UNIT III – LOGIC AND SYMBOLIC ARGUMENT

Introduction

Logic is the science and art of correct reasoning. It serves as a bridge between
philosophy and mathematics, providing tools to evaluate whether statements and arguments
are valid or flawed. In this unit, students will explore the foundations of logic, from simple
propositions to complex arguments, and learn how to use symbolic language to remove
ambiguity in reasoning.

We begin with propositional logic, where statements are represented by symbols and
analyzed for their truth values. Using logical operations such as AND, OR, NOT, and IF-THEN, we
construct compound propositions that reflect real-life situations. With the help of quantifiers,
statements can be extended to entire sets, expressing ideas like “for all” and “there exists.”

Special attention will be given to conditional and biconditional statements, which

establish cause-and-effect and equivalence relationships. Through truth tables, we will
systematically test whether arguments are always true (tautologies), always false
(contradictions), or valid in some conditions (contingencies). Students will also practice forming
and testing symbolic arguments using rules of inference, and employ Euler diagrams as a visual
method of evaluating categorical reasoning.

By the end of this unit, students will not only understand logic as a mathematical tool
but also appreciate its role in clarifying real-world arguments, strengthening critical thinking,
and guiding rational decision-making across disciplines.

1. Propositional Logic

Propositional logic, also called sentential logic, is the branch of logic that deals with
propositions—statements that can be classified as either true or false, but not both at the same
time. In this system, each proposition is represented by a symbol (usually letters like p,q,r) to
simplify reasoning and avoid ambiguity. Propositional logic is the foundation of mathematical
proofs, computer programming (Boolean logic), and decision-making in everyday life. For
example, “2+2=4 ” is true, while “The Earth is flat” is false. Propositional logic provides a clear
and systematic way to analyze such statements.

Examples

Classify each as proposition (true/false) or not a proposition.

1. “7 is greater than 3.” → Proposition (True)

2. “The moon is made of cheese.” → Proposition (False)

3. “Do your homework!” → Not a proposition (command)

4. “Every triangle has three sides.” → Proposition (True)

5. “ x +5=9 ” (without specifying x) → Not a proposition (open sentence)

2. Logical Operations

Logical operations are the rules that connect or manipulate propositions to form more
complex statements. They define how the truth value of a compound proposition depends on
its components. The basic logical operations include:

 Negation (¬ p) – reverses truth value. If p is true, ¬ p is false.

 Conjunction (AND) − p ∧q is true only if both p and q are true.

 Disjunction (OR) – p ∨q is true if at least one of p∨q is true.

 Conditional (IF… THEN) – p → q is false only if p istrue∧q is false.

 Biconditional (IF AND ONLY IF) – p ↔ q is true if p∧q have the same truth value.

Examples

Let p: “It is raining.”, q: “I bring an umbrella.”

1. ¬ p : “It is not raining.”

2. p ∧q : “It is raining AND I bring an umbrella.”

3. p ∨q : “It is raining OR I bring an umbrella.”

4. p → q: “If it is raining, then I bring an umbrella.”

5. p ↔ q: “It is raining if and only if I bring an umbrella.”

3. Compound Propositions

A compound proposition is a statement formed by combining two or more simple

propositions using logical operations (AND, OR, NOT, IF-THEN, IFF). For example, if p is
“It is raining” and q is “I will bring an umbrella,” then p → q (“If it is raining, then I will
bring an umbrella”) is a compound proposition. The truth of a compound proposition
depends on the truth values of its simpler parts and the operations that connect them.
Compound propositions allow us to express complex conditions and relationships, which is
why they are widely applied in computer algorithms, law, and real-life decision-making.

Examples

Combine and express in symbols.

Compound Propositions Symbolic Form

1. I will study and I will pass the exam. p ∧q
2. It will rain or it will snow. p ∨q
3. If I exercise, then I will be healthy. p→q
4. You cannot both eat and sleep at the same time. ¬( p ∧q)
5. The light is on if and only if the switch is up. p↔q
4. Logic Statements and Quantifiers

Statements in logic can involve quantifiers to express generality or existence. A quantifier is

a symbol that specifies the scope of a statement about a set of elements:

 Universal Quantifier(∀): means “for all” or “every.” Example: “All even numbers are
divisible by 2” → ∀ x , p (x)→ q(x )

 Existential Quantifier (∃): means “there exists at least one.” Example: “There exists a
prime number that is even” → ∃ x , p(x )∧ q(x )

Quantifiers make logic more powerful because they allow us to generalize across sets rather
than deal with individual statements. They are essential in mathematics, statistics, and scientific
claims.

