DIRECTORATE OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT CENTRE

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY, DUTSIN-MA

GST 311 -INTRODUCTION TO ENTREPRENEURSHIP SKILLS

COURSE CONTENTS

Module 1: Tailoring and fashion design

Module 2: Water treatment, packaging, and quality control
Module 3: Soap/detergent making
Module 4: Cosmetics and Make-up Making
Module 5: Photography and Video Filming
Module 6: Hair dressing, weaving and Barbing saloon
Module 7: Yogurt and Ice cream processing
Module 8: Fish Farming
Module 9: Animal Production including Poultry and Ruminants production
Module 10: Crop Production and processing including rice milling
Module 11: Shoe/belt making
Module 12: Direct imaging printing, flex printing and souvenir production
The competences include:
Module 13: Financial services in Accessing Business Finance and Accounting Services to
startups
Module 14: Marketing, Sales, Customer Care, Human Resources and Management Services to
startups

Module 1: TAILORING AND FASHION DESIGN.

1.1 Tailoring and fashion design.

Tailoring is the art of designing, cutting, fitting, and finishing clothes. The word tailor comes
from the French tailler, to cut. The term so used thus refers to a set of specific hand and machine
sewing and pressing techniques that are unique to the construction of traditional jackets.
Small and medium size retail tailors often provide their services internationally, with individual
tailors and cutters travelling to various cities, allowing the customers to be met locally, measured
on one trip, fitted on another and thereafter supplied with (a) garment(s) without the
inconvenience of themselves travelling overseas

Sewing professional is the most general term for those who make their living by sewing,
teaching, writing about sewing, or retailing sewing supplies. They may work out of their home, a
studio, or retail shop, and may work part-time or full-time. They may be any or all or the
following sub-specialties:

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 i. A custom clothier makes custom garments one at a time, to order, to meet an
individual customer's needs and preferences.
ii. A custom dressmaker specializes in women's custom apparel, including day dresses,
suits, evening or bridal wear, sportswear, or lingerie.
iii. A tailor makes custom menswear-style jackets and trousers.
iv. A cutter cuts out, from lengths of cloth, the panels that make up a suit. In bespoke
tailoring, the cutter may also measure the client, advise them on style choices, and
commission craftsmen to sew the suit.
v. An alterations specialist, or alterationist adjusts the fit of completed garments,
usually ready-to-wear, or restyles them. Note that while all tailors can do alterations,
not all alterationist can do tailoring.
vi. Designers conceive combinations of line, proportion, color, and texture for intended
garments. They may or may not have sewing or patternmaking skills, and may only
sketch or conceptualize garments. They work with people who know how to actually
construct the garment.
vii. Patternmakers flat draft the shapes and sizes of the numerous pieces of a garment by
hand, using paper and measuring tools or by computer using AutoCAD based
software, or by draping muslin onto a dress form. The resulting pattern pieces must
comprise the intended design of the garment and they must fit the intended wearer.
viii. A wardrobe consultant, fashion advisor, or stylist recommends styles and colors
that are flattering to a client.
ix. A seamstress is someone who sews seams or a machine operator in a factory who
may not have the skills to make garments 'from scratch' or to fit them onto a real
body. This term is not a synonym for dressmaker. Seamstress is also an unkind and
archaic euphemism for prostitute. Despite such unfortunate double meanings, a good
seamstress can perform invaluable work within a hand tailoring business.

1.2. Sewing Machine

Basically, Sewing Machines are categorized based on their functionality, and they have also been
categorized depending on their features like sewing, quilting and embroidery. Sewing Machines
can be categorized into five types:
1. Mechanical Sewing Machine
2. Electronic Sewing Machine
3. Computerized or Automated Sewing Machine
4. Embroidery Machine
5. Overlock Sewing Machine or serger

Mechanical sewing machines: These machines are also called as manual machines/tailoring
machine/treadle sewing machine/domestic sewing machines where the basic settings are done
manually by the user. These machines are best suitable for the beginners who want to learn
sewing from basics. These are simple “silai machine” (sewing machine) with very few features,
inexpensive and also easily repairable.
Looking into its features – it has a built in presser feet, adjustable stitch length, bottom loading
Bobbin, adjustable Tension, single (straight and reverse) stitch. Many of the latest model
machines have more than one inbuilt stitch pattern. Mechanical sewing machines are not suitable
for sewing thick fabrics like denim and leather. One thing of these sewing machines that irritates

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beginners is threading of the needle again and again. Treadle and hand operated machines have
only one straight and forward inbuilt stitch capability. The sewing machine’s body type depends
on the model and its manufacturing company. Mostly they are made of aluminum body (mostly
in black color). This domestic old model sewing machine can be stand based or table based. Old
model treadle (lever operated by foot) sewing machines or handle based machines runs on
human efforts. However, nowadays these efforts are being replaced by an electric motor. The
treadle sewing machines take more space and not easily movable.

Electronic Sewing Machine: These machines have more features than a mechanical sewing
machine. These sewing machines are the combination of mechanical sewing machine and
computerized sewing machine.
Generally, electronic sewing machines provide varieties of features. These machines are for
expertise sewing. And sewing professionals can effortlessly use these machines. These are free
arm and motorized machines with light weight, compact size and also some models have an LCD
screen to choose the patterns accordingly.
The features of electronic sewing machines are useful for - good quality of stitching, minimum
of 7 in-built stitch capability, embroidering, hemming, blind stitch, buttonhole stitch, , hemming
zip fixing, smocking, reverse - stitch lever, stretch stitching, quilting, built in needle Threader,
top loading drop in bobbin, auto tripping bobbin, automatic thread cutter, twin needle
compatibility, adjustable stitch length and width, adjustable presser foot, adjustable needle
positioning, attachment option for other features.
These machines are expensive in comparison of mechanical sewing machines, maintaining these
machines are also less expensive. People who don’t sew regularly or don’t need all these features
better buy a mechanical sewing machine. Electronic sewing machines are a good choice for
professionals/ tailors and expertise people.

Computerized Sewing Machines: Computerized Sewing Machines are high technology sewing
machines which can be connected to the internet, computer or design loaded cards. These
machines are best suitable for industrial purpose. These sewing machines have inbuilt stitches
capacity of a minimum of 50 and maximum of 200.
Computerized sewing machines are big size machines with multiple needles and multiple spool
spinners for different color of thread spools for embroidering, sewing, quilting, smocking and
many more crafting. These machines work very fast and these are heavy duty machines more
efficient and fast.
These machines are mostly used for industrial purposes, large scale fabrics are designed within
very less time. This type of sewing machine will have a special feature called Autopilot stitching
mode – where machine automatically controls the speed (number of stitches per minute), thread
tension and stitch strength.

Embroidery sewing machines: Embroidery machines are meant for designing different patterns
of embroidery on the fabric. Mostly electronic sewing machines can be used for embroidering;
an embroidering presser foot can be attached to the machine.
Beginners better choose a zigzag machine for basic embroidering. Whereas professional or
skilled level people choose electronic sewing machine model which have embroidering feature
with varieties of patterns. Many varieties of computerized embroidering machines are available
for industrial purpose.

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These machines are expensive in comparison of mechanical sewing machines, maintaining these
machines are also less expensive. People who don’t sew regularly or don’t need all these features
better buy a mechanical sewing machine. Electronic sewing machines are the best choice for
professionals/ tailors and expertise people.

