NCERT Class 11 Geography- India Physical Environment

gist – ORACLE IAS

Chapter 1 India: Location

Historical Perspective:
Ancient King Dushyant had a son whose name was Bharat. In his name, this
country was named as Bharat. According to some scholars, Bharat name was
given according to a caste living in India in ancient times.
The name ‘India’ was originated from Indus valley civilization.
Huns, Egyptians, Persians, and other countrymen used to enter India by
crossing Indus river. The word Hindu originated from Sindhu. People from
these countries used to pronounce S as H and so they called Sindhu as Hindu.
Egyptians and Romans used to call Indus as Sindhu valley and eastern part of it
as India.
India’s boundaries are clear from geographical point of viewT. There are great
mountains on its north-east and north-west side and there are great ocean in
its south-east and south-west sides. Foreigners can enter India by crossing
Khyber and Bolan straits.
Among all the living civilisation of the world, India is probably the oldest.
Around 2000-3000 BC a group of food gatherers developed a highly developed
civilization.
With the destruction of Harappa civilization, a new civilization took birth in
India. In 1500 BC, Aryans came to India which gave birth to Vedic culture.
According to historians, Aryans had not come from some other place. They had
a community. They were divided in many castes. They kept roaming in Persia in
West, Ganga Valley in the east and regions of Caspian Sea.
By 1000 BC, Aryans reached to the southern comer of India to tie India in a
cultural knot. According to Aryans, the society was divided into four Vama:
Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
Study of Ved, Prayers, etc were the responsibility of Brahmins. Saving people
from enemies was the responsibility of Kshatriyas. Vaishyas used to take care
of business activities and economy of the nation. Shudra used to provide
labour for different tasks. It was occupational classification on the basis of
activity.
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Present Perspective:
India is the seventh largest country in the world with total area of 32,87,263
sq. km which is 2.42 per cent of the world’s area. It is the second most
populous country after China in the world with a population of 1.21 billion.
The mainland of India, extends from Kashmir in the north to Kanniyakumari in
the south and Arunachal Pradesh in the east to Gujarat in the west. India
extends from territorial limit further extends towards the sea upto 12 nautical
miles (about 21.9 km) from the coast. India lies entirely in the Northern
hemisphere. The mainland extends between latitudes 8°4′ N (Kanniyakumari,
Cape Caverian) and 37° 6′ N (Indira col, Jammu and Kashmir) and longitudes
68° 7′ E (Dwarka, Gujarat) and 97° 25′ E (Sadiya, Arimachal Pradesh).

Longitudinal extent of India is 68° 7′ to 97° 25′ E-(29°). The latitudinal and
longitudinal extent of India are roughly about 30 degrees, whereas the actual
distance measured from north to south extremity is 3,214 km, and that from
east to west is only 2,933 km.
This difference is based on the fact that the distance between two longitudes
decreases towards the poles whereas the distance between two latitudes
remains the same everywhere.
The southern part of the country lies within the tropics and the northern part
lies in the sub¬tropical zone or the warm temperate zone. This location is
responsible for large variations in landforms, climate, soil types and natural
vegetation in the country.
There is a variation of nearly 30 degrees from west to east in India which
causes a time difference of nearly two hours between the easternmost and the
westernmost parts of our country.
While the sun rises in the northeastern states about two hours earlier as
compared to Jaisalmer, the watches in Dibrugarh, Imphal in the east and
Jaisalmer, Bhopal or Chennai in the other parts of India shows the same time
because we follow one standard time all over India called Indian Standard Time
(1ST)

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There is a general understanding among the countries of the world to select
the standard meridian in multiples of 7°30′ of longitude. That is why 82°30′ E
has been selected as the ‘standard meridian’ of India. Indian Standard Time is
ahead of Greenwich Mean Time by 5 hours and 30 minutes. There are some
countries where there are more than one standard meridian due to their vast
east-to-west extent. For example, the USA has seven time zones.
The size of India has endowed her with great physical diversity. India is gifted
with the presence of lofty mountains in the north; large rivers such as Ganga,
Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari and Kaveri; green forested hills in
northeast and south India; and the vast sandy expanse of Marusthali.
India has second position in terms of Agrarian land after USA.
It is bounded by the Himalayas in the north, Hindukush and Sulaiman ranges in
the north-west, Purvachal hills in the north-east and by the large expanse of
the Indian ocean in the south, it forms a great geographic entity known as the
Indian subcontinent. It includes the countries — Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan,
Bangladesh and India.
India’s land length is 15,200 km and it has a coastline of 6,100 km in the
mainland and 7,517 km in the entire geographical coast of the mainland plus
the island groups Andaman and Nicobar located in the Bay of Bengal and the
Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea. Thus India, as a country, is a physically
diverse land providing occurrence of varied resources.
India is located in the south-central part of the continent of Asia, bordering the
Indian ocean and its two arms extending in the form of Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea. This maritime location of Peninsular India has provided links to its
neighbouring regions through the sea and air routes. Sri Lanka and Maldives
are the two island countries located in the Indian Ocean, which are our
neighbours. Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk
Strait.
India has 29 states and 7 union territories. It is situated in the middle of
western Asia and Eastern Asia.
Important Terms:
 Siam: Old name of Thailand.

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 Aryavarta: Old name of India. It was in the name of Aryans who came to
India in ancient times.
 Indira Point: It is the southernmost part of India.
 Varna System: According to Aryans the society was divided into four
Varna: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
 Suba: In Mughal periods, states were called suba.
 Sarkar: Districts in Mughal period were called sarkar.
 Mahal: Towns and villages were called mahal in Mughal period.
 Subcontinent: Himalayas in the north, Hindukush and Sulaiman ranges in
the north¬west, Purvachal hills in the north-east and by the large
expanse of the Indian ocean in the south forms a great geographic entity
known as the Indian subcontinent. It includes the countries — Pakistan,
Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and India.

Chapter 2 Structure and Physiography

These geological regions broadly follow the physical features:
 The Peninsular Block
 The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains
 Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain.
The northern boundary of the Peninsular Block may be taken as an irregular
line running from Kachchh along the western flank of the Aravali Range near
Delhi and then roughly parallel to the Yamuna and the Ganga as far as the
Rajmahai Hills and the Ganga delta. Apart from these, the Karbi Anglong and
the Meghalaya Plateau in the north-east and Rajasthan in the west are also
extensions of this block.

