7

CMOS Amplifiers
Most CMOS amplifiers have identical bipolar counterparts and can therefore be analyzed
in the same fashion. Our study in this chapter parallels the developments in Chapter 5,
identifying both similarities and differences between CMOS and bipolar circuit topologies.
It is recommended that the reader review Chapter 5, specifically, Section 5.1. We assume
the reader is familiar with concepts such as I/O impedances, biasing, and dc and small-signal
analysis. The outline of the chapter is shown below.

General Concepts MOS Amplifiers

• Biasing of MOS Stages • Common–Source Stage
• Realization of Current ➤ • Common–Gate Stage
Sources • Source Follower

7.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

7.1.1 MOS Amplifier Topologies
Recall from Section 5.3 that the nine possible circuit topologies using a bipolar transistor in
fact reduce to three useful configurations. The similarity of bipolar and MOS small-signal
models (i.e., a voltage-controlled current source) suggests that the same must hold for MOS
amplifiers. In other words, we expect three basic CMOS amplifiers: the “common-source”
(CS) stage, the “common-gate” (CG) stage, and the “source follower.”

7.1.2 Biasing
Depending on the application, MOS circuits may incorporate biasing techniques that are
quite different from those described in Chapter 5 for bipolar stages. Most of these tech-
niques are beyond the scope of this book and some methods are studied in Chapter 5.
Nonetheless, it is still instructive to apply some of the biasing concepts of Chapter 5 to
MOS stages.

309
310 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

VDD = 1.8 V

4 kΩ R1 RD
Y
ID
X M1
10 k Ω R2 RS 1 kΩ

Figure 7.1 MOS stage with biasing.

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 7.1, where the gate voltage is defined by R1 and
R2 . We assume M1 operates in saturation. Also, in most bias calculations, we can neglect
channel-length modulation. Noting that the gate current is zero, we have
R2
VX = VDD . (7.1)
R1 + R 2
Since VX = VGS + ID RS ,
R2
VDD = VGS + ID RS . (7.2)
R1 + R 2
Also,
1 W
ID = µnCox (VGS − VTH )2 . (7.3)
2 L
Equations (7.2) and (7.3) can be solved to obtain ID and VGS , either by iteration or by
finding ID from Eq. (7.2) and replacing for it in Eq. (7.3):
! "
R2 1 1 W
VDD − VGS = µnCox (VGS − VTH )2 . (7.4)
R1 + R 2 RS 2 L
That is,
#
2R2
VGS = −(V1 − VTH ) + (V1 − VTH )2 − VTH
2
+ V1 VDD , (7.5)
R1 + R 2
# ! "
R2 VDD
= −(V1 − VTH ) + V12 + 2V1 − VTH , (7.6)
R1 + R 2
where
1
V1 = . (7.7)
W
µnCox RS
L
This value of VGS can then be substituted in Eq. (7.2) to obtain ID . Of course, VY must
exceed VX − VTH to ensure operation in the saturation region.

Example Determine the bias current of M1 in Fig. 7.1 assuming VTH = 0.5 V, µnCox =
7.1 100 µA/V2 , W/L = 5/0.18, and λ = 0. What is the maximum allowable value of RD
for M1 to remain in saturation?
 7.1 General Considerations 311

Solution We have
R2
VX = VDD (7.8)
R1 + R 2
= 1.286 V. (7.9)
With an initial guess VGS = 1 V, the voltage drop across RS can be expressed as
VX − VGS = 286 mV, yielding a drain current of 286 µA. Substituting for ID in
Eq. (7.3) gives the new value of VGS as
$
%
% 2ID
VGS = VTH + % (7.10)
& W
µnCox
L

= 0.954 V. (7.11)

Consequently,

VX − VGS
ID = (7.12)
RS
= 332 µA, (7.13)

and hence

VGS = 0.989 V. (7.14)

This gives ID = 297 µA.