Overlocker Sewing Machine or Serger : These Machines are also known as Sergers they are
named differently by different countries. These machines are used to seam or Overlock the
fabric. In simple words these machines are for joining or sewing the edges of the fabric together
(edging single fabric also), these machines are used by professionals or tailors, generally to give
the finishing look for the garments. Garment industries use this machine for edging the fabrics
like edging napkins, elastic Hemming or elastic seaming in lingerie designing, edging curtains,
overlocking on pillow covers and many more decorative crafting.
Overlocker has inbuilt cutter, a blade to cut the uneven edges of the fabric while edging the
garment or textile. Basically, Overlock machines make loops of stitch over the edge of the fabric.
Overlocker stitch patterns depend on number thread it uses single threaded Overlock stitch, 2
threaded Overlock stitch, 3 threads Overlock stitch, 4 threaded Overlock stitch and 5 threaded
Overlock stitch. Single threaded Overlock stitch is very weak loop and the number of threads
used to edge more strong the loop is. The width and length of the stitch can be adjusted by the
user choice.

Module 2: SOAP/DETERGENT, TOOTH BRUSHES AND TOOTH PASTE MAKING

2.1 Soap/Detergent Making

2.1.1 Cold process soap
Cold process soap is made by combining oils and sodium hydroxide lye. That causes a chemical
reaction called saponification. Cold process is the best option for customize soap down to the last
ingredient; by choose the oils, colorants, scents, and more. Once you find your perfect recipe you
can start getting creative with the designs.
Steps involved in Making Cold Process Soap
1. Choose a recipe and run it through a lye calculator.
2. Assemble ingredients and safety gear.

3. Prepare the mold, If using a loaf or box mold, line it with freezer paper or parchment paper.
.
4. Weigh the water; First, weigh out the water into a stainless steel or heavy duty polypropylene
plastic (recycle symbol 5) container.
5. Weigh the lye. (Wear those gloves and goggles)
6. Pour the lye into the water.
7. Weigh and heat the oils, butters & fats.Do this while the lye solution is cooling.
8. Monitor the temperatures & combine.
9. Blend until trace.
10. Pour the soap batter into the mold.

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11. Cover and insulate the mold.

2.2.2 Hot Process Soap Making

Hot process uses an external heat source to bring the soap to gel phase, where it is then poured
into the mold. This is contrary to cold process, which does not use external heat; the heat is
internally generated during saponification and the soap may or may not go into gel phase.
Design-wise, hot process has what many call a "rustic" or less refined look, with little to no
opportunity for swirling or intricate designs. However, many soap makers love HP because of it's
quick turnaround; many soaps can be used the following day (although a longer cure time is
recommended for a harder bar).
There are a few essential things you’ll need in order to embark on your first hot processing
journey. For this class, we will be covering hot process soap made in a crock pot. You’ll need the
following equipment:
i. A crock pot
ii. A plastic, glass or stainless steel container to measure lye (do not use aluminum or tin:
the lye will react negatively with it)
iii. A heavy duty plastic, glass or stainless steel container for mixing the lye and water
iv. A scale (a kitchen scale or postage scale will work nicely)
v. Spatulas (wooden or silicone/rubber)
vi. A stick blender (a stainless steel shaft will make for easy cleanup)
vii. Safety goggles
viii. An apron
ix. Gloves
x. A well ventilated work space

Steps involved in Making Cold Process Soap

Step 1: Measure and prepare
Measuring your ingredients and preparing your mold first will drastically streamline your hot
process soap making experience. Measure your oils (both solid and liquid, but keep them
separate for now), lye, water, fragrance and colorants. Prepare your mold.
Step 2: Melt your oils
Now that you've got everything all measured and prepared, set your crock pot on low and add
your solid oils. Once added, they will take a bit to melt; while you’re waiting, move on to Step 3
to mix your lye water.

Step 3: Mix up your lye solution

This can be the most intimidating step for new soap makers. When handled properly, lye is
perfectly safe. With your apron, goggles and gloves firmly in place, mix your lye into your
water; never, ever pour your water into your lye: this may cause a negative and dangerous
reaction. Stir the water with your chosen wood or silicone spatula as you are sprinkling the lye in
to keep it well mixed. Stir slowly, being careful not to splash, until the lye is fully dissolved.
Note that it will get hot - this is the chemical reaction taking place. You will also notice that
combining the lye and water will produce fumes; this is perfectly normal. Do your best not to
breathe in these fumes.

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Step 4: Combine melted and liquid oils
Once you have mixed your lye solution, check on your oils. If the solid oils/fats are melted and if
you have recipe also calls for liquid oils you can add the liquid oils to the crock pot.Make sure
your oils are melted completely before continuing. When all your oils are liquefied and heated to
around 120-130 degrees, then you can add your lye solutions. Your oils should not be over 180
degrees when adding the lye water or a negative reaction may occur.

Step 5: Craft your masterpiece

Now that your soap has cooked, turn off the heat in your crock pot. If you are adding fragrance,
let the batter to cool for a bit first. Adding fragrance at very high temperatures may cause some
of the fragrance to dissipate, leaving you with a faintly scented product. Adding the fragrance
under 180ºF will help to keep it in your soap instead of in the air around you. You can also add
your colorants at this point. If this is your first time making hot process soap, it is recommend
using one color and fragrance until you get use to how the soap behaves when it is cooling.
You've scented, you've colored; now it's time to mold! Grab your prepared mold and plop your
soap batter in; you can use your spatula to smooth it out, but try to work quickly. If your batter
cools down too much, it will be difficult to work with. Once you’ve filled your mold, pick it up
and tap it a few times on your workspace counter surface to help work out any air bubbles. If you
are using any decorations like lavender buds or glitter on the top, add it now! Decorations will be
much easier to place and will stay on better if your soap is still nice and warm when they are
added.

Module 3: HAIR DRESSING/WEAVING AND BARBING SALOON

3.1. Hairdressing
Hairdressing, custom of cutting and arranging the hair, practiced by men and women from
ancient times to the present. Early records indicate that the ancient Assyrians wore elaborate
curly hair styles; by contrast, the ancient Egyptians, men and women alike, shaved their heads
and wore wigs. Whether ornate or simple, hairdressing has been employed by very nearly every
society. In 400 BC some Greek women dyed their hair; in the Roman period dying and bleaching
were common.
Beginning with the crude curling iron used by women of ancient Rome in creating their elaborate
hair styles, hairdressing came to be associated with a variety of technological accoutrements,
ranging from simple combs and hairpins to hold the hair in place to complex electrical
appliances for drying and grooming the hair and chemical processes to tint, wave, curl,
straighten, and condition the hair. By the 20th century, hairdressing itself and the manufacture of
materials and equipment had become an occupation and practical art of large proportions. 
The hairdressing equipment you will need depends on two key factors:
 Are you intending to be salon based or mobile/freelance?
 Do you intend offer colour services?
Salon based or mobile
If you work in a salon, the hairdressing equipment you will need will vary from that required by
a mobile or freelance hairdresser.