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The Peninsula is formed essentially by a great complex of very ancient gneisses
and granites, which constitutes a major part of it. The rift valleys of the
Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahanadi and the Satpura block mountains are
some examples of it. The Peninsula mostly consists of relict and residual
mountains like the Aravali hills, the Nallamala hills, the Javadi hills, the
Veliconda hills, the Palkonda range and the Mahendragiri hills, etc.
Most of the east flowing rivers form deltas before entering into the Bay of
Bengal. The deltas formed by the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Kaveri and the
Godavari are important examples.
The Himalayas along with other Peninsular mountains are young, weak and
flexible in their geological structure unlike the rigid and stable Peninsular
Block. Consequently, they are still subjected to the interplay of exogenic and
endogenic forces, resulting in the development of faults, folds and thrust
plains.
The third geological division of India comprises the plains formed by the river
Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. Originally, it was a geo-synclinal
depression which attained its maximum development during the third phase of
the Himalayan mountain formation approximately about 64 million years ago.
Since then, it has been gradually filled by the sediments brought by the
Himalayan and Peninsular rivers. Average depth of alluvial deposits in these
plains ranges from 1,000-2,000 m.
India can be divided into the following physio-graphic divisions:
 The Northern and North-eastern Mountains
 The Northern Plain
 The Peninsular Plateau
 The Indian Desert
 The Coastal Plains
 The Islands.
The North and North-eastern Mountains consist of the Himalayas and the
North-eastern hills. The Himalayas consist of a series of parallel mountain
ranges. Some of the important ranges are the Greater Himalayan range, which

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includes the Great Himalayas and the Trans-Himalayan range, the Middle
Himalayas and the Shiwalik.

The approximate length of the Great Himalayan range, also known as the
central axial range, is 2,500 km from east to west, and their width varies
between 160-400 km from north to south.
On the basis of relief, alignment of ranges and other geomorphological
features, the Himalayas can be divided into the following sub-divisions:
 Kashmir or North-western Himalayas.
 Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas.
 Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas.
 Arunachal Himalayas.
 Eastern Hills and Mountains.
Kashmir or North-western Himalayas comprise a series of ranges such as the
Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar and Pir Panjal. The north-eastern part of the
Kashmir Himalayas is a cold desert, which lies between the Greater Himalayas
and the Karakoram ranges.
The word shiwalik has its origin in the geological formation found in and
around a place called Sivawala near Dehra Dun which was once a headquarter
of the Imperial Survey and which subsequently established its permanent
headquarters at Dehra Dun.
The Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas lies approximately between the Ravi
in the west and the Kali (a tributary of Ghaghara) in the east. In this section of
Lesser Himalayas, the altitude between 1,000-2,000 m specially attracted to
the British colonial administration, and subsequently, some of the important
hill stations such as Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani and the
cantonment towns and health resorts such as Shimla, Mussoorie, Kasauli,
Almora, Lansdowne and Ranikhet, etc. were developed in this region.

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The two distinguishing features of this region from the point of view of
physiography are the ‘Shiwalik’ and ‘Dun formations’, Some important duns
located in this region are the Chandigarh – Kalka Dun, Nalagarh Dun, Dehra
Dun, Harike Dun and the Kota Dun.
In the Great Himalayan range, the valleys are mostly inhabited by the Bhotia’s.
These are nomadic groups who migrate to ‘Bugyals’ (the summer glass lands in
the higher reaches) during summer months and return to the valleys during
winters. The famous ‘Valley of flowers’ is also situated in this region. The
places of pilgrimage such as the Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath
and Hemkund Sahib are also situated in this part.
Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas are also known for their scenic beauty and
rich flora and fauna, particularly various types of orchids.
An important aspect of the Arunachal Himalayas is the numerous ethnic tribal
community inhabiting in these areas. Some of the prominent ones from west
to east are the Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and the Nagas. Most of
these communities practise Jhumming. It is also known as shifting or slash and
burn cultivation. This region is rich in biodiversity which has been preserved by
the indigenous communities. Due to rugged topography, the inter-valley
transportation linkages are nominal. Hence, most of the interactions are
carried through the duar region along the Arunachal-Assam border.
The Eastern Hills and Mountains are having their general alignment from the
north to the south direction. They are known by different local names. In the
north, they are known as Patkai Bum, Naga hills, the Manipur hills and in the
south as Mizo or Lushai hills. These are low hills, inhabited by numerous tribal
groups practising Jhum cultivation.
The northern plains are formed by the alluvial deposits broiight by the rivers –
the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. These plains extend approximately
3,200 km from the east to the west. The average width of these plains varies
between 150-300 km. The maximum depth of alluvium deposits varies
between 1,000-2,000 m. From the north to the south, these can be divided
into three major zones: the Bhabar, the Tarai and the alluvial plains. The
alluvial plains can be further divided into the Khadar and the Bhangar.
Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between 8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik
foothills at the break-up of the slope. As a result of this, the streams and rivers

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coming from the mountains deposit heavy materials of rocks and boulders, and
at times, disappear in this zone. South of the Bhabar is the Tarai belt, with an
approximate width of 10-20 km where most of the streams and rivers re-
emerge without having any properly demarcated channel, thereby, creating
marshy and swampy conditions known as the Tarai.
Northern Plains is a featureless plain with a general elevation of 50-150 m
above the mean sea level. The states of Haryana and Delhi form a water divide
between the Indus and the Ganga river systems.
Rising from the height of 150 m above the river plains up to an elevation of
600-900 m is the irregular triangle known as the Peninsular plateau. Delhi ridge
in the northwest, (extension of Aravalis), the Rajmahal hills in the east, Gir
range in the west and the Cardamom hills in the south constitute the outer
extent of the Peninsular plateau. However, an extension of this is also seen in
the northeast, in the form of Shillong and Karbi-Anglong plateau. The
Peninsular India is made up of a series of patland plateaus such as the
Hazaribagh plateau, the Palamu plateau, the Ranchi plateau, the Malwa
plateau, the Coimbatore plateau and the Karnataka plateau, etc.
On the basis of the prominent relief features, the Peninsular plateau can be
divided into three broad groups:
 The Deccan Plateau
 The Central Highlands
 The North-eastern Plateau.
The Deccan Plateau is bordered by the Western Ghats in the west, Eastern
Ghats in the east and the Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills in the
north. Western Ghats are locally known by different names such as Sahyadri in
Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and Anaimalai hills and
Cardamom hills in Kerala. Western Ghats are comparatively higher in elevation
and more continuous than the Eastern Ghats. Their average elevation is about
1,500 m with the height increasing from north to south. ‘Anaimudi (2,695 m),
the highest peak of Peninsular plateau is located on the Anaimalai hills of the
Western Ghats followed by Dodabetta (2,637 m) on the Nilgiri hills.
Some of the important ranges in Eastern Ghats include the Javadi hills, the
Palconda . range, the Nallamala hills, the Mahendragiri hills, etc.