As seen from the iterations, the solutions converge more slowly than those en-
countered in Chapter 5 for bipolar circuits. This is due to the quadratic (rather than
exponential) ID -VGS dependence. We may therefore utilize the exact result in Eq. (7.6)
to avoid lengthy calculations. Since V1 = 0.36 V,

VGS = 0.974 V (7.15)

and
VX − VGS
ID = (7.16)
RS
= 312 µA. (7.17)

The maximum allowable value of RD is obtained if VY = VX − VTH = 0.786 V.

That is,
VDD − VY
RD = (7.18)
ID
= 3.25 k". (7.19)

Exercise What is the value of R2 that places M1 at the edge of saturation?

312 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

Example In the circuit of Example 7.1, assume M1 is in saturation and RD = 2.5 k" and compute
7.2 (a) the maximum allowable value of W/L and (b) the minimum allowable value of RS
(with W/L = 5/0.18). Assume λ = 0.

Solution (a) As W/L becomes larger, M1 can carry a larger current for a given VGS . With
RD = 2.5 k" and VX = 1.286 V, the maximum allowable value of ID is given by
VDD − VY
ID = (7.20)
RD
= 406 µA. (7.21)
The voltage drop across RS is then equal to 406 mV, yielding VGS = 1.286 V−
0.406 V = 0.88 V. In other words, M1 must carry a current of 406 µA with VGS = 0.88 V:
1 W
ID = µnCox (VGS − VTH )2 (7.22)
2 L
W
406 µA = (50 µA/V2 ) (0.38 V)2 ; (7.23)
L
thus,
W
= 56.2. (7.24)
L
(b) With W/L = 5/0.18, the minimum allowable value of RS gives a drain current of
406 µA. Since
$
%
% 2ID
VGS = VTH + % (7.25)
& W
µnCox
L
= 1.041 V, (7.26)
the voltage drop across RS is equal to VX − VGS = 245 mV. It follows that
VX − VGS
RS = (7.27)
ID
= 604 ". (7.28)

Exercise Repeat the above example if VTH = 0.35 V.

The self-biasing technique of Fig. 5.22 can also be applied to MOS amplifiers. Depicted
in Fig. 7.2, the circuit can be analyzed by noting that M1 is in saturation (why?) and the
voltage drop across RG is zero. Thus,

ID RD + VGS + RS ID = VDD . (7.29)

Finding VGS from this equation and substituting it in Eq. (7.3), we have

1 W
ID = µnCox [VDD − (RS + RD )ID − VTH ]2 , (7.30)
2 L
 7.1 General Considerations 313

VDD

RD
RG
ID
M1
RS

Figure 7.2 Self-biased MOS stage.

where channel-length modulation is neglected. It follows that

 
 1 
(RS + RD )2 ID
2
− 2(VDD − VTH )(RS + RD ) + I + (VDD − VTH )2 = 0.
WD
µnCox
L
(7.31)

Example Calculate the drain current of M1 in Fig. 7.3 if µnCox = 100 µA/V2 , VTH = 0.5 V, and
7.3 λ = 0. What value of RD is necessary to reduce ID by a factor of two?

VDD = 1.8 V

RD 1 kΩ
20 k Ω

W 5
M 1 L = 0.18
200 Ω

Figure 7.3 Example of self-biased MOS stage.

Solution Equation (7.31) gives

ID = 556 µA. (7.32)
To reduce ID to 278 µA, we solve Eq. (7.31) for RD :
RD = 2.867 k". (7.33)

Exercise Repeat the above example if VDD drops to 1.2 V.

7.1.3 Realization of Current Sources

MOS transistors operating in saturation can act as current sources. As illustrated in
Fig. 7.4(a), an NMOS device serves as a current source with one terminal tied to ground,
i.e., it draws current from node X to ground. On the other hand, a PMOS transistor
314 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

VDD VDD VDD

Y
X X
Vb M2 Vb M1
Vb M1
Vb M1
Y Y X
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 7.4 (a) NMOS device operating as a current source, (b) PMOS device operating as a
current source, (c) PMOS topology not operating as a current source, (d) NMOS topology not
operating as a current source.