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As well as the basic hair cutting and styling essentials, you will also need to invest in salon
equipment such as sinks, chairs, wall mounted and hand held mirrors and reception furniture,
including a desk and sofas or seating for clients to wait on before their appointment.
The cost of these items can add up, so ensure you factor this in to your start up costs. For
furniture such as chairs and sinks or back wash zones, it’s best to spend as much as you can
afford to, as these are essential to the comfort of your clients, ensuring they enjoy their
experience in your salon. Choose chairs that are adjustable and comfortable, as well as suited to
your salon style and clients.  
For both salon based and mobile or freelance hairdressers, the basic essentials include:
i. Shampoo, conditioner and styling products - essential for washing and styling your
clients’ hair. Ensure you have a variety of products available to suit all hair types. Some
clients may prefer to use their own products, particularly if you are cutting their hair in
their own home
ii. Scissors - a must-have for all hairdressers - after all you cannot cut hair without them!
Invest as much as you can in your scissors and they will last for years. As you specialize,
you may wish to invest in specific scissors for different looks, such as thinning scissors
for layering
iii. Comb - essential for combing out hair prior to cutting, as well as sectioning through a cut
and backcombing
iv. Brushes - a selection of brushes is a must for a long lasting blow dry. Invest in small and
large barrel brushes, plus a paddle brush and vent brush for the best finish and a lasting
style
v. Hairdryer - choose a salon standard hairdryer. Because you will use your dryer all day
every day, it needs to be durable, powerful and reliable
vi. Tongs - a must-have for creating long lasting curls, wide barrel tongs create looser curls
whilst smaller barrels create tighter curls
vii. Straighteners - to create sleek, straight styles with ease. Also an alternative to tongs for
creating styles with curls and loose waves
viii. Rollers and heated curlers - to create long lasting curls and volume
ix. Towels - invest in premium quality towels for maximum softness and absorbency. If you
are salon based you will need a lot of towels as most clients will use two in their
appointment. If you are mobile or freelance, some clients may prefer to use their own
towels, but you should still have them available
x. Gowns - if you are mobile or freelance, one gown should suffice, whereas if you are
salon based you should invest in several - at least one per chair, plus spares.
Colour services
As well as the cutting and styling hairdressing basics, you will also need to invest in other
essentials if you intend to offer colour services:
i. Tints and dyes - you will need an array of shades to suit your clients’ preferences. If you
are mobile or freelance, your client may prefer to purchase their own colour for you to
apply
ii. Gloves and apron - to protect your skin and clothes during colour application
iii. Bowls and brushes - for mixing and applying colour
iv. Foils - for highlights  
If you wish to offer perming and/or straightening treatments, you’ll also need to invest in the
appropriate products.

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A styling head may also be useful for practice, especially if you are a trainee or newly qualified
and wish to practice your skills outside of client treatments

3.2 Barbing

Barber a person who cuts men's hair and shaves or trims beards as an occupation. Barber, a
person whose primary activities in the 20th century are trimming and styling the hair of men,
shaving them, and shaping their beards, sideburns, and moustaches. Barbers, or hairdressers,
often provide shampooing, manicuring, hair dying, permanent waves, and shoe polishing within
their shops, or salons.

1.  Straight-Bladed Scissor

A straight-bladed scissor can be used to trim hair, beards, and mustaches. The curved handle
allows you to easily cut bangs or around the ears. Insert serrations or use a pair of shears on
thinner hair to make the finished cut look even and complete.
2.  Straight Razor
A straight razor, also called an open or cut-throat razor, is a traditional tool that’s been around
for thousands of years. It gives a close, but safe shave. It can be used on facial hair, on the
neckline, and for carving straight lines around the beard. Make short, light strokes, maintaining
at least a 30-degree angle. Use a strop to maintain the razor and keep it sharp.
3.  Hair Comb
All sorts of combs come in handy depending on the hair length and style. A barber comb usually
has both fine and thick teeth that help keep the cut uniform for each section of hair. The fading
comb has teeth that go from short to long and is especially useful when creating the popular fade
cut. A scissor over comb is good for blending and achieving a close cut on shorter hair.
4.   Electric Clipper
Every barber needs an electric clipper or trimmer. The clipper guards help style the hair and
create a unique design. As the blades smoothly run along the contours of the head, they trim the
hair without pulling the follicles out of the scalp.
5.  Duster Brush
Don’t leave your client with an itchy neck! A duster is much more effective than a towel for
brushing away the stray hairs, especially off the back of the neck. Be sure to keep it clean for
each client.

Module 4: PHOTOGRAPHY, AND FILM MAKING AND EDITION PRODUCTION.

Photography is the art or process of producing images by the action of radiant energy and
especially light on a sensitive surface (such as film or an optical sensor). Advancements in
technology has seen camera’s and equipment become both affordable and practical to the point
that the average person can create professional images which would have been seen as
impossible to the amateur photographer just 20 years ago.

Exposure

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Exposure is the basic element of any photograph taken and recorded. Essentially, it is exactly
how it sounds, exposure is how much light your shot was exposed to, and this reflects on what is
produced in your final image, be it on film, or more likely nowadays, digitally. Without light,
obviously there is no picture. Think of exposure as your eye, if you are in a pitch black room
with no light, you obviously can’t see anything. When we are looking at something we are not
actually seeing it directly, we are looking at the light reflecting and bouncing off the objects in
front of us. The same can be said if there is too much light, think of when you wake up in the
middle of the night and turn a bright light on, your eyes have not adjusted yet so to you it seems
too bright and you can’t focus. This is the same in photography, and why the most common
critique of images is that they are either underexposed, (not enough light meaning an image is
too dark), or overexposed, (too much light leading to an overly bright image)

Exposure is determined by three essential elements which we will look at individually here.

Aperture

Aperture is the setting which controls the size of the opening of light which comes through to the
lens. Normally this is done by controlling the aperture blades which can be changed to allow the
aperture to become smaller, in which less light is let through, or obviously larger where more
light is allowed to pass through.

Aperture is measured in f-stops, for example f/2.0, f/2.8, f/4.0 etc. The smaller the f-stop number,
the larger the lens opening, and therefore the more light a lens can let in. This is why the sharper
lenses with lower f-stops are normally more expensive than a similar lens which cannot match
the same aperture, as the more expensive lenses can cope with low light situations better. For this
reason, when someone is talking about the maximum aperture, this normally means the lowest f-
stop available.

Shutter Speed

Shutter Speed is simply put; the amount of time that the camera lets the light coming in, stay
exposed and become recorded. This can be changed quite easily and is measured in fractions, i.e.
1/60, 1/125. This number relates to the timing that the shutter is left open, for example 1/60
shutter speed will mean the shutter stays open for 1 sixtieth of a second.

Most camera’s will have a larger range of varying shutter speeds for the user to work with, from
Sonic the Hedgehog like speeds of 1/4000 which is great for capturing moving action such as
wildlife or freezing sports events, to long exposures of sometimes over a minute long, perfect for
landscape photography or low light photography with a tripod.

ISO

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ISO is slightly less obvious as the above two as to what it is and what role it plays, but has just as
much importance in determining correct exposure. ISO is normally measured from 100, 200, 400
etc., with a low a number as possible preferred.

This is because the higher ISO that is used, typically the more ‘noise’ you get on an image,
where an image is not as sharp as in the lower ISO’s. “So why don’t we shoot all shots with a
low ISO?” I hear you say. Well simply put, it’s sometimes not possible, especially in difficult
conditions such as low light. Increasing the ISO can allow you to get images you would not
normally get, but at a cost, noise, if you want to just capture the scene and pin sharp focus is a
secondary thought then increasing the ISO is an option. When you use a higher ISO, you are
increasing the sensitivity of the image sensor, so now the sensor captures not just more light
incoming, but also more surrounding noise which reduces clarity in your image.

Whether your image is usable or not at high ISO’s depends on your equipment, obviously the
more modern cameras such as the Canon 5D Mark 3 produces some excellent results even at
high ISO’s such as ISO 12,800. Compare that to my old point and shoot Sony N-1 where the
shots taken even at ISO 800 were noisier than a Korean crowd watching a Gangnam Style
concert.

Nature Photography

Landscape

Landscape photography is another way of saying scenic or environmental photography. It

involves taking pictures of a natural scene – often large and grand, but sometimes smaller and
more intimate – in a way that brings the viewer into a scene.

Macro

One of the most accessible types of photography is macro, the art of capturing small creatures
and objects that we ordinarily overlook. Macro photography is usually associated with images of
bugs and flowers, but even subjects like snowflakes or water droplets in the studio can make for
amazing macro photos. Although a dedicated macro lens can be expensive, a set of extension
tubes is much cheaper and likely works just fine with your current equipment.

Underwater

It isn’t always easy to take underwater photos, even if you live in the right location for it. Not
only do you need a good waterproof camera, but you also need some specific lighting equipment
the moment you start taking photos more than a short distance from the surface. Add in scuba
gear and the requisite training for longer dives, and you can see why this is one of the trickier
genres to start practicing.