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The Meghalaya plateau is further sub-divided into three:
 The Garo Hills
 The Khasi Hills
 The Jaintia Hills
These are named after the tribal groups inhabiting this region. An extension of
this is also seen in the Karbi Anglong hills of Assam.
To the north-west of the Aravali hills lies the Great Indian Desert. It is a land of
undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans. This
region receives low rainfall below 150 mm per year; hence, it has arid climate
with low vegetation cover.
On the basis of the location and active geomorphological processes, it can be
broadly divided into two:
 The western coastal plains
 The eastern coastal plains.
There are two major island groups in India – one in the Bay of Bengal and the
other in the Arabian Sea. The Bay of Bengal island groups consist of about 572
islands/islets. These are situated roughly between 6°N-14°N and 92°E -94°E.
The two principal groups of islets include the Ritchie’s archipelago and the
Labrynth island.
Some important mountain peaks in Andaman and Nicobar islands are Saddle
peak (North Andaman – 738 m), Mount Diavolo (Middle Andaman – 515 m),
Mount Koyob (South Andaman – 460 m) and Mount Thuiller (Great Nicobar –
642 m). These islands are located at a distance of 280 km-480 km off the Kerala
coast. The entire island group.is built of coral deposits. There are
approximately 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited. Minicoy is the largest
island with an area of 453 sq. km.
Important Terms:
 Physiography: ‘Physiography’ of an area is the outcome of structure,
process and the stage of development.

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 Central axial range: The approximate length of the Great Himalayan
range is known as the central axial range. It is 2,500 km from east to
west
 Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain: It is a geological division of India that
comprises the plains formed by the river Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra.
 Bhabar: Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between 8-10 km parallel to the
Shiwalik foothills at the break-up of the slope. As a result of this, the
streams and rivers coming from the mountains deposit heavy materials
of rocks and boulders, and at times, disappear in this zone.
 Kashmir or North-western Himalayas: It comprise a series of ranges such
as the Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar and Pir Panjal. The north-eastern part
of the Kashmir Himalayas is a cold desert, which lies between the
Greater Himalayas and the Karakoram ranges.
 Duns: The southernmost part of this region consists of longitudinal
valleys. These are known as ‘duns’. Jammu dun and Pathankot dun are
important examples.
 Tarai: South of the Bhabar is the Tarai belt, with an approximate width
of 10-20 km where most of the streams and rivers re-emerge without
having any properly demarcated channel, thereby, creating marshy and
swampy conditions known as the Tarai.
 Bhangar: The south of Tarai is a belt consisting of old alluvial deposits
which is known as the Bhangar.
 Khadar: The south of Tarai is a belt consisting of new alluvial deposits is
known as Khadar.
 Dhaoladhar: The Lesser Himalayas is locally known as Dhaoladhar in
Himachal Pradesh.
 Nagtibha: The Lesser Himalayas are called Nagtibha in Uttarakhand.
 Ten Degree Channel: The Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the
south are separated by a water body. It is called the Ten degree channel.

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 The Peninsular Plateau: Rising from the height of 150 m above the river
plains upto an elevation of 600-900 m is the irregular triangle known as
the Peninsular plateau.
 The Central Highlands: They are bounded to the west by the Aravali
range.
 Satpura Range: The Satpura range is formed by a series of scarped
plateaus on the south, generally at an elevation varying between 600-
900 m above the mean sea level.
 Barchans: The extension of the Peninsular plateau can be seen as far as
Jaisalmer in the West, where it has been covered by the longitudinal
sand ridges and crescent-shaped sand dunes. These are called barchans.
 Loktak: The physiography of Manipur is unique by the presence of a
large lake known as ‘Loktak’.
 Molassis Basin: Mizoram is also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ which is
made up of soft unconsolidated deposits.
 Kayals: Boatwaters are called kayals in Kerala.
 Karewas: Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other
materials embedded with moraines.
 Dhaya: Bangal is called dhaya in Punjab.
 Bate: Khadar is called bate in Punjab.

Chapter 3 Drainage System

On the basis of discharge of water (orientations to the sea), it may be grouped
into:
 The Arabian Sea drainage; and
 The Bay of Bengal drainage.
Nearly 77 per cent of the drainage area consisting of the Ganga, the
Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, etc. are oriented towards the Bay of

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Bengal while 23 per cent comprising the Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the
Mahi and the Periyar systems discharge their waters in the Arabian Sea.
On the basis of the size of the watershed, the drainage basins of India are
grouped into three categories:
 Major river basins with more than 20,000 sq. km of catchment area. It
includes 14 drainage basins such as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the
Krishna, the Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, the Penner, the Sabarmati,
the Barak, etc.
 Medium river basins with catchment area between 2,000-20,000 sq. km
incorporating 44 river basins such as the Kalindi, the Periyar, the
Meghna, etc.
Minor river basins with catchment area of less than 2,000 sq. km include fairly
good number of rivers flowing in the area of low rainfall.
The Indus System is one of the largest river basins of the world, covering an
area of 11,65,000 sq. km (in India it is 321, 289 sq. km) and a total length of
2,880 km and in India its length is 1,114 km.
The Jhelum, an important tributary of the Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag
situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of
Kashmir. It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering Pakistan
through a deep narrow gorge. It joins the Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan.
The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus. It is formed by two streams,
the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal
Pradesh. Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga.
The Ravi is another important tributary of the Indus. It rises west of the
Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through the
Chamba valley of the state.
The Beas is another important tributary of the Indus, originating from the Beas
Kund near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 m above the mean sea
level. The river flows through the Kullu valley and forms gorges at Kati and
Largi in the Dhaoladhar range.