[Fig. 7.4(b)] draws current from VDD to node Y. If λ = 0, these currents remain indepen-
dent of VX or VY (so long as the transistors are in saturation).
It is important to understand that only the drain terminal of a MOSFET can draw a dc
current and still present a high impedance. Specifically, NMOS or PMOS devices configured
as shown in Figs. 7.4(c) and (d) do not operate as current sources because variation of
VX or VY directly changes the gate-source voltage of each transistor, thus changing the
drain current considerably. From another perspective, the small-signal model of these
two structures is identical to that of the diode-connected devices in Fig. 6.34, revealing a
small-signal impedance of only 1/gm (if λ = 0) rather than infinity.

7.2 COMMON-SOURCE STAGE

7.2.1 CS Core
Shown in Fig. 7.5(a), the basic CS stage is similar to the common-emitter topology, with the
input applied to the gate and the output sensed at the drain. For small signals, M1 converts
the input voltage variations to proportional drain current changes, and RD transforms
the drain currents to the output voltage. If channel-length modulation is neglected, the
small-signal model in Fig. 7.5(b) yields vin = v1 and vout = −gmv1 RD . That is,

vout
= −gmRD , (7.34)
vin

a result similar to that obtained for the common emitter stage in Chapter 5.

VDD

RD v in v out
Vout v1 g v1 RD
ID m
Output Sensed
V in M1 at Drain
Input Applied
to Gate
(a) (b)

Figure 7.5 (a) Common-source stage, (b) small-signal mode.

 7.2 Common-Source Stage 315

- The voltage gain of the CS stage is also limited by the supply voltage. Since gm =
2µnCox (W/L)ID , we have
.
W
Av = − 2µnCox ID RD , (7.35)
L
concluding that if ID or RD is increased, so is the voltage drop across RD ( = ID RD ).1 For
M1 to remain in saturation,

VDD − RD ID > VGS − VTH , (7.36)

that is,
RD ID < VDD − (VGS − VTH ). (7.37)

Example Calculate the small-signal voltage gain of the CS stage shown in Fig. 7.6 if ID = 1 mA,
7.4 µnCox = 100 µA/V2 , VTH = 0.5 V, and λ = 0. Verify that M1 operates in saturation.

VDD = 1.8 V

RD 1 kΩ
v out
10
v in M1 W =
L 0.18

Figure 7.6 Example of CS stage.

Solution We have
.
W
gm = 2µnCox ID (7.38)
L
1
= . (7.39)
300 "
Thus,
Av = −gmRD (7.40)
= 3.33. (7.41)
To check the operation region, we first determine the gate-source voltage:
$
%
% 2ID
VGS = VTH + % (7.42)
& W
µnCox
L
= 1.1 V. (7.43)

1
It is possible to raise the gain to some extent by increasing W, but “subthreshold conduction” eventually
limits the transconductance. This concept is beyond the scope of this book.
316 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

The drain voltage is equal to VDD − RD ID = 0.8 V. Since VGS − VTH = 0.6 V, the device
indeed operates in saturation and has a margin of 0.2 V with respect to the triode region.
For example, if RD is doubled with the intention of doubling Av , then M1 enters the
triode region and its transconductance drops.

Exercise What value of VTH places M1 at the edge of saturation?

Since the gate terminal of MOSFETs draws a zero current (at very low frequencies),
we say the CS amplifier provides a current gain of infinity. By contrast, the current gain of
a common-emitter stage is equal to β.
Let us now compute the I/O impedances of the CS amplifier. Since the gate current is
zero (at low frequencies),
Rin = ∞, (7.44)
a point of contrast to the CE stage (whose Rin is equal to rπ ). The high input impedance
of the CS topology plays a critical role in many analog circuits.
The similarity between the small-signal equivalents of CE and CS stages indicates that
the output impedance of the CS amplifier is simply equal to
Rout = RD . (7.45)
This is also seen from Fig. 7.7.

iX

v1 g v1 RD vX
m

Figure 7.7 Output impedance of CS stage.