Astrophotography

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Encompassing everything from Smartphone images taken through a telescope to deep-space
photographs from the Hubble, astrophotography can be one of the most humbling types of
photography to practice. It’s humbling for two reasons: First, the size and scale of
subjects captured in this style of photography are enough to bring on existential awe in almost
anyone. But more to the point, if you don’t have excellent exposure and post-processing
techniques, any lack of knowledge will be immediately obvious.

There is also a genre of “astrolandscape” photography that includes the Milky Way with a slice
of Earth in the foreground. Although it is still tricky to take astrolandscape photos, they’re a bit
easier for most photographers to master.

Aerial Photography

Whether this is simply a branch of landscape photography or a genre of its own is debatable, but
either way, aerial photography is experiencing an explosion in popularity today thanks to the
advent of high-quality consumer drones. Aerial photography also encompasses high-altitude
images from planes and helicopters, as well as images where the subject is manmade rather than
a landscape per se.

Scientific

Scientific photography is a broad category, encompassing everything from extreme

magnification microscope photography to, again, astrophotography. Some manmade objects
sneak their way into this as well, like photos of particle colliders or the space station that
periodically go viral. It’s a type of photography that I hope continues to see more and more
attention in the future, since it has the power to show us entirely new sights and change the way
we think about the world

People Photography

Portraits

The broadest type of people photography is portraiture, covering everything from family
portraits to fine-art photography and commercial work. Often, the goal of portraiture is to show
the character of a subject – to capture the person’s personality and emotion in an image. Portrait
photography is also quite an accessible genre overall, not requiring more than a single prime lens
and flash to start at a high level (or whatever equipment you already have if you’re just testing
the waters).

Weddings

One of the most important events in many people’s lives is a wedding, and that means wedding
photographers have a huge responsibility. Not only do wedding photographers need to have good
camera and lighting skills, but they also must know how to work with people and capture the

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right emotions almost effortlessly. This is a difficult type of photography to practice, and you
only get one chance to do it right, so I have a lot of respect for good wedding photographers.

Documentary

Documentary photographers seek to convey news or information in their images. Sometimes, the
photos depict a moment so striking that it crosses the line into art or otherwise causes viewers to
have an emotional reaction. Documentary photography can happen anywhere, from local news
stories to reporting directly from war zones. In the best of cases, documentary photos shed light
on important yet little-known events, or celebrate the best examples of humanity for everyone to
see. Not all documentary photos are newsworthy; sometimes, they simply document a place or
culture to show other people

Sports

Another broad style of photography is sports photography, from international events like the
Olympics to adventure-based photography in the most remote areas of the world. Even a parent
photographing their child playing sports is part of this genre – a type of photography which
requires top-notch autofocus skills, good timing, and often a very fast shutter speed.

Fashion

A cousin of portraiture, but distinct enough to count as its own genre, is fashion photography.
This is a fast-paced world, and the best fashion photographers are intimately knowledgeable not
just about lighting and photography but also the clothing styles they’re photographing. Fashion
photographs are usually intended for brands and advertisements, but not always, especially in
today’s Instagram world

Commercial

Commercial photography of people is anything intended to sell a product, especially

advertisements and even stock photos. Commercial photographers often simply capture the
products themselves, although that’s something I’ll cover later in this article; people are still used
very frequently in advertising campaigns today. Usually, the goal of commercial photography is
to create images that match the emotions and message the brand in question is trying to convey.
These photographers need special skills in studio lighting and visualization to make the client’s
plan a reality.

Street Photography

Street photography is about capturing slices of life that happen in common areas in a city, such
as parks and sidewalks. Good street photos find meaning and purpose in seemingly ordinary
moments or interactions, making viewers think about something they would otherwise pass by.

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Street photography is often associated with black and white work on 35mm film, but modern-day
street photos utilize almost any post-processing styles and camera equipment.

Event Photography

Aside from weddings, there are broader classes of events that deserve recognition as a separate
genre of photography. For example, corporate events, concerts, parades, and other celebrations
all count as event photography. You can expect unpredictability and fast-paced scenes – but also
interesting human interactions and sometimes (like with concert photos) very good light. Skilled
event photographers are able to convey emotions so that viewers are able to relive the moment.

Travel

One of the broadest types of people photography is travel – photographing life in another area of
the world, whether portraits or candid images. Good travel photography captures the striking
similarities and differences among people across the world, making us feel more connected and
aware of how other people live.

Manmade Objects

Product Photography

Another branch of commercial photography is product photography, where you are typically
shooting in a studio with careful lighting to accentuate the product in question (though
sometimes outdoors or on location). In the same way as commercial portraiture, a product
photographer’s goal is to match the vision of the company in question. An outdoor brand will
have different needs from a high-end lifestyle company, even if both sell the same underlying
type of product, such as clothing or backpacks.

Food

Food photography has experienced a remarkable growth in popularity in recent years thanks to
social media. Previously, it was essentially a sub-genre of commercial work – advertisements,
cookbooks, menus, and so on – but it’s becoming more a part of documentary photography
today.

No matter the final output, though, food photos almost always try to capture their subject in the
most appetizing way possible. Sometimes, food photographers will replace the actual foods in an
image with artificial substitutes that look tastier, such as glue rather than milk when
photographing cereal!

Still Life Photography

Another broad style of photography is still life photography, taking pictures in a studio of a
manufactured scene in order to look as good as possible. Although still life photography

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sometimes includes living things such as plants, I’m putting it under the “manmade objects”
category because it can include almost anything. Some of the most interesting still life images
I’ve seen are of seemingly boring objects like silverware and office supplies.

Architecture

The last type of photography in this list is also one of the most popular: architectural
photography, including cityscapes and other details of buildings and construction. In many ways,
architecture is like “urban landscape” photography, with practitioners of both genres often using
tripods and careful post-processing techniques to accentuate their subject as best as possible.
However, architectural photography has the added difficulty of dealing with straight lines – not
an easy task if you want to avoid a skewed or tilted look in the final photo.

Module 6: PRINTING AND SOUVENIR SKILL ACQUISITION

B
PRINTING AND SOUVENIR SKILL ACQUISITION EQUIPMENT
1 Direct Image printing machine(Large size)
2 Flexographic printing machine
3 Laminating Machine
4 Heat transfer Machine
5 Heat transfer mug machine x 5
6 Wire Jotter binding Machine
7 Spiral Binding Machine
8 Pen and Biro Heat Press Machine for (10 pens)
9 Fargo ID Card Printer
10 Engraving Machine
11 Barge Printing Machine
12 Paper cutting Machine
13 Giant Stapler
14 Medium size stapler

Different Types Of Industrial Printing Machines

In the industrial set up of the economy, the printing machines are growing in large numbers.
Different printing techniques and processes are used by every industry for effective
communication. Any machine used in printing ink on the substrate (printing medium) which can
be cloth, paper or plastic, is referred to as the printing machinery. By applying pressure to the
substrate, the printing machinery transfers the ink on the printing medium resting on an inked

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platform composed of movable type. The development of industrial printing machines changed a
lot of things in the world. It would make transfer and preservation of historical records, scientific
findings, and knowledge easy and possible. There's a great advancement in the printing
machinery introduced in the market today given the improvement in science and technology.
There's a competition in the industry, as many companies are now making printing press. As
every company is introducing better features and making an effort to overcome the other
competitors, this has led to the introduction of many enhanced features in printing machinery.
With the introduction of various features in these types of machinery, printing is now easier to be
done than it was in earlier days.

