls were emitted by the Adorable One. Every soul exists
forever as a separate entity. Soul is chained to samsara chakra till bhakti results in salvation of the
souls. Souls are of three kinds – baddha (souls that are bound), mukta (liberated souls of the gods
and the sages) and nitya (supreme souls that are eternally liberated).
During the Brahmana period, priest – dominated ritualistic Hinduism became prominent. Karma or
attaining salvation/liberation through karma marga got prominence. Yajnas, homas, yagas became
prominent. Only the elite (rich) in the society were able to spend money for elaborate sacrificial and attain
liberation. As a reaction to the superstitious, ritualistic religion, Upanishads advocated a different point of
view. Philosophies of Upanishads concentrated more or less on the knowledge (jnana kanda) part of
religion. Liberation, according to them becomes possible because of jnana marga (para vidya – knowledge
of God). However, jnana marga was possible only for the educated class, because jnana advocated reading
of the scripture, systematic learning from the guru and practicing it. Karma marga and jnana marga proved
to be inadequate for the people of the lower strata of the society. Illiterate, uneducated, low castes as well
as women were kept away from karma and jnana margas.
As a reaction to the elitist flavor of karma and jnana, by the eighth century BC, people of the lower
strata began to think about a different methodology to reach God. Thus, bhakti traditions were born. By
third century BC, this movement became a full-fledged movement. From polytheistic understanding of
religion, the new movement turns the people towards the belief in a personal God, Isvara, and also taught
the people to take refuge in the Creator God. It was a monotheistic understanding. The same God, the
Creator was understood as the sustainer and the destroyer of the universe.

I. VAISHNAVISM
This was one of the most prominent bhakti movements in the middle ages; prominent in South India and
spread to the different parts of India later. Vaishnavism makes Vishnu the central deity, the Supreme Being
who is the creator and sustainer of the universe. Vishnu was not a prominent God during the Vedic period.
His name is mentioned as a friend of Indira, who accompanied Indira in his war efforts. However, Vishnu
became a powerful deity by 7th C. AD. Geeta as well as the Puranas made Vishnu a prominent deity. Puranas
talk about the different incarnations of Vishnu and elevated Vishnu to the level of Supreme God.
 Vaishnavism propagates the idea of a personal god, a god who is at the service of his devotee, in
the time of troubles. Vishnu was worshipped by reciting his 1000 names (Vishnu sahashranama) like Hari,
Harihara, Gopala, Keshava, Govinda, Narayana, and so on. According to Vaishnavism, devotion to Vishnu is
the only way to attain liberation. Low caste people and women were also accepted as saints. By AD 6 th
century, Tamil Nadu became the centre of Vaishnavite resurgence. Vaishnavism became prominent through
the work of twelve saints known as the alvars and these alvars were from 6th century to the 11th century
AD. Their writings like ‘Nalayira divya prabandhani’ and other writings became foundation of Vaishnava
spirituality. Grace of God was considered as the most prominent/ basic aspect of Bhakti. Through the grace
of God one has to attain the presence of God – that is the way moksha (liberation) is possible. Two groups
come up in Vaishnavism based on the different interpretation based on the grace of God (monkey theory
and cat theory, described in an earlier section).
In North India, Vaishnavism became very prominent by 13 th C. AD. Sage Ramananda and his
disciples Tulsidas (1500 AD), Tukaram, Surdas (1600 AD) were prominent Vaishnavite sages of North India.
Vaishnavism opposed the caste system in North India. There were even no religious barriers, e.g., Kabir,
who was a cobbler, was a Muslim by birth, but became a Vishnu bhakta. He was able to see Allah and
Vishnu (Rama) in the same way. He said God is one – whether Allah or Krishna or whoever. It is said that the
Hindus and Muslims together buried him. Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, was a product of North
Indian Bhakti Vaishnavite movement. He went around villages and sang praises for God as Kabir and other
sages did. (Sikhism is the synthesis of Hinduism and Sufism in Islam and a product of Vaishnavism/Bhakti
movement).
In West Bengal (Eastern India) and nearby areas, Vaishnavism took a different form. Chaitanya (16 th
C. AD) was the leader of the bhakti movement in West Bengal. This movement is called as the Chaitanya
movement. Chaitanya and his disciples would stand in the street corners and sing and preach the bhakti
religion. The specialties of these people were they would be in trance and speak in other languages in
ecstasy. Chaitanya opposed rituals, idol worship and there was no caste-system. Dance was the main
pattern of worship. He advised people to remain in Krishna Bhakti always. A devotee’s attitude towards
Krishna should be the mind of Radha towards her husband – Krishna.

II. SAIVISM
Saivism advocates Shiva’s supremacy. Shiva is the Supreme Being; he is the source of all existence. The
entire universe as well as the soul depends on Siva for their existence. Siva is the ultimate reality and the
pre-existent cause of everything. Saivites worship Shiva and Shiva-Linga.