In practice, channel-length modulation may not be negligible, especially if RD

is large. The small-signal model of CS topology is therefore modified as shown in
Fig. 7.8, revealing that
Av = −gm(RD ||rO ) (7.46)

Rin = ∞ (7.47)

Rout = RD ||rO . (7.48)

In other words, channel-length modulation and the Early effect impact the CS and CE
stages, respectively, in a similar manner.

iX

v1 g v1 rO RD vX
m

Figure 7.8 Effect of channel-length modulation on CS stage.

 7.2 Common-Source Stage 317

Example Assuming M1 operates in saturation, determine the voltage gain of the circuit depicted
7.5 in Fig. 7.9(a) and plot the result as a function of the transistor channel length while other
parameters remain constant.

VDD
Av

v out
v in M1
L

(a) (b)

Figure 7.9 (a) CS stage with ideal current source as a load, (b) gain as a function of device
channel length.

Solution The ideal current source presents an infinite small-signal resistance, allowing the use of
Eq. (7.46) with RD = ∞:
Av = −gmrO . (7.49)
This is the highest voltage gain that a single transistor can provide. Writing gm =
-
2µnCox (W/L)ID and rO = (λID )−1 , we have
.
W
2µnCox
L
|Av | = √ . (7.50)
λ ID
This result may imply that |Av | falls as L increases, but recall from Chapter 6 that λ ∝ L−1 :
#
2µnCox WL
|Av | ∝ . (7.51)
ID
Consequently, |Av | increases with L [Fig. 7.9(b)].

Exercise Repeat the above example if a resistor of value R1 is tied between the gate and drain of M1 .

7.2.2 CS Stage With Current-Source Did you know?

Load The intrinsic gain, gm r O , of MOSFETs has fallen
As seen in the above example, the trade- with technology scaling, i.e., as the minimum chan-
off between the voltage gain and the volt- nel length has gone from about 10 µm in the 1960s
age headroom can be relaxed by replacing to 25 nm today. Due to severe channel-length
modulation, the intrinsic gain of these short-
the load resistor with a current source. The
channel devices is on the order of 5 to 10, mak-
observations made in relation to Fig. 7.4(b)
ing it difficult to achieve a high voltage gain in
therefore suggest the use of a PMOS de-
many analog circuits. This issue has prompted ex-
vice as the load of an NMOS CS amplifier tensive research on analog design using low-gain
[Fig. 7.10(a)]. building blocks. For example, the analog-to-digital
Let us determine the small-signal gain converter that digitizes the image in your camera
and output impedance of the circuit. may need an op amp with a gain of 4,000 but
Having a constant gate-source voltage, M2 must now be designed with a gain of only 20.
simply behaves as a resistor equal to its
318 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

VDD VDD

Vb v1 gm2v 1 r O2
M2

v out
v out
v in M1 v in r O1
M1
(a) (b)

Figure 7.10 (a) CS stage using a PMOS device as a current source, (b) small-signal model.

output impedance [Fig. 7.10(b)] because v1 = 0 and hence gm2 v1 = 0. Thus, the drain node
of M1 sees both rO1 and rO2 to ac ground. Equations (7.46) and (7.48) give
Av = −gm1 (rO1 ||rO2 ) (7.52)
Rout = rO1 ||rO2 . (7.53)

Example Figure 7.11 shows a PMOS CS stage using an NMOS current source load. Compute the
7.6 voltage gain of the circuit.
VDD

v in M2
v out
Vb M1

Figure 7.11 CS stage using an NMOS device as current source.

Solution Transistor M2 generates a small-signal current equal to gm2 vin , which then flows through
rO1 ||rO2 , producing vout = −gm2 vin (rO1 ||rO2 ). Thus,
Av = −gm2 (rO1 ||rO2 ). (7.54)

Exercise Calculate the gain if the circuit drives a loads resistance equal to RL .