Today, printing machinery is available in many sizes to suit different needs. Bigger sizes of
printing machinery are available for heavy-duty printing or big-time printing businesses. You
can get small and medium sizes too for small and medium printing businesses. The machinery
size determines the volume of printing that will be done in a day, to a greater extent. When
compared with small-sized printing machinery, the heavy industrial printing machines can print a
lot of things per hour or regularly. There are different types of printing machines for printing on
a different medium since different printing machines make use of different printing technology.
Each of the below-mentioned printing machinery is meant to serve a particular purpose. You
must consider your printing needs or the type of printing that you are doing before you want to
buy or order for your printing machine. Several factors such as the size, the type of printing
done, the seller, the brand, and others determine the cost.

Types Of Printing Machines

 Digital Printers
 Ink-jet Printers
 Screen Printers
 Embossing Machines
 Flexographic Printing Machine
 Letterpress Printing Machines
 Offset Printers
 Laser printers
 Wireless Printers
 3D Printers
 Thermographic Printers
 Electrostatic Printing Machine
 Pad Printers
 Rotogravure Printing Machines

A) Digital Printers

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The digital printing machines have gained immense popularity for short to medium run jobs
requiring high clarity, quality, and fine printing. A vibrant quality image is delivered with these
types of printers. By providing cost-effective and fine printing solutions, these affordable and
high-performance machines are revolutionizing the printing industry. Because of the on-demand
services, digital printing equipment ensures fast turnaround time. Digital printers are ideally
suited to publish a small print run of posters and books. They have many advantages over
traditional methods. Some include -

 Desktop printing
 Commercial
 Variable data printing
 Fine art
 Print on demand
 Advertising
 Photos
 Architectural design
 Sleeking

B) Ink-Jet Printers

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These are a category of industrial printing machines in which printing is done with the help of
inkjet technology. In this, a digital image is created by propelling ink droplets onto paper, plastic,
or other substrates. These are the most commonly used type of printer, ranging from small
inexpensive consumer models to expensive professional machines. They are affordable and easy
to use compared to most printers. Ink-jet printers are great image printers and are quick starters.
They do not require any warm-up time and are inherently quiet. Generally, they are compact and
hence require less space. With all these features, the ink-jet printers are more famous as home
printers. One disadvantage with this type of printer is the durability of the print head which is a
little less. It's expensive and can dry up, causing not only ink wastage but also blockages within
the printer. They are slow to work and hence are not considered suitable for high-volume
printing.

C) Screen Printers

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These are one of the versatile printing machines that are compatible to work on many surfaces
including ceramics, textiles, wood, paper, metal, glass, and plastic. The screen printers can print
on substrates of any shape, size, and thickness. They are capable of providing exciting effects
that cannot be possible with other printing methods. The reason behind this is the presence of the
broad range of dyes and inks which are five in types such as - solvent, water, solvent plastisol,
UV curable, and water plastisol. Sharp-edged images are created by making use of stencils. The
screen printers are an ideal choice and an economical way of printing when you need to produce
nameplates, labels, signs, t-shirts, shirts, and other articles in large volumes.

Moreover, to create large batches of graphics as posters or display stands, the graphics screen
printing is used. You can also create full-color prints. The screen printing is also known as
serigraphy or silk-screening. It can also be used to print images on DVDs, CDs.

D) Embossing Machines

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These types of industrial printing machines are used by the printing industry for fine printing on
many products. With the help of these machines, a three-dimensional image or effect is created
on different substrates. The embossing can be done on different materials including paper,
metals, textiles, etc. They are also used to enhance the look of aluminum foils. To accommodate
different materials, the machines are equipped with embossing modes.

E) Flexographic Machines

Commonly called the modern version of the letterpress. It's also referred to as Flexo, as it was
initially used to print onto corrugated cardboard. Flexography printing is used mostly for
packaging. These machines produce finer, high quality, and clear impressions on different
substrates. Because of the simple operation and easy adaptation for the use of water-based inks,
these machines are quite popular. The flexo printing is inexpensive and a simple form of the
printing method, to produce an excellent quality impression on several different materials. By

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using rubber/plastic printing plates, these machines are popularly used for printing on materials
including paper, foils, plastic, acetate films. Another advantage of this flexo printing machine is
that it has a high-speed printing process and makes use of fast-drying inks. Such printing
machines can print on a range of absorbent and non-absorbent materials and can print in
continuous patterns.

F) Letterpress Printing Machines

Also known as relief or typographic printing machines. They are widely used to make copies of
images by repeated direct impression of an inked, raised surface against rolls or sheets of paper.
The substances used in letterpress printing are similar to those used in lithography, which
includes film developers and fixers, inks and blanket and roller washes. Because of the advent of
more efficient and advanced printing presses like the offset printing machine, lithographic press
or the flexographic press, the use of letterpress has been on the decline. But, to revive its
existence and hold sway even in the 21st century, photopolymer plates have been incorporated
which paved the way for letterpress printing.

G) Offset Printers

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The offset printing machines have been widely used in various applications. Because of its
unparalleled quality to voluminous production and paper costs, it's by far the most dominant
form of commercial printing technique, widely in use. Although the machines have a high set up
cost, the printing process is comparatively cheaper. Also known as lithographic printing, the
machine provides vivid and sharper images and high volume commercial printing, which makes
it exceptional from others. Depending on the method used, it can also be known as lithographic
or planographic.

H) Laser Printers

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Laser printers are the most common type of printing machine and have remained a popular
choice for consumers. There remains a misconception that laser printers use actual lasers to print
the paper in some way. But, to clear the air, laser printers use static electricity to print the
documents. Due to their ability to produce crisp and rapid printing, laser printers are popular.

I) Wireless Printers

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In wireless printers, the data is received by the printer wirelessly, eliminating the need for any
type of cables. This implies that the printers are not limited by the length of the cables. There
will be no chance that people may trip over the wire. Another advantage is that instead of
connecting to just one, many computers can connect to the printer instead, as long as they are
connected to the wireless local area network. The user can encrypt the connection with a
password, for restricted access to the printer. It all depends on the strong wireless signal, for the
printer to be able to access data.

J) 3D Printers

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The 3D printer is the latest technology and it opens up many possibilities of printing. 3D printing
can print three-dimensional objects, instead of traditionally printing pictures or text on paper.  It
can produce functional hand tools or any object that can fit in the printer. The ability to duplicate
items with the same dimensions is what makes the 3D printing machines so unique. Laser and
metallic dust are used by the most advanced 3D printing machines to create 3D objects. We may
soon be able to print anything we want, with the advancement in 3D printing technology.

K) Thermographic Printers

This industrial printing machine is widely used in the commercial printing industry. They
provide a raised lettering effect, as commonly seen in business cards. Besides, these machines
also provide less expensive alternating to embossing, UV coating or stamping.

L) Electrostatic Printing Machines

These types of printing machines use electrostatic forces to form the image in powder or ink
directly on the surface to be printed. Because of its high speed and cost-effectiveness, the
electrostatic printing machine has become so popular. To print maps and small books and ideally
for small scale printing projects, the electrostatic printer is used particularly by publishers and
cartographers. A classic quality of the print is constantly produced over a long period without
making any changes to the settings of the printers. The electrostatic industrial printing machines
that are inexpensive, reliable, and provides excellent resolution and printing quality, are required.

M) Pad Printers

It’s a type of offset printing that provides fast and high clarity printing. One of the most versatile
printing technique that is used to print three-dimensional objects. In industrial printing, the pad
printer reigns supreme for high quality and fine printing on various materials including rubber,
ceramic, metal, and plastic. The quality and printing speed of pad printing machines depends on
the thickness of stock/paper, type of inks used and other operating conditions.

