GENERAL MATHEMATICS

UNIT 2: Tautologies, Fallacies, and

Categorical Syllogism

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, you are able

to illustrate different types of tautologies and fallacies,
determine the validity of categorical syllogisms, and establish
the validity and falsity of real-life arguments using logical
propositions, syllogisms, and fallacies.

Try to answer this activity:

Mr. and Mrs. Wu have four children, three boys and a girl, who each like
one of the colors blue, green, red, and yellow. In addition to colors, each
one like a different letters D, E, F, and G.
The oldest child likes the letter E.
The youngest child likes green.
Harry likes the letter G.
Mary has an older brother who likes F.
The one who likes blue isn't the oldest.
The one who likes red also likes the letter D.
John likes yellow.
Based on the above facts, Matthew is the _____________.
Choices: oldest child, second child, third child, or youngest child
Based on the activity above, do you think you used a valid argument to prove your answer?
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

In this lesson, we are going to look at the process of inference formally. We

call the set of given information as the premise, while the derived new
information is referred to as the conclusion. The premise and the conclusion
form are what we call an argument.
For example, we know that only a small portion of the earth’s water is
freshwater. We know that if there is a limited supply of fresh water, then we
should conserve water. Combining these information urges us to conclude
that we should conserve water.
➢ Recall the definition of tautology from Unit 1.
A Tautology is a compound proposition that is always true, regardless of the truth value
of its components.
Fallacy
A fallacy is an error in reasoning. When an argument is made based on a premise that is
not sound, the argument is said to be fallacious.
For the different categories of logical fallacies, please refer to page 249. After reading and
understanding the types of fallacies, answer “What I Have Learned So Far” found on page
256. The answers are located at the end of this unit.

Categorical Syllogisms
A syllogism is a deductive argument in which a conclusion is inferred from two
premises. A categorical syllogism is a deductive argument consisting of three
categorical propositions that contain exactly three terms, each of which
occurs in exactly two of the constituent propositions.

- Therefore, a categorical syllogism consists of a major premise, a minor

premise, and a conclusion.
Example:
All root crops are vegetables. → Major premise
All sweet potatoes are root crops. → Minor premise
Therefore, all sweet potatoes are vegetables. → Conclusion

Let us take a look at the different words used from the example above.
➢ The word “vegetable” from the major premise is what we call a major term.
➢ The word “sweet potato” from the minor premise is what we call a minor term.
➢ The word “root crop” is the middle term of the argument.
Note: A syllogism that follows the form above is considered valid, regardless of the truth of the
argument. A syllogism may be valid but false and may be true but invalid.

❖ For more detailed discussion, please refer to your textbook on page 209.
Here are some Guidelines to help us determine the validity of a categorical syllogism:
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

1. There must be three statements, with three terms. (A syllogism containing of more than 3
terms commits the Fallacy of Four Terms)
2. The middle term must be distributed in at least one premise. (Otherwise, we commit the
Fallacy of Undistributed Middle)
3. A specific premise cannot be used to support a universal conclusion. (depending on
whether the major or minor term is involved, this error is called Illicit Major or Illicit Minor)
4. At least one of the premises must be affirmative. (A violation of this rule is called the
Fallacy of Exclusive Premise)
5. A negative premise cannot have an affirmative conclusion. (Violating this rule commits the
Fallacy of Drawing an Affirmative Conclusion from Negative Premise)
6. Two universal premises must lead to a universal conclusion. (A violation of this rule is
called Existential Fallacy)

Below are some basic templates for valid structures of logical syllogism, with terms
M, P, and S.
Each table shows the names of the syllogisms (written on top) and their
components.
The AAA syllogism, wherein it is the only form that is valid to have a conclusion that is both
affirmative and universal.
Major premise All M are P.
Minor premise All S are M.
Conclusion All S are P

OAO-3 AOO-2
Major premise Some M are not P All P are M
Minor premise All M are S Some S are not M
conclusion Some S are not P

The next set of syllogisms contains affirmative premises to make an affirmative, particular
conclusion.
IAI-3 IAI-4 AII-1 AII-3
Major premise Some M are P Some P are M All P are M
Minor premise All M are S Some S are M Some M are S
conclusion Some S are P

The next sets contain negative conclusions.

EIO-1 EIO-2 EIO-3 EIO-4
Major premise No M are P No P are M No M are P No P are M
Minor premise Some S are M Some M are S
Conclusion Some S are not P

AEE-2 AEE-4 EAE-1 EAE-2

Major premise All P are M Some M are S No P are M
Minor premise No S are M No M are S All S are M
Conclusion No S are P
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

For us to understand better, let us evaluate the validity of these arguments:

1. All oranges are fruits.
No fruits are vegetables.
Therefore, no vegetables are oranges.
Answer: It is valid, AEE-4 syllogism.