7.2.3 CS Stage With Diode-Connected Load

In some applications, we may use a diode-connected MOSFET as the drain load. Illustrated
in Fig. 7.12(a), such a topology exhibits only a moderate gain due to the relatively low
impedance of the diode-connected device (Section 7.1.3). With λ = 0, M2 acts as a small-
signal resistance equal to 1/gm2 , and Eq. (7.34) yields
1
Av = −gm1 · (7.55)
gm2
-
2µnCox (W/L)1 ID
= −- (7.56)
2µnCox (W/L)2 ID
#
(W/L)1
=− . (7.57)
(W/L)2
 7.2 Common-Source Stage 319

VDD VCC
1
M2 Q2 g m2 r O2
Vout Vout
v out
V in M1 V in Q1 v in r O1
M1

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7.12 (a) MOS stage using a diode-connected load, (b) bipolar counterpart,
(c) simplified circuit of (a).

Interestingly, the gain is given by the dimensions of M1 and M2 and remains independent
of process parameters µn and Cox and the drain current, ID .
The reader may wonder why we did not consider a common-emitter stage with a diode-
connected load in Chapter 5. Shown in Fig. 7.12(b), such a circuit is not used because it
provides a voltage gain of only unity:
1
Av = −gm1 · (7.58)
gm2
IC 1 1
=− · (7.59)
VT IC 2 /VT
≈ −1. (7.60)

The contrast between Eqs. (7.57) and (7.60) arises from a fundamental difference between
MOS and bipolar devices: transconductance of the former depends on device dimensions
whereas that of the latter does not.
A more accurate expression for the gain of the stage in Fig. 7.12(a) must take channel-
length modulation into account. As depicted in Fig. 7.12(c), the resistance seen at the drain
is now equal to (1/gm2 )||rO2 ||rO1 , and hence
! "
1
Av = −gm1 ||rO2 ||rO1 . (7.61)
gm2
Similarly, the output resistance of the stage is given by
1
Rout = ||rO2 ||rO1 . (7.62)
gm2

Example Determine the voltage gain of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.13(a) if λ &= 0.
7.7

VDD

V in M2

Vout

M1

Figure 7.13 CS stage with diode-connected PMOS device.

320 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

Solution This stage is similar to that in Fig. 7.12(a), but with NMOS devices changed to PMOS
transistors: M1 serves as a common-source device and M2 as a diode-connected load.
Thus,
! "
1
Av = −gm2 ||rO1 ||rO2 . (7.63)
gm1

Exercise Repeat the above example if the gate of M1 is tied to a constant voltage equal to
0.5 V.

7.2.4 CS Stage With Degeneration

Recall from Chapter 5 that a resistor placed in series with the emitter of a bipolar transistor
alters characteristics such as gain, I/O impedances, and linearity. We expect similar results
for a degenerated CS amplifier.

VDD

RD v in v out
Vout v1 g v1 RD
m
V in M1
RS
RS

(a) (b)

Figure 7.14 (a) CS stage with degeneration, (b) small-signal model.

Figure 7.14 depicts the stage along with its small-signal equivalent (if λ = 0). As with
the bipolar counterpart, the degeneration resistor sustains a fraction of the input voltage
change. From Fig. 7.14(b), we have

vin = v1 + gmv1 RS (7.64)

and hence
vin
v1 = . (7.65)
1 + gmRS

Since gmv1 flows through RD , vout = −gmv1 RD and

vout gmRD
=− (7.66)
vin 1 + gmRS

RD
=− , (7.67)
1
+ RS
gm

a result identical to that expressed by Eq. (5.157) for the bipolar counterpart.
 7.2 Common-Source Stage 321

Example Compute the voltage gain of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.15(a) if λ = 0.
7.8

VDD

RD RD
Vout v out
V in M1 v in M1
1
M2 g m2

(a) (b)

Figure 7.15 (a) Example of CS stage with degeneration, (b) simplified circuit.

Solution Transistor M2 serves as a diode-connected device, presenting an impedance of 1/gm2

[Fig. 7.15(b)]. The gain is therefore given by Eq. (7.67) if RS is replaced with 1/gm2 :
RD
Av = − . (7.68)
1 1
+
gm1 gm2

Exercise What happens if λ &= 0 for M2 ?