N) Rotogravure Printing Machines

It's used for long-run printing with fine, sharper, and clear images. Generally used for high-
volume printing of wallpaper, packaging, and gift wraps using fast-drying inks. Although it's not
widely used, it still finds it's applications in printing magazines, high-volume advertising print
campaigns, and greeting cards

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 Module 9: MARKETING, SALES, CUSTOMER CARE, HUMAN RESOURCES AND
MANAGEMENT SERVICES TO STARTUPS

Human Resource Management is a management function concerned with hiring, motivating,

and maintaining the workforce in an organization. Human resource management deals with
issues related to employees such as hiring, training, development, compensation, motivation,
communication, and administration. Human resource management ensures the satisfaction of
employees and a maximum contribution of employees to the achievement of organizational
objectives.
Human Resource Management functions can be classified into the following three categories.

1. Managerial Functions,
2. Operative Functions, and
3. Advisory Functions

7.1 The Managerial Functions of Human Resource Management are as follows:

1. Human Resource Planning - In this function of HRM, the number and type of employees
needed to accomplish organizational goals is determined. Research is an important part of this
function, information is collected and analyzed to identify current and future human resource
needs and to forecast changing values, attitude, and behavior of employees and their impact on
the organization.
2. Organizing - In an organization tasks are allocated among its members, relationships are
identified, and activities are integrated towards a common objective. Relationships are
established among the employees so that they can collectively contribute to the attainment of the
organization's goal.
3. Directing - Activating employees at different levels and making them contribute maximum to
the organization is possible through proper direction and motivation. Taping the maximum
potentialities of the employees is possible through motivation and command.
4.  Controlling - After planning, organizing, and directing, employees' actual performance is
checked, verified, and compared with the plans. If the actual performance is found deviated from
the plan, control measures are required to be taken. 

7.2 The Operative Functions of Human Resource Management are as follows:

1. Recruitment and Selection - Recruitment of candidates is the function preceding the

selection, which brings the pool of prospective candidates for the organization so that the
management can select the right candidate from this pool.
2. Job Analysis and Design - Job analysis is the process of describing the nature of a job and
specifying the human requirements like qualification, skills, and work experience to perform that
job. Job design aims at outlining and organizing tasks, duties, and responsibilities into a single
unit of work for the achievement of certain objectives.
3. Performance Appraisal - Human resource professionals are required to perform this function
to ensure that the performance of employees is at an acceptable level.

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4. Training and Development - This function of human resource management helps employees
acquire skills and knowledge to perform their jobs effectively. Training and development
programs are organized for both new and existing employees. Employees are prepared for
higher-level responsibilities through training and development.
5. Wage and Salary Administration - Human resource management determines what is to be
paid for different types of jobs. Human resource management decides employee's compensation
which includes - wage administration, salary administration, incentives, bonuses, fringe benefits,
and etc,.
6. Employee Welfare - This function refers to various services, benefits, and facilities that are
provided to employees for their well-being.
7. Maintenance - Human resource is considered an asset for the organization. Employee
turnover is not considered good for the organization. Human resource management always tries
to keep their best performing employees with the organization.
8. Labour Relations - This function refers to human resource management interaction with
employees represented by a trade union. Employees come together and form a union to obtain
more voice in decisions affecting wage, benefits, working conditions, etc,.
9. Personnel Research - Personnel researches are done by human resource management to
gather employees' opinions on wages and salaries, promotions, working conditions, welfare
activities, leadership, etc,. Such researches help in understanding employee satisfaction,
employee turnover, employee termination, etc,.
10. Personnel Record - This function involves recording, maintaining, and retrieving employee-
related information like - application forms, employment history, working hours, earnings,
employee absents and presents, employee turnover, and other data related to employees.

7.3 The Advisory Functions of Human Resource Management are as follows:

Human Resource Management is expert in managing human resources and so can give advice on
matters related to human resources of the organization. Human Resource Management can offer
advice to:
1. Advised to Top Management
The personnel manager advises the top management in the formulation and evaluation of
personnel programs, policies, and procedures.
2. Advised to Departmental Heads
The personnel manager advises the heads of various departments on matters such as manpower
planning, job analysis, job design, recruitment, selection, placement, training, performance
appraisal, etc.

7.4 MARKETING
The starting point of marketing is assumed to be at the point of creating the idea of a particular
business venture. An entrepreneur‘s first commitment to his business is the determination of a
felt need of a defined customer or consumer. This is done by deliberately judging and evaluating
the environment.
Environmental scanning is the process of evaluating the environment with a view to identifying
business opportunities. Environmental scanning helps the entrepreneur to identify goods and
services that are needed, the extent of the demand, the nature of competition in that market and
the chances of taking deep advantages to make the business successful and profitable. Market
research is one of the tools of environmental scanning.
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Another marketing challenge facing the entrepreneur is the issue of producing and delivering the
products or services in the form of quality that will adequately satisfy the taste and desires of the
consumer. Therefore, one of the functions of marketing involves making input into the processes
of production, packaging and effective delivery of the goods and services to the satisfaction of
buyers and consumers. Until these basic requirements are met by the entrepreneur, marketing
would become a major problem against business success.
It is possible for an un-informed small business owner to go into the business of producing goods
and services without this necessary background market information. The following are marketing
issues which should agitate the mind of any entrepreneur:
What goods and services are needed by the society in which the entrepreneur is interested in
operating?
What kinds of goods are being demanded: industrial or consumer, perishable or durable, retail or
wholesale?
What motivates the buyers, consumers or decision makers?
What economic, social, technological, cultural or legal factors determine or affect the demand for
the goods and services under consideration by the business?
What market communication platforms are necessary to position the products in the market?
What is the position of the product in the value chain? How will the image of the business be
enhanced by the product?
What level of quality standard is planned for the product?
What will be the most effective distribution channel for the product in the market?
How best will be the goods be packaged for best appeal to buyers, users or consumers?
The analysis of these issues and the adoption of appropriate and rational position about them will
constitute what is generally referred to as marketing strategy: a set of decisions and actions
designed to achieve market goals and targets. Market strategies drive and direct the actions of the
entrepreneur. Marketing for the entrepreneur involves designing actions that would touch on the
following:
(i) Product: what to produce, what value will the product convey and bestow to the consumer,
what quality is embedded, what size, what standards, what expectation in terms of services, are
embedded?
(ii) Price: what is the price to charge? How competitive and quality embedded? How affordable
is it considering the status of the buyer or consumer?
(iii)Place: what logistics are needed to make the product available? What are the channels of
distribution and the network in place? What delivery arrangements are needed?
(iv) Promotion: what efforts are needed to bring awareness of the product in terms of value,
availability, utility in use and ownership? How can incentives be provided for current users and
potential consumer? This is related to advertising to enhance sales.
(v) People: who are involved in the whole marketing effort? Are distributors required? Are
retailers required? Are agents needed in the marketing effort?
3.2.4 Promotional Mix
This includes advertising, sales promotion, publicity, and personal selling.
Adverting –is a personal form of promotion and involves transmitting standard messages to large
numbers of intended receivers.
Sales promotion –involves activities which are essentially used to complement advertising and
personal selling. It can be in the form of exhibitions, point –of –sale displays, or demonstrations.