Major term: fruits (M); Minor term: vegetable (S); Middle term: oranges (P)

2. No artists are critical thinkers.

Some scientists are not critical thinkers.
Therefore, some scientists are not artists.
Answer: It is an invalid argument since both premises are negative. It commits the
Fallacy of Exclusive Premises. (Go back to the guidelines)

3. Some dreams are unconscious desires.

All nightmares are dreams.
Therefore, some nightmares are unconscious desires.
Answer: It is invalid, since it commits the Fallacy of Undistributed Middle. There is no
information about the characteristics of all dreams.

As you may have realized now, after learning logic, there are a lot of
applications in our daily lives. Also, it has applications not only in
mathematics but also in different fields. You will not submit this activity.
1. Reflection:
Why is it important to learn the principles of logic? Share one experience in
which you felt its importance in your life.
2. Answer “What Have I Learned So Far” found on page 212 and 218.

For the evaluation part, this is your second quiz for the second
grading.
Please find your 2nd quiz from your task in Genyo.
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

Key Answers
Module 5: Unit 1
Explain: Exercise 1
A. 1.) Virtue is not its own reward.
2.) Five is not an even number.
3.) (9 − 3) ≠ 5
4.) (22 − 6) ≠ 4
5.) Rowena Cruz is not a first year AB English student.
B. 1.)
a.) Conjunction: 𝐵˅𝐹 b.) Disjunction: 𝐵˄𝐹
c.) Truth value
B A 𝑩˅𝑨 𝑩˄𝑨
F T T F
2.)
a.) Conjunction: P˅𝑇 b.) Disjunction: P˄𝑇
c.) Truth value
P T 𝑷˅𝑻 𝑷˄𝑻
T F T F
3.)
a.) Conjunction: 𝐻˅𝑉 b.) Disjunction: H˄𝑉

c.) Truth value

H V 𝑯˅𝑽 𝑯˄𝑽

F T T F

Elaborate: Exercise 2:
Construct the truth table of the given proposition (𝑅 → 𝑆)˅(𝑆 → 𝑅)
R S (𝑹 → 𝑺) (𝑺 → 𝑹) (𝑹 → 𝑺)˅(𝑺 → 𝑹)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T

Evaluate:
A.
1.) I studied hard for my Math exam and got a high score.
2.) I studied hard for my Math exam or got a high score.
3.) I did not study hard for my Math exam.
4.) I did not study hard for my Math exam and I got a high score.
5.) If I did not get a high score on my math exam, then I did not study hard.
6.) I studied hard for my Math exam if and only if got a high score.
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

B. 1.) H˅P 2.) H˄P 3.) ~H˄~P

C. 1.) False 2.) False 3.) False 4.) False 5.) True 6.) False 7.) False

D. M: Marie gets up. S: Marie goes to school. K: Marie is sick.

Symbolic form: [(M˄S) → ~K]˄(~M → K)

E. (𝑃˄𝑄) → (𝑃˅𝑄)
P Q 𝑃˄𝑄 𝑃˅𝑄 (𝑃˄𝑄) → (𝑃˅𝑄)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F F T

Unit 2
Explore:
Page 256: What have I Learned So Far?
1. non causa pro causa (false cause)
2. plurium interrogationum (complex question)
3. argumentum ad verecundiam (appeal to authority)
4. fallacy of converse accident
5. argumentum ad populum (appeal to the majority or appeal to emotion)
6. argumentum ad ignorantiam (appeal to ignorance)
Elaborate:
Page 212: What Have I Learned So Far?
1. AII – 2
2. EII – 4
3. OIO – 3
Page 218: What Have I Learned So Far?
1. IAI – 3 Valid
2. AII – 4 Invalid; fallacy of undistributed middle term
3. AEI – 2 Invalid; existential fallacy
4. AAA – 3 Invalid; fallacy of illicit minor
5. EII – 1 Valid
GENERAL MATHEMATICS

References:
Aoanan, G. O., Plarizan, M. P., Regidor, B. T., & Simbulas, L. C. (2016). General
Mathematics For Senior High School. Quezon City: C&E Publishing.

Dimasuay, L., Alcala, J., & Palacio, J. (2016). General Mathematics. Quezon City: C&E
Publishing.

Melosantos, L. B., Antonio, J. F., Sacluti, J. R., & Bruce, R. M. (2016). Math
Connections in the Digital Age: General Mathematics. Sibs Publishing House.

Isidro, J. D., Solano, I. P., & Mariano, O, G. (2019). General Mathematics. Makati City: Diwa
Learning Systems Inc.
LearnYouSomeMath. (2016, June 24). Truth Tables Tutorial (part 1) [Video].
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VCEYeB3bRW0
LearnYouSomeMath. (2020, June 20). Truth Tables Tutorial - Part II [Video].
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zljkrM8KaNE