In parallel with the developments in Chapter 5, we may study the effect of a resistor
appearing in series with the gate (Fig. 7.16). However, since the gate current is zero (at
low frequencies), RG sustains no voltage drop and does not affect the voltage gain or the
I/O impedances.

Effect of Transistor Output Impedance As with the bipolar counterparts, the inclusion
of the transistor output impedance complicates the analysis and is studied in Problem 7.32.
Nonetheless, the output impedance of the degenerated CS stage plays a critical role in
analog design and is worth studying here.
Figure 7.17 shows the small-signal equivalent of the circuit. Since RS carries a cur-
rent equal to iX (why?), we have v1 = −iX RS . Also, the current through rO is equal to

VDD

RD
Vout
RG
V in M1
RS

Figure 7.16 CS stage with gate resistance.

322 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

iX

v1 g v1 rO vX
m

RS

Figure 7.17 Output impedance of CS stage with degeneration.

iX − gmv1 = iX − gm(− iX RS ) = iX + gmiX RS . Adding the voltage drops across rO and RS

and equating the result to vX , we have

rO (iX + gmiX RS ) + iX RS = vX , (7.69)

and hence
vX
= rO (1 + gmRS ) + RS (7.70)
iX
= (1 + gmrO )RS + rO (7.71)

≈ gmrO RS + rO . (7.72)

Alternatively, we observe that the model in Fig. 7.17 is similar to its bipolar counterpart in
Fig. 5.46(a) but with rπ = ∞. Letting rπ → ∞ in Eqs. (5.196) and (5.197) yields the same
results as above. As expected from our study of the bipolar degenerated stage, the MOS
version also exhibits a “boosted” output impedance.

Example Compute the output resistance of the circuit in Fig. 7.18(a) if M1 and M2 are identical.
7.9

R out R out

Vb M1 r O1
M1
1
M2 r
g m2 O2

(a) (b)

Figure 7.18 (a) Example of CS stage with degeneration, (b) simplified circuit.

Solution The diode-connected device M2 can be represented by a small-signal resistance

of (1/gm2 )||rO2 ≈ 1/gm2 . Transistor M1 is degenerated by this resistance, and from
Eq. (7.70):
! "
1 1
Rout = rO1 1 + gm1 + (7.73)
gm2 gm2
 7.2 Common-Source Stage 323

which, since gm1 = gm2 = gm, reduces to

1
Rout = 2rO1 + (7.74)
gm
≈ 2rO1 . (7.75)

Exercise Do the results remain unchanged if M2 is replaced with a diode-connected PMOS device?

Example Determine the output resistance of the circuit in Fig. 7.19(a) and compare the result with
7.10 that in the above example. Assume M1 and M2 are in saturation.

R out R out

V b2 M1 r O1
M1
V b1 M2 r O2

(a) (b)

Figure 7.19 (a) Example of CS stage with degeneration, (b) simplified circuit.

Solution With its gate-source voltage fixed, transistor M2 operates as a current source, introducing
a resistance of rO2 from the source of M1 to ground [Fig. 7.19(b)].
Equation (7.71) can therefore be written as

Rout = (1 + gm1rO1 )rO2 + rO1 (7.76)

≈ gm1rO1rO2 + rO1 . (7.77)

Assuming gm1rO2 ( 1 (which is valid in practice), we have

Rout ≈ gm1rO1rO2 . (7.78)

We observe that this value is quite higher than that in Eq. (7.75).

Exercise Repeat the above example for the PMOS counterpart of the circuit.

7.2.5 CS Core With Biasing

The effect of the simple biasing network shown in Fig. 7.1 is similar to that analyzed for the
bipolar stage in Chapter 5. Depicted in Fig. 7.20(a) along with an input coupling capacitor
(assumed a short circuit), such a circuit no longer exhibits an infinite input impedance:

Rin = R1 ||R2 . (7.79)

324 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

VDD VDD VDD

RD RD RD
R1 R1 R1
Vout Vout Vout
C1 RG C1 RG C1
V in M1 V in M1 V in M1
R2 R2 R2
RS RS R in RS C2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7.20 (a) CS stage with input coupling capacitor, (b) inclusion of gate resistance, (c) use of
bypass capacitor.