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Satluj river flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400 km before entering
India, and comes out of a gorge at Rupar. It passes through the Shipki La on the
Himalayan ranges and enters the Punjab plains. It is an antecedent river. It is a
very important tributary as it feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal
project.
The Ganga System rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the
Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi. It cuts
through the Central and the Lesser Himalayas in narrow gorges. At Devprayag,
the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the Ganga. The
Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath.
The Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga which meet at
Joshimath or Vishnu Prayag. The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as the
Pindar joins it at Kama Prayag while Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets it at Rudra
Prayag.
The Ganga river has a length of 2,525 km. It is shared by Uttarakhand (110 km)
and Uttar Pradesh (1,450 km), Bihar (445 km) and West Bengal (520 km).
The Ganga basin covers about 8.6 lakh sq. km area in India alone. The Ganga
river system is the largest in India having a number of perennial and non-
perennial rivers originating in the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsula in
the south, respectively. The Son is its major right bank tributary. The important
left bank tributaries are the Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the Gandak,
the Kosi and the Mahananda.
The Yamuna is the western most and the longest tributary of the Ganga. It has
its source in the Yamunotri glacier on the western slopes of Banderpunch
range (6,316 km). It joins the Ganga at Prayag in Allahabad. It is joined by the
Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken on its right bank which originates
from the Peninsular plateau while the Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the

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Varuna, etc. join it on its left bank.

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The Chambal rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and
flows northwards through a gorge up wards of Kota in Rajasthan, where the
Gandhisagar dam has been constructed. From Kota, it traverses down to Bundi,
Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur, and finally joins the Yamuna.
The Gandak comprises two streams, namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. It
rises in the Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and
drains the central part of Nepal.
The Brahmaputra is one of the largest rivers of the world. It has its origin in the
Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake.
The Brahmaputra receives numerous tributaries in its 750 km long journey
through the Assam valley. Its major left bank tributaries are the Burhi Dihing
and Dhansari (South) whereas the important right bank tributaries are the
Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and Sankosh.. The Subansiri which has its origin in
Tibet, is an antecedent river.
The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one. This is
evident from the broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, and the maturity of the
rivers.
Most of the major Peninsular rivers except Narmada and Tapi flow from west
to east. The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son, originating in the
northern part of the Peninsula belong to the Ganga river system. The other
major river systems of the Peninsular drainage are – the Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri. Peninsular rivers are characterised by
fixed course, absence of meanders and non- perennial flow of water.
Three major geological events in the distant past have shaped the present
drainage systems of Peninsular India:
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 Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula leading to its
submergence below the sea during the early tertiary period.
 Upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank of the Peninsular
block was subjected to subsidence and the consequent trough faulting.
 Slight tilting of the Peninsular block from north-west to the south-
eastern direction gave orientation to the entire drainage system towards
the Bay of Bengal during the same period.
There are some problems in river water usage. Some of these are:
 No availability in sufficient quantity.
 River water pollution.
 Load of silt in the river water.
 Uneven seasonal flow of water.
 River water disputes between states.
 Shrinking of channels due to the extension of settlements towards the
thalweg.
Important Terms:
 Drainage: The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as
‘drainage.’
 Drainage System: The network of drainage channels is called a ‘drainage
system’.
 Dendritic Drainage System: The drainage pattern resembling the
branches of a tree is known as “dendritic” the examples of which are the
rivers of northern plain.
 Radial Drainage System: When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in
all directions, the drainage pattern is known as ‘radial’. The rivers
originating from the Amarkantak range present a good example of it.
 Trellis: When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to each other
and secondary tributaries join them at right angles, the pattern is known
as ‘trellis’.

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 Centripetal Drainage System: When the rivers discharge their waters
from all directions in a lake or depression, the pattern is known as
‘centripetal’.
 Catchment area: A river drains the water collected from a specific area,
which is called its ‘catchment area’.
 Drainage Basin: An area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a
drainage basin.
 Watershed: The boundary line separating one drainage basin from the
other is known as the watershed.
 Sorrow of Bengal: River Damodar is also known as the ‘Sorrow of Bengal’
as it changes its course very frequently and causes floods in Bihar.
 Sorrow of Bihar: River Kosi is called Sorrow of Bihar.
 River System: A river or a river system is a body of water flowing in a
channel through the surface of the earth. It consists of four important
parts: river course, river source, tributaries and river mouth.
 River Source: A place at which begins or originates. This is usually found
in mountainous areas. The source may be melting snow from the top of
a mountain on a lake with stream flowing out of it. A river flow downhill
from its source due to the force of gravity
 River Course: The path on which the river flows along.
 Singi Khamban or Lion’s mouth: Kailash Mountain range is known as
‘Singi Khamban; or Lion’s mouth in Tibet.
 Regime: The pattern of flow of water in a river channel over a year is
known as its regime.
 Cusecs: It means cubic feet per second.
 Cumecs: It stands for cubic metres per second.

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Chapter 4 Climate
Weather is the momentary state of the atmosphere while climate refers to the
average of the weather conditions over a longer period of time. Weather
changes quickly, may be within a day or week but climate changes
imperceptively and may be noted after 50 years or even more.
India has hot monsoonal climate which is the prevalent climate in south and
south-east Asia.
While in the summer the mercury occasionally touches 55°C in the western
Rajasthan, it drops down to as low as minus 45°C in winter around Leh. Churu
in Rajasthan may record a temperature of 50°C or more on a June day while
the mercury hardly touches 19°C in Tawang (Arunachal Pradesh) on the same
day. On a December night, temperature in Drass (Jammu and Kashmir) may
drop down to minus 45°C while Thiruvananthapuram or Chennai on the same
night records 20°C or 22°C.
In Kerala and in the Andaman Islands, the difference between day and night
temperatures may be hardly seven or eight degree Celsius. But in the Thar
desert, if the day temperature is around 50°C, at night, it may drop down
considerably upto 15°-20°C.
While snowfall occurs in the Himalayas, it only rains over the rest of the
country. Similarly, variations are noticeable not only in the type of
precipitation but also in its amount. While Cherrapunji and Mawsynram in the
Khasi Hills of Meghalaya receive rainfall over 1,080 cm in a year, Jaisalmer in
Rajasthan rarely gets more than 9 cm of rainfall during the same period.