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Publicity –is concerned with the presentation of the firm‘s image, its products, services or ideas
in a favorable light to the public. Publicity is free but although publicity people get paid, they
seek to attract public attention to a company and its product without paying media costs.
Personal selling –aims to marry specific products with specific customers on a person –to –
person basis to secure ownership transfers

7.5 CONDUCTING A MARKET SURVEY

A great business idea is not necessarily a good business opportunity. An idea has no definite
form. To give it form requires the entrepreneur to:
*identify a gap in the market that he/she can fill, understand the characteristics and buying
behaviour of the potential customers;
*understand who the competitors are and the nature of the products/services they are offering to
the customers; and
*develop a product/service with features that give customers benefits that are different from or
better than what competitors have. A business opportunity exists for the entrepreneur if he/she
has a product or service to satisfy a clearly defined market need at a satisfactory return to
him/her
Market survey or market research is a systematic way of gathering, analyzing and interpreting
marketing data that will aid the entrepreneur in making marketing decisions. The information
gathered helps the entrepreneur to decide on the nature of product or service that will suit the
needs of customers, the target market to be selected and the most appropriate way to position the
business relative to competition. Market survey provides answers to two main questions namely:
(i) Market Question and (ii) Competition Question
(i) Market Question: Who buys the product or uses the service?
What are the characteristics (age, sex, education, occupation, income, etc.) of potential
customers?
What are the benefits that customers expect from using the product or service?
What are their buying habits? For example, frequency of purchase, quantity purchased, reasons
for buying or not buying.
Where do they buy at present?
What is the size of the market?
Is the market growing or getting smaller?
(ii) Competition Question
Who are the competitors?
How many are they and where are they found?
What are the major characteristics of competitors?
What are the key features of competitors‘product or service?
In what ways are the products/services of competitors deficient in meeting customers‘needs? Is
there a gap that can be filled?
What are the strong points in favor of competitors‘product or services?
The specific objectives of the market survey need to be stated clearly in order to conduct a
market survey effectively. The specific objectives of the survey will highlight the type of data
that need to be collected thereby saving a lot of time, energy and resources.

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Market research data is usually divided into primary or secondary sources. Primary data involve
first-hand information through the use of questionnaire, interviews, observation or a combination
of these methods. Secondary data is collected from existing records in the organization or from
various published sources such as the publications of trade associations, annual reports of
companies, official publications of the Central Bank of Nigeria, National Bureau of Statistics,
and other regulatory agencies of government.
It is usually difficult or very expensive to examine the entire population of potential customers
and competitors. To avoid this problem, a sample must be chosen to be representative of the
population of interest. To guarantee the validity and reliability the data in making decisions, care
must be taken in choosing the sample. The idea behind this to ensure objectivity that will
guarantee the quality of the data and hence of the decisions based on them.

Module10 FINANCIAL SERVICES IN ACCESSING BUSINESS FINANCE AND

ACCOUNTING SERVICES TO STARTUPS
NEW COMPANIES
A. INDIVIDUAL SAVINGS AND FRIENDS/RELATIVES GRANT OR LOAN
B. COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES
C. GOVERNMENT SOURCES
i. The CBN
a. MICRO SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISE DEVELOPMENT FUND (MSMEDF) The
CBN launched the MSME Development Fund on August 15, 2013 with a share capital of N220
billion. The Fund was established in recognition of the significant contributions of the Micro,
Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME) sub-sector to the economy and the existing huge
financing gap.

Ten (10) percent of the Fund has been devoted to developmental objectives such a grants,
capacity building and administrative costs while ninety (90) percent commercial component will
be released to Participating Financial Institutions(PFIs) at 2% for on-lending to MSMEs at a
maximum interest rate of 9% per annum.

Eligible activities to be financed include agricultural value chain, services, cottage industries,
artisans, trade and commerce and any income generating business as may be prescribed by the
CBN from time to time. https://www.cbn.gov.ng/MSME/

ANCHOR BORROWERS' PROGRAM(ABP) (through NIRSAL Micro finance Bank, The

Nigeria Incentive based Risk sharing system for agricultural lenders(NIRSAL) sponsored by
Bankers Committee and NIPOST),
The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) in line with its developmental function established the
Anchor Borrowers’ Programme (ABP). The programme thrust of the ABP is provision of farm
inputs in kind and cash (for farm labour) to small holder farmers to boost production of these
commodities, stabilize inputs supply to agro processors and address the country’s negative
balance of payments on food. At harvest, the SHF supplies his/her produce to the Agro-processor
(Anchor) who pays the cash equivalent to the farmer’s account. Interest rate under the ABP shall
be guided by the rate on the N220 billion MSMEDF, which is currently at 9% p.a (all inclusive,
pre and post disbursement). The PFIs shall access at 2% from the CBN and lend at a maximum

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of 9% p.a. Identified Agricultural Commodities. The targeted commodities of comparative
advantage to the State shall include but not limited to:
• Cereals (Rice, Maize, wheat etc.)
• Cotton
• Roots and Tubers (Cassava, Potatoes, Yam, Ginger etc.)
• Sugarcane
• Tree crops (Oil palm, Cocoa, Rubber etc.)
• Legumes (Soybean, Sesame seed, Cowpea etc.)
• Tomato
• Livestock (Fish, Poultry, Ruminants etc.)

b. SMALL and MEDIUM INDUSTRIES EQUITY INVESMENT SCHEME SMIEIS (through

NIRSAL Micro finance Bank, The Nigeria Incentive based Risk sharing system for agricultural
lenders(NIRSAL) sponsored by Bankers Committee and NIPOST),
 COVID-19 TARGETED CREDIT FACILITY Household Beneficiaries
 COVID-19 TARGETED CREDIT FACILITY SME Beneficiaries
 AGRIC SMALL MEDIUM ENTERPRISE SCHEME (AGSMEIS) Access up to N3M at
9% per annum from the Agric, Small and medium enterprise scheme (AGSMEIS), an initiative
from Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN)

 NIGERIAN YOUTH INVESTMENT FUND (NYIF) was set up as an initiative of the

Federal Ministry of Youth and Sports Development (FMYSD) and funded by the Central Bank
of Nigeria (CBN) to invest in youth ideas to build sustainable businesses that can activate
enterprise and increase job opportunities in Nigeria. The fund is dedicated to investing in the
innovative ideas, skills & talents of Nigerian youths aimed at turning them into entrepreneurs,
wealth creators and employers of labour, contributing to national development.
https://nmfb.com.ng/nigeria-youth-investment-fund/
c. TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS ENTREPRENEURSHIP SCHEME (TIES)The CBN, as part of
its policy measures to address rising youth unemployment and underemployment, introduces the
Tertiary Institutions Entrepreneurship Scheme (TIES) to create a paradigm shift among
undergraduates and graduates of Nigerian polytechnics and universities, from seeking white-
collar jobs to entrepreneurship,” the bank said. “The Scheme aims to provide an innovative
financing model that will boost job creation, enhance entrepreneurship development, and support
economic growth.” N5m, N25m loans to Nigerian graduates to fight unemployment Read more:
https://www.legit.ng/politics/1440146-good-news-fg-offers-n5m-n25m-loans-nigerian-
graduates-fight-unemployment/
Read more: https://www.legit.ng/politics/1440146-good-news-fg-offers-n5m-n25m-loans-
nigerian-graduates-fight-unemployment/

Read more: https://www.legit.ng/politics/1440146-good-news-fg-offers-n5m-n25m-loans-
nigerian-graduates-fight-unemployment/
ii. SMALL MEDIUM ENTERPRISE DEVELOPMENT AGENCY NIGERIA (SMEDAN)
iii. NIGERIAN AGRICULTURAL, COOPERATIVE AND RULER DEVELOPMENT
BANK (NACRDB)
iv. Bank of Industry (BOI)
v. SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES CREDIT SCHEME (SSICS)

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vi. WORLD BANK SMALL AND MEDIUM SCHALE ENTREPRISE LOAN
vii. Nigeria Export Import Bank (NEXIM)
viii. NATIONAL BANK FOR COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY (NBCI)
ix. NATIONAL ECONOMIC RECONSTRUCTION FUND (NERFUND)

EXISTING COMPANIES
A. RETAINED EARNINGS
B. TRADE CREDIT
C. ACCRUAL ACCOUNTS
D. INVENTORY FINANCING
E. FACTORING – ACCOUNT RECEIVABLE FINANCING
F. PROJECT FINANCING
G. COMMERCIAL PAPERS
H. HIRE PURCHASE/LEASING
I. BANK FACILITIES
a. Bills Discounting
b. Bank loan
c. Bankers’ acceptance
d. Bank overdraft
J. PUBLIC SOURCES
Capital market
i. Equity Capital by Public offering
ii. Equity Capital by Private placement
iii. Equity Capital by Foreign Direct Investment
iv. Loan Capital by Debentures