Thus, if the circuit is driven by a finite source impedance [Fig. 7.20(b)], the voltage gain
falls to
R1 ||R2 −RD
Av = · , (7.80)
RG + R1 ||R2 1
+ RS
gm
where λ is assumed to be zero.
As mentioned in Chapter 5, it is possible to utilize degeneration for bias point stability
but eliminate its effect on the small-signal performance by means of a bypass capacitor
[Fig. 7.20(c)]. Unlike the case of bipolar realization, this does not alter the input impedance
of the CS stage:
Rin = R1 ||R2 , (7.81)
but raises the voltage gain:
R1 ||R2
Av = − gmRD . (7.82)
RG + R1 ||R2

Example Design the CS stage of Fig. 7.20(c) for a voltage gain of 5, an input impedance of 50 k",
7.11 and a power budget of 5 mW. Assume µnCox = 100 µA/V2 , VTH = 0.5 V, λ = 0, and
VDD = 1.8 V. Also, assume a voltage drop of 400 mV across RS .

Solution The power budget along with VDD = 1.8 V implies a maximum supply current of
2.78 mA. As an initial guess, we allocate 2.7 mA to M1 and the remaining 80 µA to
R1 and R2 . It follows that
RS = 148 ". (7.83)
As with typical design problems, the choice of gm and RD is somewhat flexible so
long as gmRD = 5. However, with ID known, we must ensure a reasonable value for VGS ,
e.g., VGS = 1 V. This choice yields
2ID
gm = (7.84)
VGS − VTH
1
= , (7.85)
92.6 "
 7.3 Common-Gate Stage 325

and hence
RD = 463 ". (7.86)
Writing
1 W
ID = µnCox (VGS − VTH )2 (7.87)
2 L
gives
W
= 216. (7.88)
L
With VGS = 1 V and a 400-mV drop across RS , the gate voltage reaches 1.4 V, requiring
that
R2
VDD = 1.4 V, (7.89)
R1 + R 2
which, along with Rin = R1 ||R2 = 50 k", yields
R1 = 64.3 k" (7.90)
R2 = 225 k". (7.91)
We must now check to verify that M1 indeed operates in saturation. The drain
voltage is given by VDD − ID RD = 1.8 V − 1.25 V = 0.55 V. Since the gate voltage is
equal to 1.4 V, the gate-drain voltage difference exceeds VTH , driving M1 into the triode
region!
How did our design procedure lead to this result? For the given ID , we have cho-
sen an excessively large RD , i.e., an excessively small gm (because gmRD = 5), even
though VGS is reasonable. We must therefore increase gm so as to allow a lower value
for RD . For example, suppose we halve RD and double gm by increasing W/L by a factor
of four:
W
= 864 (7.92)
L
1
gm = . (7.93)
46.3 "
The corresponding gate-source voltage is obtained from (7.84):
VGS = 250 mV, (7.94)
yielding a gate voltage of 650 mV.
Is M1 in saturation? The drain voltage is equal to VDD − RD ID = 1.17 V, a value
higher than the gate voltage minus VTH . Thus, M1 operates in saturation.

Exercise Repeat the above example for a power budget of 3 mW and VDD = 1.2 V.

7.3 COMMON-GATE STAGE

Shown in Fig. 7.21, the CG topology resembles the common-base stage studied in
Chapter 5. Here, if the input rises by a small value, %V, then the gate-source voltage
of M1 decreases by the same amount, thereby lowering the drain current by gm%V and
326 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

VDD

RD
Vout

M1 Vb Output Sensed
V in at Drain

Input Applied
to Source

Figure 7.21 Common-gate stage.

raising Vout by gm%VRD . That is, the voltage gain is positive and equal to

Av = gmRD . (7.95)

The CG stage suffers from voltage headroom-gain trade-offs similar to those of the
CB topology. In particular, to achieve a high gain, a high ID or RD is necessary, but the
drain voltage, VDD − ID RD , must remain above Vb − VTH to ensure M1 is saturated.