Saivism has a pre-Aryan root (Dravidian root). The proto-type of Shiva was a deity worshipped in
the Indus Valley as we have some seals with picture of Shiva from the excavations in 1921 by John Marshall.
In Vedas, Siva worship is not prominent or not seen. Rudra was Siva-like; however, Rudra was not a
prominent god. Rudra is known in Rig Vedas as a god of thunder and lightning and is a god saving the
people from disease and natural calamities. In Atharva Veda (which has the Dravidian root), Siva is
mentioned as Pasupati (Lord of souls).
The Aryan Vedas mocked the locals for their worship of linga. They made sarcastic statements that
the locals worshipped Sisna-deva – phallus worshippers (Sisna = linga). In Vedic period, phallus worship
was considered as ‘mlecha’ (abominable). But later it became prominent.
Siva is understood to be residing in Himalayas and his consort Parvati is working in the world as the
energizing power (sakti). He is the nitya-yogi (eternal yogi) and Supreme Being and he is worshipped as the
self-illuminating source behind everything. Siva is also known as Natraja (Lord of dance). He dances in the
cremating ground wearing skulls sound his neck, ashes all over his body. Shiva’s dance is believed to be that
what makes the universe to function in a proper way.
According to Saiva understanding, soul (self) has the same qualities of Siva which is self-
illuminating, self-conscious and auspicious in nature. However, self (soul) depends on Siva for its growth to
perfection. Therefore, Siva is the lord of souls. Liberation of souls is completely dependent on the grace of
Siva.
Saiva sidhanta was developed by 11th C. AD in Tamil Nadu. It has contributed several prominent
books to the bhakti literature. The basic books – Thevaram, Tirumarai and Thiruvachakam by
Manikavasakar are very important literatures. Thiruvchakam is considered as the Vedas of the saivites.
Thirumarai is understood as the Upanishads. There are several other such books. Saiva siddhanta teaches
that Siva is the basic reality and the source of everything. Knowing Siva is real knowledge/wisdom; and
through knowing Siva one attains Siva-bhakti. To love Siva and to attain Siva-bhakti, Saiva literature helps a
person, but it is also possible to have direct help from a guru.
Ultimate reality is Siva. The universal and the soul are dependant on Siva. Atman (soul) is eternal
and free. Soul is omnipotent and omniscient. Souls are numerous in number. Though they are omnipotent
and omniscient, they are not Siva. They can attain Siva-nature/mind through the knowledge of Siva.
Though soul is omniscient, it does not know that it is omniscient. The soul gets into different actions
of the body - whether good or bad – which then have binding results. This is karma. Through the effect of
this karma, the five senses become active and further puts the soul into bondage. However, the soul can
come out of its bondage through the liberating grace of Siva. Siva appears to save, purify and bring back the
soul to its original form and nature. At that point the soul leaves the body and enjoys the communion with
Siva. Soul is not Siva; but through knowing Siva we can attain Siva-nature.
According to Saiva-sidhanta there are four stages in the liberation of the soul:
i. Complete dedication of the devotee – this dedication is for developing the desire to know Siva and
this is known as the servant-path, because just like a servant dedicates himself to the master the
devotee dedicates himself completely to serve Siva. Experiencing of the presence of Siva; once the
devotee is dedicated for the service of Siva, he/she experiences the presence of Siva.
ii. Worshipping Siva through kriyas and pujas – this is actually a part of worship. In this Siva is served
by the devotee like a son serves the father.
iii. Yoga – worshipping Siva through dhyana – real meditation. In this the devotee experiences a kind
of oneness with Siva (sarupya).
iv. The highest point – the devotee comes to the Siva jnana (knowledge of Siva) and this is the point of
liberation. And this is the point of completeness of Sive-nature. It is the point of highest
satisfaction, the highest point of liberation, when the soul leaves the body and reaches the
presence of Siva. And the liberation is that the soul reaches the presence of Siva and enjoys the
presence of Siva. Here grace of Siva is the basis for liberation.
According to Saiva-siddhanta, universe and soul are eternal but it is in dependence to Siva.
Siva is worshipped through the worship of the Siva-linga. Siva-bhaktas smear ashes all over the
body. Some groups worship Siva’s ferocious nature. They wear skulls around their necks, smear ashes from
the crematorium all over the body and sing and dance in the cemetery with a trishul. It is understood that
through worshipping Siva in different methods, soul attains the knowledge of Siva and all impurities are
gone and it attains immortality and thus the soul attains the eternal bliss.

III. SAKTISM
Shaktism is a branch of the bhakti traditions of Hinduism (similar to Saivism and Vaisnaivism) that focuses
its worship upon Shakti or Devi, the mother goddess. Here, Shakti is considered to be the Ultimate or
Supreme reality. (The masculine part Shiva or Visnu or others are considered transcendent). Shaktas
consider Shakti to be the source of all creation, as well as its embodiment and the energy that animates and
governs it. Devotees approach the Devi in a number of forms, however, they are all considered to be
diverse aspects of the one supreme goddess. She has benevolent forms as well as malevolent forms.