Tura situated in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya may receive an amount of rainfall
in a single day which is equal to 10 years of rainfall at Jaisalmer. While the

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annual precipitation is less than 10 cm in the north-west Himalayas and the
western deserts, it exceeds 400 cm in Meghalaya.
The Ganga delta and the coastal plains of Orissa are hit by strong rain-bearing
storms almost every third or fifth day in July and August while the Coromandal
coast, a thousand km to the south, goes generally dry during these months.
Most parts of the country get rainfall during June-September, but on the
coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, it rains in the beginning of the winter season. In
spite of these differences and variations, the climate of India is monsoonal in
rhythm and character.
With a long coastline, large coastal areas have an equable climate. Areas in the
interior of India are far away from the moderating influence of the sea. Such
areas have extremes of climate.
Temperature decreases with height. Due to thin air, places in the mountains
are cooler than places on the plains. With increase in height by 165 metres,
temperature decreases by one degree celcius. Agra and Darjiling are located on
the same latitude, but temperature of January in Agra is 16°C whereas it is only
4°C in Darjiling.
An easterly jet stream flows over the southern part of the Peninsula in June,
and has a maximum speed of 90 km per hour. In August, it is confined to 15°N
latitude, and in September up to 22°N latitudes. The easterlies normally do not
extend to the north of 30°N latitude in the upper atmosphere.
The monsoon may burst in the first week of June in the coastal areas of Kerala,
Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra while in the interior parts of the country, it
may be delayed to the first week of July. The day temperature registers a
decline of 5°C to 8°C between mid- June and mid-July.
The mean daily temperature remains below 21°C over most parts of northern
India. The night temperature may be quite low, sometimes going below
freezing point in Punjab and Rajasthan.
The mean maximum temperature for January at Thiruvananthapuram is as
high as 31°C, and for June, it is 29.5°C. Temperatures at the hills of Western
Ghats remain comparatively low.
April, May and June are the months of summer in north India. In most parts of
India, temperatures recorded are between 30°-32°C. In March, the highest day
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temperature of about 38°C occurs in the Deccan Plateau while in April,
temperature ranging between 38°C and 43°C are found in Gujarat and Madhya
Pradesh.
The average annual rainfall in India is about 125 cm, but it has great spatial
variations.
The highest rainfall occurs along the west coast, on the Western Ghats, as well
as in the Sub-Himalayan areas in the north-east and the hills of Meghalaya.
Here the rainfall exceeds 200 cm. In some parts of Khasi and Jaintia hills, the
rainfall exceeds 1,000 cm. In the Brahmaputra valley and the adjoining hills,
the rainfall is less then 200 cm.
Rainfall between 100-200 cm is received in the southern parts of Gujarat, east
Tamil Nadu, north-eastern Peninsula covering Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar,
eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern Ganga plain along the sub-Himalayas and
the Cachar Valley and Manipur.
Areas of Low Rainfall: Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu
and Kashmir, eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat and Deccan Plateau receive rainfall
between 50-100 cm.
Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: Parts of the Peninsula, especially in Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra, Ladakh and most of western Rajasthan
receive rainfall below 50 cm. Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region.
The mean annual surface temperature of the earth in the past 150 years has
increased. It is projected that by the year 2,100, global temperature will
increase by about 2°C. This rise in temperature will cause many other changes:
one of these is a rise in sea level, as a result of melting of glaciers and sea-ice
due to warming.
Important Terms:
 Monsoon: Monsoon connotes the climate associated with seasonal
reversal in the direction of winds.
 Weather: Weather is conditions of temperature, humidity, pressure, etc
at a given point of time.
 Climate: Climate is condition of temperature, humidity and pressure for
a longer period of time.

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 Break in the monsoon: During the south-west monsoon period after
having rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur for one or more weeks, it
is known as break in the monsoon.
 Dust storms: Dust storms in the evening are very common during May in
Punjab, Haryana, Eastern Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
 Mango shower: Towards the end of summer, there are pre-monsoon
showers which are a common phenomena in Kerala and coastal areas of
Karnataka. Locally, they are known as mango showers since they help in
the early ripening of mangoes.
 Blossom shower: With this shower, coffee flowers blossom in Kerala and
nearby areas.
 Nor westers: These are dreaded evening thunderstorms in Bengal and
Assam. Their notorious nature can be understood from the local
nomenclature of‘Kalbaisakhi’, a calamity of the month of Baisakh. These
showers are useful for tea, jute and rice cultivation.
 Breaks: The wet spells are interspersed with rainless interval known as
‘breaks’.
 Climatic region: A climatic region has a homogeneous climatic condition
which is the result of a combination of factors.
 Disturbances: Inflow of western cyclones is generally known as
disturbances during the winter season.
 The Inter tropical convergence zone (ITCZ): It is a low pressure zone
located at the equator where trade winds converge, and so, it is a zone
where air tends to ascend.
 Monsoon trough: In July, the ITCZ is located around 20°N-25°N latitudes
over the Gangetic plain. These are sometimescalled the monsoon
trough.
 ITCZ: The inter tropical convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a low pressure zone
located at the Equator where trade winds converge and so it is a zone
where air trends to ascend. In July the ITCZ is located around 20°N-25° N
latitudes (over the Gangetic Plain) sometimes called the monsoon
trough.

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 Northeast monsoon: In winter, the ITCZ moves southward, and so the
reversal of winds from northeast to south and southwest, takes place.
They are called northeast monsoons.
 Tropical depressions: Inflow of western cyclones is generally known as
tropical depressions during the south-west monsoon period in India.
 Bardoli chheerha: In Assam, Nor Westers storms are known as “Bardoli
Chheerha”.
 Loo: Hot, dry and oppressing winds blowing in the Northern plains from
Punjab to Bihar with higher intensity between Delhi and Patna.
 Bursting of the monsoon: High velocity winds with extreme thundering
and lightening . cause sudden rainfall. It is
 Jet stream: The winds blow across the Asian continent at latitudes north
of the Himalayas roughly parallel to the Tibetan highlands are called jet
stream.
 Monsoon winds: Winds that bring rainfall are called monsoon winds.
 Drought: It is a situation of scarce rainfall causing problem of usable
water, failure of crops and sometimes famine like conditions.
 Western cyclone: The western cyclonic disturbances enter the Indian
subcontinent from the west and the north-west during the winter
months. It originate over the Mediterranean Sea and are brought into
India by the westerly jet stream.
 Tropical cyclones: Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay of Bengal and
the Indian Ocean. These tropical cyclones have very high wind velocity
and heavy rainfall.
 October-heat: Owing to the condition of high temperature and humidity,
the weather becomes rather oppressive and this is known as the
October-heat.