Venture capitalists –
i. Pension funds,
ii. Insurance companies,
iii. investment funds
K. GOVERNMENT SOURCES as above
ACCOUNTING SERVICES TO STARTUPS
An entrepreneur is expected to know the minimum documents and books of accounts to keep in
order to control his business. These include
SOURCE DOCUMENTS
Source documents: These are documents that show the origin of all accounting transactions. The
original information about all transaction can be traced to the source documents.
Source documents of all accounting transaction include the following:
a) Sales Invoices,
b) Purchase Invoices,
c) Receipt,
d) Credit Note,
e) Debit Note, ,
f) Bank Pay-In-Slips,
g) Cheque/Cheque Counterfoils,

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h) Payment Voucher,
i) Petty Cash Vouchers,
j) Statement Of Account,
k) Bank Statements
l) Delivery Note,
m) Purchase Order.
n) Goods Received Note,
o) Bin Card,

SALES INVOICE: This is a source document used in recording credit sales. It is a source
document that is usually issued by the supplier/seller for goods sold on credit where the
customer/buyer is requested to pay the amount stated on the invoice in relation to goods sent to
him in due course. It is a document that specifies the particulars and the price of goods sold. It is
a source document used in updating the sales day book.
PURCHASE INVOICE: This is a source document used in recording credit purchases. It is a
document that specifies the particulars and the price of goods bought. It is a source document
used in updating the purchases day book. It has the same content as the sales invoice except that
the purchase invoice is in the books of the buyer while sales day book is in the books of the
seller.
RECEIPT: This is a source document evidencing the receipt of cash or cheque paid to bank or
other means of payments from a customer for goods sold or services rendered. The original
receipt is issued to the customer and that serves as source document for posting his cash book.
The duplicate is retained by the seller and used as a source document in recording cash received
in his cash book.
CREDIT NOTE: It is a source document issued by the supplier/seller, when the customer/buyer
is overcharged or when the buyer returns goods to the supplier/seller. It is a note that shows that
the indebtedness of a buyer has been reduced by the amount in the credit note. Credit note is a
source document in recording returns inwards book. It is often in red colour to differentiate it
from an invoice.
DEBIT NOTE: A debit source document issued by the buyer/customer to the seller/supplier
requesting for a credit note from the supplier. A debit note is also issued when the invoice given
to a customer is understated. Credit note is a source document in recording returns outwards
book.
BANK PAY-IN-SLIP (BANK TELLER): This is a source document used in recording the
bank column (debit side) of the cashbook. It shows the amount paid in to the account by the
business.
CHEQUE COUNTERFOILS: This is a source document used in recording the bank column
(credit side) of cashbook. It gives evidence of the amount paid to the creditors or for expenses
and withdrawal made by the business.
PAYMENT VOUCHERS: This is a documentary evidence for all payment transactions in an
organization. Contents: Before any payment is made in an organization, payment voucher must
be raised specifying amount to be paid, the description of the payment, the beneficiary, the
person authorizing the payment and his signature as well as the signature of the beneficiary.
PURCHASE ORDER: A purchase order is a source document issued by the buyer to the seller
specifying the goods to be supplied to him.

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GOODS RECEIVED NOTE: It is a note given to the seller by the buyer confirming that the
goods supplied to him have been received in good condition and meets the specification given in
the purchase order.
DELIVERY NOTE: When goods are dispatched to the customers, they are accompanied by a
delivery note describing what was delivered. It serves as evidence of delivery to the buyer when
signed by him.
STATEMENT OF ACCOUNT: This is a statement issued by the supplier/creditor to the
customer/debtor detailing the amount outstanding as at a specified date.
BANK STATEMENT:This is a statement of account issued by a bank to its customer detailing
the transactions between it and the customer including the balance on account as at a specified
date. It assists the business in recording the cash book and in bank reconciliations.
BIN CARD: It is often used by store officer to record movement of inventories in the store.
When goods are brought to the store, the bin card is debited, and when issued out for production
the bin card is credited.

BOOKS OF ORIGINAL ENTRY (BOOKS OF PRIME ENTRY)

Books of original entries: These are books used in recording a transaction for the first time. After
obtaining a source document, we record it in the books of original entries.
These books include:
a) Sales Day Book (Sales Journal)
b) Purchases Day Book(Purchases Journal)
c) Returns Inward Book (Returns inwards Journal)
d) Returns Outward Book(Returns outwards Journal)
e) Journal Proper (General Journal).
f) Cash Book.

SALES DAY BOOK (SALES JOURNAL):

This is a book of original entry that is used to record daily credit sales. It is the book of original
entry for sales invoices. The credit sales for the day are entered daily and total value transferred
to sales account in the general ledger weekly or monthly depending on the volume of
transactions in an organization and individual totals are posted to the debit side of customers’
personal accounts in the sales ledger.
PURCHASES DAY BOOK (PURCHASES JOURNAL):
Purchases day book is a book of prime entry used to record all credit purchases. It is the book of
original entry for purchase invoices. The total of the period purchase (weekly or monthly)
depending on the volume of transaction is transferred to credit side of sales account in the
general ledger and individual totals are posted to the debit side of suppliers’ personal accounts in
the purchases ledger.
RETURNS INWARD DAY BOOK (RETURNS INWARDS JOURNAL)
This is the book of original entry for credit notes. It is a book of original entry that is used in
recording all goods returned by customers. Most of the times, this is evidenced by credit note.
The credit note is then used in recording the returns inwards day book. At the end of the period,
say weekly or monthly depending on volume of transaction, the totals of returns inwards day are
posted to returns inwards account in the general ledger while the individual figures are posted to
personal accounts of account receivables in sales ledger.

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RETURNS OUTWARD DAY BOOK (RETURNS OUTWARDS JOURNAL).
This is the book of original entry for debit notes. It is used in recording all goods returned by us
to our suppliers. Most of the times, this is evidenced by debit note. After supply of goods has
been received, for one reason or the order we may decide to return the goods to the suppliers. If
the goods are from different suppliers during the same period, such returns are first recorded in
purchases day book and thereafter, the total for a period (say weekly or monthly) is transferred to
returns outward account in the general ledger and individual account to purchase ledger to the
respective personal accounts of suppliers.
GENERAL JOURNAL (JOURNAL PROPER OR THE JOURNAL)
This is the sixth book of original entry. It records all other transactions in an organization that are
not covered by the other five books (Sales journal, purchases journal, Credit note, debit note,
cash book).

Uses of General Journal:

i. Purchase of fixed assets on credit
ii. Sale of fixed assets on credit
iii. Corrections of errors in the ledger accounts
iv. Opening entries in a new business
v. Closing entries in a liquidating business
vi. Introduction of capital or issue of shares in an existing/new business.
vii. Adjustments to any of the entries in the ledger e.g Writing off bad debt, transfer of debt
from one person to another etc
CASH BOOK:
Cash book has a dual role as a book of original entry used in recording all cash and bank
transactions as well as a ledger with ledger accounts of cash and bank whose balances form part
of the trial balance.

As a book of original entry, Cash book is the first records of entry of all money received and
payments made at a specific period in time.

As a ledger account, cash book has two sides, the debit side and credit sides. The debit side
records all money received while the credit side shows all the payment made.

The cash book has three types:

i. Single Column Cash Book,
ii. Double Column Cash Book and
iii. Three Column Cash Book.

Contents:
i. Date of transaction column
ii. Particulars column
iii. Folio column
iv. Cash/bank column with monetary sign

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