Example

Logic Statement with Quantifiers Symbolic Form

1. All prime numbers greater than 2 are odd. ∀ x , p( x )→ q (x)
2. Some people like mathematics. ∃ x , p (x)
3. Every square is a rectangle. ∀ x , p( x )→ q (x)
4. There exists a number that is both even and prime. ∃ x , p (x)∧q (x)
5. Not every student passed the exam. ¬ ∀ x , p( x)

5. Conditional, Biconditional, and Related Statements

 A conditional statement ( p → q) expresses “If p, then q.” It establishes a cause-and-

effect or dependency relation.
 The converse (q → p) reverses the roles of the hypothesis and conclusion.
 The inverse (¬ p → ¬q) negates both the hypothesis and conclusion.
 The contrapositive (¬ q →¬ p) negates and reverses, and it is always logically equivalent
to the conditional.
 A biconditional statement ( p ↔ q) means “p if and only if q,” which requires both p → q
and q → p to be true.
 These relationships are crucial in geometry, proofs, and logical arguments where the
truth of one statement guarantees the truth of another.

Example:

Let p: “A number is even.”, q : “It is divisible by 2.”

Conditional
Propositions Reason

Converse
1. If a number is even, then it is divisible by 2.

Inverse
2. If a number is divisible by 2, then it is even.

Contrapositive
3. If a number is not even, then it is not divisible by 2.

Biconditional
4. If a number is not divisible by 2, then it is not even.
5. A number is even if and only if it is divisible by 2.
6. Truth Tables and Tautologies

A truth table is a tabular method for listing all possible truth values of a proposition or
compound proposition. It systematically shows how the truth values of simpler statements
determine the truth of a more complex statement.

 A tautology is a compound statement that is always true regardless of the truth values of
its components (e . g . , p ∨ ¬ p).
 A contradiction is always false (e . g . , p ∧ ¬ p).
 A contingency is sometimes true and sometimes false.

Truth tables are essential tools in mathematics, computer science (logic gates), and
philosophy for verifying validity and detecting logical errors.

Example:

Tautology (always true)

Propositions (Symbolic) Reason

Contradiction (always false)

1. p ∨¬ p

Tautology
2. p ∧¬ p

Tautology (commutativity of OR)

3. ( p → q)↔(¬ q → ¬ p)

Tautology (distributive
4. ( p ∨q) →(q ∨ p)

simplification)
5. ( p ∧q)∨( p∧ ¬q )≡ p

7. Symbolic Arguments
A symbolic argument is a logical argument expressed using symbols and rules of inference.
Arguments consist of premises (assumed true statements) and a conclusion (statement to be
proven). The goal is to determine whether the conclusion logically follows from the premises.

Example:
Premise 1: p → q (If it rains, the ground is wet)
Premise 2: p (It rains)
Conclusion: q (The ground is wet)

This follows the valid inference rule Modus Ponens.

Symbolic arguments help strip away distractions in language, making reasoning clear and
rigorous.

Example:
A. Modus Ponens:
 p → q (If it rains, the ground is wet¿
 p ¿It rains)
 q (Therefore , the ground is wet )

B. Modus Tollens:
 p → q (If it rains, the ground is wet)
 ¬ q (The ground is not wet)
 ¬ p (Therefore, it is not raining)

C. Disjunctive Syllogism:
 p ∨q (Either I study or I fail)
 ¬ p (I did not study)
 q (Therefore, I fail)
 D. Hypothetical Syllogism:
 p → q (If I study, then I pass)
 q → r (If I pass, then I graduate)
 p →r (Therefore, if I study, then I graduate)

8. Arguments and Euler Diagrams

Euler diagrams are visual tools used to represent logical relations between sets or
categories. Circles or shapes represent sets, and their overlap shows relationships. They are
especially useful for testing categorical syllogisms.
 Example:
o All dogs are animals.
o All poodles are dogs.
o Therefore, all poodles are animals.

Animals

Dogs

poodles

Euler diagrams
Figure 1.

Euler diagrams help in critical thinking by providing an intuitive way to check whether an
argument makes sense. They are often used in teaching, law, and critical reasoning exercises.