Some of her benevolent forms include:
i. Lakshmi - the goddess of material fulfillment (wealth, health, fortune love, beauty, fertility, etc,).
ii. Parvati (Gauri/Uma) - the goddess of spiritual fulfillment (consort of Shiva)
iii. Saraswati - the goddess of cultural fulfillment (knowledge/education, music, arts, sciences, etc,).
iv. Gayatri - goddess as mother of mantras (consort /shakti of Brahma)
v. Ganga - goddess as Divine River.
vi. Sita - goddess as Rama’s consort.
vii. Radha - goddess as Krishna’s lover.
viii. Sati - goddess of material relations (consort of Shiva).
ix. Durga (Amba/Ambika) - the goddess as Mahadevi, material manifestation of supreme divinity.
 Some of her malevolent forms include.
i. Kali - The goddess as cosmic destruction, death
ii. Tara - the goddess as guide and protection
iii. Lalita - tripurasundari- the ‘tantric parvati’.
iv. Bhuvaneswari - the goddess as world mother, or the goddess whose body is the earth
v. Bhairavi - the fierce goddess
vi. Chhinnamasta - the self-depicted goddess (she cuts her own head off and drinks her own blood).
vii. Bagalamukhi - the goddess who paralyzes enemies.
viii. Matangi
ix. Kamala - the lotus goddess, the ‘tantric Lakshmi.’

Shaktism, in some forms, must have existed since ancient times; but according to scholars, it began
to flourish since AD 300. The most pivotal text for Saktism is believed to be ‘Devi Mahatyma.’ Other
important texts include the Shakta Upanishads, the Shakta-oriented Pauranic literature such as Devi Purana
and Kalika Purana, the Lalita Dahasranama (from Brahmanda Purana), the Devi Gita (from the Devi
Bhagavata Purana) and the Tantric literature.
Shaktism encompasses an endless variety of beliefs and practices from primitive animism to
philosophical speculations. Its two largest and visible schools are: the Srikula (family of Sri), strongest in
South India and the Kalikula (family of Kali), which prevails in north and eastern India. The Srikula tradition
focuses worship on Devi in the form of Lalita-Tripurasundari and this is prominent in Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu and in Tamil areas of Sri Lanka. Srikula’s best known school is Srividya.
Srividya views the goddess as more benign and beautiful [as against the Kalikula tradition’s Devi which is
terrifying (ugra) and horrifying (ghora)]. The Kalikula tradition is prominent in West Bengal, Assam, Bihar,
Orissa and as well as some parts of Maharashtra and Bangladesh. The main deities of Kalikula are Kali,
Chandi and Durga; less prominent ones are Tara, Manasa (the snake goddess) and Sitala (the smallpox
goddess). The two major centers of Shaktism in West Bengal are Kalighat in Calcutta and Tarapith in
Birbhum district. Worship involves contemplation of the devotee’s union with or love of the goddess,
visualization of her form, chanting of her mantras, prayer before her image or yantra, giving of offerings,
etc. Sitting alone at the cremation ground, surrounded by ash and bone, exorcisms, trance, control of spirit,
etc. are part of such tantric Saktism.
The major festivals include Navrati, the tenth day following Navratri is called Dussehra or
Vijayadashmi celebrating goddess Durga’s victory over a series of demons (described in Devi Mahatmya). In
Bengal, the last four days is also called Durga Puja. Lakshmi Puja is important during Diwali. Diwali coincides
with Kali Puja in Bengal and some Shakta traditions focus their worship of Devi as Kali and not as Lakshmi.
Gauri Puja is performed on the fifth day after Ganesh Chaturti, to celebrate the arrival of Gauri, mother of
Ganesha to come and bring her son back home. Similarly, Saraswati Puja, Meenakshi Kalyanam (Devi’s
marriage to Shiva at Meenakshi temple for 12 days), and Ambubachi Mela (celebration of the yearly
menstruation of the goddess during monsoon – here goddess is worshipped in the form of a yoni-like
stone with red-tinted spring flowers)
Shaktism is inseparably related to tantra Hinduism. Shakta tantras date from about 7 th C. AD, they
extol and glorify goddess Shakti. In the tantras that deal with Yoga, Shakti is identified as Kundalini or the
energy that lies coiled at the base of the spine until brought up through the body by Yogic disciplines.
Tantras give importance to spells, magic, witchcraft, etc. Animal sacrifices and sometimes human sacrifices
were part of Shakti rituals. In Kalighat Mandir in Kolkata, goats are sacrificed on Tuesdays and Saturdays, so
also in Kamakya Mandir in Assam. During Durga Puja, buffalo sacrifice is performed. Vaishno Devi temple on
Jammu is also an important temple, frequented by 1000s of pilgrims every year.
Shakti tantrism of some groups include drinking liquor of various kinds, eating of meat and fish,
parched grain and sexual intercourse with female members of the group. This is often seen as a road to
moksa. While meditating, one has to meditate/visualize the deity in the act of sexual union with a consort.