Chapter 5 Natural Vegetation

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On the basis of certain common features such as predominant vegetation type
and climatic regions, Indian forests can be divided into the following groups:

Tropical Evergreen forests are found in the western slope of the Western
Ghats, hills of the north-eastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
They are found in warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation of over
200 cm and mean annual temperature above 22°C. In these forests, trees
reach great heights up to 60 m or above. There is no definite time for trees to
shed their leaves, flowering and fruition. As such these forests appear green all
the year round. Species found in these forests include rosewood, mahogany,
aini, ebony, etc.

The semi evergreen forests are found in the less rainy parts of these regions.
Such forests have a mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous trees. The
under growing climbers provide an evergreen character to these forests. Main
species are white cedar, hollock and kail.
Tropical Deciduous Forests are the most widespread forests in India. They are
also called the monsoon forests. They spread over regions which receive
rainfall between 70-200 cm. On the basis of the availability of water, these
forests are divided into two types: moist and dry deciduous.
The Moist deciduous forests are more pronounced in the regions which record
rainfall between 100-200 cm. These forests are found in the north-eastern
states along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats
and Odisha. Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum, and
sandalwood etc. are the main species of these forests.
Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas of the country, where rainfall ranges
between 70-100 cm. On the wetter margins, it has a transition to the moist
deciduous, while on the drier margins to thorn forests. These forests are found
in rainier areas of the Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

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Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which receive rainfall less than 50 cm.
These consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It includes semi-arid areas of
south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh.
In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude
leads to a corresponding change in natural vegetation. Mountain forests can
be classified into two types, the northern mountain forests and the southern
mountain forests.
The Himalayan ranges show a succession of vegetation from the tropical to the
tundra, which change in with the altitude. Deciduous forests are found in the
foothills of the Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet temperate type of forests
between an altitude of 1,000-2,000 m.
In the higher hill ranges of north-eastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal and
Uttarakhand, evergreen broad leaf trees such as oak and chestnut are
predominant. Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine forests are also well-developed in
this zone, with Chir Pine as a very useful commercial tree.
Deodar, a highly valued endemic species grows mainly in the western part of
the Himalayan range. Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in construction
activity. Similarly, the chinar and the walnut, which sustain the famous Kashmir
handicrafts, belong to this zone. Blue pine and spruce appear at altitudes of
2,225-3,048 m.
In India, the mangrove forests spread over 6,740 sq. km which is 7 per cent of
the world’s mangrove forests. They are highly developed in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and the Sunderbans of West Bengal. Other areas of significance
are the Mahanadi, the Godavari and the Krishna deltas. These forests too, are
being encroached upon, and hence, need conservation.
According to state records, the forest area covers 23.28 per cent of the total
land area of the
country. It is important to note that the forest area and the actual forest cover
are not the same.
Both forest area and forest cover varies from state to state. Lakshadweep has
zero per cent approx forest area; Andaman and Nicobar Islands have 86.93 per
cent. Some of the states with less than 10 per cent of the forest area lie in the

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north and north-western part of the country. These are Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Punjab, Haryana and Delhi.
Geographical area under forests are:

The Government of India proposed to have a nation-wide forest conservation

policy, and adopted a forest policy in 1952, which was further modified in
1988.
The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) has classified social forestry
into three categories. These are urban forestry, rural forestry and farm
forestry.
Urban forestry pertains to the raising and management of trees on public and
privately owned lands in and around urban centres such as green belts, parks,
roadside avenues, industrial and commercial green belts, etc.
Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion of agro-forestry and community-
forestry. Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same

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land inclusive of the waste patches. It combines forestry with agriculture, thus,
altering the simultaneous production of food, fodder, fuel, timber and fruits.
In 1972, a comprehensive Wildlife Act was enacted, which provides the main
legal framework for conservation and protection of wildlife in India.
Now, there are 105 National parks and 514 wildlife sanctuaries covering an
area of about 15.67 million hectares in the country.
Special schemes like Project Tiger and Project Elephant have been launched to
conserve these species and their habitat in a sustainable manner. Project
Elephant has been implemented since 1992.
Under Project Tiger, launched on 1 April 1973, 27 tiger reserves have been set
up in 17 states covering an area of about 37,761 sq. km.
There are 18 Biosphere Reserves in India. Nine of them are recognized by
UNESCO. They are :
 Nilgiri
 Nanda Devi
 Sunderbans
 Gulf of Mannar
 Great Nicobar
 Pachmarhi
 Amarkantak
 Norkek
 Simlipal.
Out of a total of 593 districts, 188 have been identified as tribal districts. The
tribal districts account for about 59.61 per cent of the total forest cover of the
country whereas the geographical area of 188 tribal districts forms only 33.63
per cent of the total geographical area of the country.
Important Terms:

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 Natural vegetation: Natural vegetation refers to a plant community that
has been left undisturbed over a long time, so as to allow its individual
species to adjust themselves to climate and soil conditions as fully as
possible.
 Planted vegetation: It refers to planting of trees under human
supervision.
 International convention: An international convention is an agreement
among member states of the United Nations.
 Forest area: The forest area is the area notified and recorded as the
forest land irrespective of the existence of trees. It is based on the
records of the State Revenue Department.
 Actual forest cover: The actual forest cover is the area occupied by
forests with canopy. It is based on aerial photographs and satellite
imageries.
 Social forestry: Social forestry means the management and protection of
forests and afforestation on barren lands with the purpose of helping in
the environmental, social and rural development.
 Community forestry: It involves the raising of trees on public or
community land such as the village pasture and temple land, roadside,
canal bank, strips along railway lines, and schools etc.
 Rural forestry: It lays emphasis on promotion of agro-forestry and
community-forestry. Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and agriculture
crops on the same land inclusive of the waste patches.
 Biosphere reserve: A Biosphere reserve is a unique and representative
ecosystem of terrestrial and coastal areas which are internationally
recognised within the framework of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere
(MAB) Programme.
 National park: A national park is an area which is strictly reserved for the
protection of the wildlife and where activities such as forestry, grazing or
cultivation are not allowed.

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 Reserved forest: An area notified under the provisions of Indian Forest
acts having full degree of protection. In protected forests, all activities
are prohibited unless permitted.
 Protected forest: An area notified under the provisions of Indian Forest
Act or the State Forest Acts having limited degree of protection. In
Protected Forests, all activities are permitted unless prohibited.
 Sanctuary: A sanctuary is an area which is reserved for the conservation
of animals only and operations such as harvesting of timber, collection
of minor forest products are allowed so long as they do not affect the
animals adversely.
 Unclassed forest: An area recorded as forest but not included in
reserved or protected forest category. Ownership status of such forests
varies from state to state.
 Conservation: The protection of natural environment and natural
resources for the future is called conservation. It includes the
management of minerals, landscape, soil and forests to prevent their
destruction and over exploitation.

Chapter 6 Soils
Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the
earth’s surface.
The major factors affecting the formation of soil are relief, parent material,
climate, vegetation and other life-forms and time. Besides these, human
activities also influence it to a large extent.
Components of the soil are mineral particles, humus, water and air. The actual
amount of each of these depends upon the type of soil.
Soil is bifurcated into three layers called horizons. ‘Horizon A’ is the topmost
zone, where organic materials have got incorporated with the mineral matter,
nutrients and water, which are necessary for the growth of plants. ‘Horizon B’
is a transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and ‘horizon C’, and contains
matter derived from below as well as from above. It has some organic matter
in it, although the mineral matter is noticeably weathered. ‘Horizon C’ is
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composed of the loose parent material. This layer is the first stage in the soil
formation process and eventually forms the above two layers.
In ancient times, soils used to be classified into twro main groups – Urvara and
Usara, which were fertile and sterile, respectively.
In the 16th century A.D., soils were classified on the basis of their inherent
characteristics and external features such as texture, colour, slope of land and
moisture content in the soil. Based on texture, main soil types were identified
as sandy, clayey, silty and loamy, etc. On the basis of colour, they wrere red,
yellow, black, etc.
On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location, the soils of India
have been classified into:
 Alluvial soils
 Black soils
 Red and Yellow soils
 Laterite soils
 Arid soils
 Saline soils
 Peaty soils
 Forest soils.
Alluvial soils are widespread in the northern plains and the river valleys. These
soils cover about 40 per cent of the total area of the country. They are
depositional soils, transported and deposited by rivers and streams.
The alluvial soils vary in nature from sandy loam to clay. They are generally rich
in potash but poor in phosphorous. In the Upper and Middle Ganga plain, two
different types of alluvial soils have developed, viz. Khadar and Bhangar.
Khadar is the new alluvium and is deposited by floods annually, which enriches
the soil by depositing fine silts. Bhangar represents a system of older alluvium,
deposited away from the flood plains.

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Black soil covers most of the Deccan Plateau which includes parts of
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, .Andhra Pradesh and some parts of
Tamil Nadu. In the upper reaches of the Godavari and the Krishna, and the
north western part of the Deccan Plateau, the black soil is very deep.
Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the
eastern and southern part of the Deccan Plateau. Along the piedmont zone of
the Western Ghat, long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil.
Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘Later’ which means brick. The
laterite soils develop in areas with high temperature and high rainfall. These
are the result of intense leaching due to tropical rains. With rain, lime and silica
are leached away, and soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium compound are left
behind.
Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They are generally sandy in
structure and saline in nature. In some areas, the salt content is so high that
common salt is obtained by evaporating the saline water. Due to the dry
climate, high temperature and accelerated evaporation, they lack moisture and
humus.
Saline soils are also known as Usara soils. Saline soils contain a larger
proportion of sodium, potassium and magnesium, and thus, they are infertile,
and do not support any vegetative growth. They have more salts, largely
because of dry climate and poor drainage. They occur in arid and semi-arid
regions, and in waterlogged and swampy areas.
Peaty soils are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where
there is a good growth of vegetation. Thus, large quantity of dead organic
matter accumulates in these areas, and this gives a rich humus and organic
content to the soil. Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per
cent.
Forest soils are formed in the forest areas where sufficient rainfall is available.
The soils vary in structure and texture depending on the mountain
environment where they are formed. They are loamy and silty on valley sides
and coarse-grained in the upper slopes.
Soil degradation can be defined as the decline in soil fertility, when the
nutritional status declines and depth of the soil goes down due to erosion and
misuse. Soil degradation is the main factor leading to the depleting soil
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resource base in India. The degree of soil degradation varies from place to
place according to the topography, wind velocity and amount of the rainfall.
The destruction of the soil cover is described as soil erosion. Forest and other
natural vegetation are removed for human settlement, for cultivation, for
grazing animals and for various other needs. Wind and water are powerful
agents of soil erosion because of their ability to remove soil and transport it.
Soil erosion is a serious problem for Indian agriculture and its negative eff ects
are seen in other spheres also. Eroded materials are carried down to rivers and
they lower down their carrying capacity, and cause frequent floods and
damage to agricultural lands.
Deforestation is one of the major causes of soil erosion. Plants keep soils
bound in locks of roots, and thus, prevent erosion. They also add humus to the
soil by shedding leaves and twigs. The salt lodged in the lower profiles of the
soil comes up to the surface and destroys its fertility. Chemical fertilizers in the
absence of organic manures are also harmful to the soil.
If soil erosion and exhaustion are caused by humans; by corollary, they can also
be prevented by humans. Contour bunding, Contour terracing, regulated
forestry, controlled grazing, cover cropping, mixed farming and crop rotation
are some of the remedial measures which are often adopted to reduce soil
erosion.
Experiments have been made to stabilize sand dunes in western Rajasthan by
the Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI). The Central Soil Conservation
Board, set up by the Government of India, has prepared a number of plans for
soil conservation in different parts of the country.
Important Soils Found In India:

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Important Terms:
 Soil: Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which
develop on the earth’s surface.
 Bad land topography: A region with a large number of deep gullies or
ravines is called a bad land topography.
 Horizons: When we dig a pit on land and look at the soil, we find that it
consists of three layers. These are called horizons.
 Horizon A: It is the topmost zone, where organic materials have got
incorporated with the • mineral matter, nutrients and water, which are
necessary for the growth of plants.
 Horizon B: It is a transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and ‘horizon C’,
and contains matter derived from below as well as from above. It has
some organic matter in it, although the mineral matter is noticeably
weathered.
 Horizon C: It is composed of the loose parent material. This layer is the
first stage in the soil formation process and eventually forms the above
two layers.
 Soil profile: The arrangement of layers in three horizons, A, B and C is
known as the soil profile.
 Parent rock: Underneath the three horizons there is the rock which is
known as the parent rock or the bedrock.

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 Estuary: The tidal mouth of a river where fresh and saline water get
mixed.
 Gully erosion: It is the erosion of the soil and rock by the concentration
of runoff into gullies.
 Humus: The dead organic content of the soil.
 Khadar: Khadar is the new alluvium and is deposited by floods annually,
which enriches the soil by depositing fine silts.
 Bhangar: Bhangar represents a system of older alluvium, deposited away
from the flood plains.
 Alluvial soil: They are depositional soils, transported and deposited by
rivers and streams.
 Laterite soil: Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘Later’ which
means brick. The laterite soils develop in areas with high temperature
and high rainfall.
 Black soil: These soils are made from volcanoes. These soils are also
known as the ‘RegurSoil’ or the ‘Black Cotton Soil’.
 Forest soils: Forest soils are formed in the forest areas where sufficient
rainfall is available.
 Peaty soils: They are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high
humidity, where there is a good growth of vegetation.
 Soil erosion: The destruction of the soil cover is described as soil erosion.
 Soil degradation: Soil degradation can be defined as the decline in soil
fertility, when the nutritional status declines and depth of the soil goes
down due to erosion and misuse. Soil degradation is the main factor
leading to the depleting soil resource base in India.
 Soil Conservation: Soil conservation is a methodology to maintain soil
fertility, prevent soil erosion and exhaustion, and improve the degraded
condition of the soil.

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 NCERT Class 11 Geography- India Physical Environment
gist – ORACLE IAS

Chapter 7 Natural Hazards and Disasters

Disaster is an undesirable occurrence resulting from forces that are largely
outside human control, strikes quickly with little or no warning, which causes
or threatens serious disruption of life and property including death and injury
to a large number of people, and requires therefore, mobilisation of efforts in
excess of that which are normally provided by statutory emergency services.
Change is the law of nature. It is a process present everywhere with variations
in terms of magnitude, intensity and scale. Change can be as sudden and swift
as volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, earthquakes and lightening, etc.
Disasters are also caused by some human activities. There are some activities
carried by human beings that are directly responsible for disasters. Bhopal Gas
tragedy, Chernobyl nuclear disaster, wars, release of CFCs
(Chlorofluorocarbons) and increase of green house gases, environmental
pollutions like noise, air, water and soil are some of the examples.
Establishment of National Institute of Disaster Management, India, Earth
Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1993 and the World Conference on Disaster
Management in May 1994 at Yokohama, Japan, etc. are some of the concrete
steps towards disaster management initiated at different levels.

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 NCERT Class 11 Geography- India Physical Environment
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Geological Survey of India, Department of Meteorology, Government of India,
along with the recently formed National Institute of Disaster Management,
have divided India into the following five earthquake zones:
(i) Very high damage risk zone
(ii) High damage risk zone
(,iii) Moderate damage risk zone
(iv) Low damage risk zone
(v) Very low damage risk zone.

Disaster Management issue was raised at the U.N. General Assembly in 1989
and it was finally formalised at the World Conference on Disaster Management
in May 1994 at Yokohama, Japan. This was subsequently called the Yokohama
Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World.
Cyclones originate between 10°-15° north latitudes during the monsoon
season. In Bay of Bengal, cyclones mostly develop during the months of
October and November. Here, they originate between 16°-2° N latitudes and to
the west of 92° E. By July, the place of origin of these storms shifts to around
18° N latitude and west of 90°E near the Sunderban Delta.
Floods occur commonly when water in the form of surface run-off exceeds the
carrying capacity of the river channels and streams and flows into the
neighbouring low-lying flood plains.

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 NCERT Class 11 Geography- India Physical Environment
gist – ORACLE IAS
Various states of India face heavy loss of lives and property due to recurrent
floods. Rashtriya Barh Ayog (National Flood Commission) identified 40 million
hectares of land as flood-prone in India.
According to some estimates, nearly 19 per cent of the total geographical area
of the country and 12 per cent of its total population suffer due to drought
every year. About 30 per cent of the country’s total area is identified as
drought prone affecting around 50 million people.
On the basis of severity of droughts, India can be divided into the following
regions:
(i) Extreme Drought Affected Areas
(ii) Severe Drought Prone Area
(Hi) Moderate Drought Affected Area

Different natural calamities, their causes and measures to reduce their impact

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 NCERT Class 11 Geography- India Physical Environment
gist – ORACLE IAS

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 NCERT Class 11 Geography- India Physical Environment
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 NCERT Class 11 Geography- India Physical Environment
gist – ORACLE IAS

Important Terms:
 Disaster: Disaster is an undesirable occurrence resulting from forces that
are largely outside human control, strikes quickly with little or no
warning, which causes or threatens serious disruption of life and
property including death and injury to a large number of people, and
requires therefore, mobilisation of efforts in excess of that which are
normally provided by statutory emergency services.
 Natural hazards: Natural Hazards are elements of circumstances in the
natural environment that have the potential to cause harm to people or
property or both.
 Drought: The term ‘drought’ is applied to an extended period when
there is a shortage of water availability due to inadequate precipitation,
excessive rate of evaporation and over¬utilisation of water from the
reservoirs and other storages, including the ground water.
 Landslide: A form of mass movement in which rock and debris moves
rapidly downslope under the influence of gravity as a result of failure
along a shear plane.
 Tsunamis: Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that cause the sea-floor
to move abruptly resulting in sudden displacement of ocean water in the

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form of high vertical waves are called tsunamis (harbour waves) or
seismic sea waves.
 Flood: When a river bursts its banks and the water spills out onto the
floodplain, it is called flood.
 Meteorological drought: When there is a prolonged period of
inadequate rainfall marked with mal-distribution of the same over time
and space, it is called meterological drought.
 Agricultural drought: When there is by low soil moisture that is
necessary to support the crops, thereby resulting in crop failures, it is
called agricultural drought.
 A tropical cyclone or hurricane: It is like a heat engine that is energised
by the release of latent heat on account of the condensation of moisture
that the wind gathers after moving over the oceans and seas.
 Hydrological drought: It results when the availability of water in different
storages and reservoirs like aquifers, lakes, reservoirs, etc. falls below
what the precipitation can replenish.
 Ecological drought: When the productivity of a natural ecosystem fails
due to shortage of water and as a consequence of ecological distress,
damages are induced in the ecosystem. It is called ecological drought.
 Eye of the storm: The centre of the cyclone is mostly a warm and low-
pressure, cloudless core. It is known as eye of the storm.
 Storm Surge: Abnormal rise in the sea level is known as Storm Surge.
 Famine: Extreme scarcity of food as a result of drought is called famine.
 Earthquake: An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor)
is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust that
creates seismic waves.
 Seismicity: The seismicity, seismism or seismic activity of an area refers
to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a
period of time.

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