Example A microphone having a dc level of zero drives a CG stage biased at ID = 0.5 mA. If
7.12 W/L = 50, µnCox = 100 µA/V2 , VTH = 0.5 V, and VDD = 1.8 V, determine the maxi-
mum allowable value of RD and hence the maximum voltage gain. Neglect channel-
length modulation.

Solution With W/L known, the gate-source voltage can be determined from
1 W
ID = µnCox (VGS − VTH )2 (7.96)
2 L
as

VGS = 0.947 V. (7.97)

For M1 to remain in saturation,

VDD − ID RD > Vb − VTH (7.98)

and hence

RD < 2.71 k". (7.99)

Also, the above value of W/L and ID yield gm = (447 ")−1 and

Av ≤ 6.06. (7.100)

Figure 7.22 summarizes the allowable signal levels in this design. The gate voltage can
be generated using a resistive divider similar to that in Fig. 7.20(a).

Exercise If a gain of 10 is required, what value should be chosen for W/L?

 7.3 Common-Gate Stage 327

VDD

RD
Vb = 0.947 V
Vout
Vb – V TH = 0.447 V
M1
0 V in

Figure 7.22 Signal levels in CG stage.

We now compute the I/O impedances

of the CG stage, expecting to obtain results Did you know?
similar to those of the CB topology. Neglect- The common-gate stage is sometimes used as a
ing channel-length modulation for now, we low-noise RF amplifier, e.g., at the input of your
have from Fig. 7.23(a) v1 = −vX and WiFi receiver. This topology is attractive because
its low input impedance allows simple “impedance
iX = −gmv1 (7.101) matching” with the antenna. However, with the re-
duction of the intrinsic gain, gm r O , as a result
= gmvX . (7.102) of scaling, the input impedance, Rin , is now too
high! It can be shown that with channel-length
That is, modulation

1 RD + rO
Rin = , (7.103) Ri n =
gm 1 + gm r O

a relatively low value. Also, from Fig. which reduces to 1/gm if gm r O ( 1 and R D * r O .
7.23(b), v1 = 0 and hence Since neither of these conditions holds anymore,
the CG stage presents new challenges to RF
Rout = RD , (7.104) designers.

an expected result because the circuits of

Figs. 7.23(b) and 7.7 are identical.
Let us study the behavior of the CG stage in the presence of a finite source
impedance (Fig. 7.24) but still with λ = 0. In a manner similar to that depicted in
Chapter 5 for the CB topology, we write
1
gm
vX = vin (7.105)
1
+ RS
gm
1
= vin . (7.106)
1 + gmRS

iX

v1 g v1 RD v1 g v1 RD vX
m m

iX
vX

(a) (b)

Figure 7.23 (a) Input and (b) output impedances of CG stage.

328 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

VDD

RD
Vout

RS M1 Vb RS vX
X
1
v in v in
1 gm
gm

Figure 7.24 Simplification of CG stage with signal source resistance.

Thus,
vout vout vX
= · (7.107)
vin vX vin

gmRD
= (7.108)
1 + gmRS

RD
= . (7.109)
1
+ RS
gm
The gain is therefore equal to that of the degenerated CS stage except for a negative sign.
In contrast to the common-source stage, the CG amplifier exhibits a current gain of
unity: the current provided by the input voltage source simply flows through the channel
and emerges from the drain node.
The analysis of the common-gate stage in the general case, i.e., including both channel-
length modulation and a finite source impedance, is beyond the scope of this book
(Problem 7.42). However, we can make two observations. First, a resistance appearing
in series with the gate terminal [Fig. 7.25(a)] does not alter the gain or I/O impedances
(at low frequencies) because it sustains a zero potential drop—as if its value were zero.
Second, the output resistance of the CG stage in the general case [Fig. 7.25(b)] is identical
to that of the degenerated CS topology:

Rout = (1 + gmrO )RS + rO . (7.110)

VDD

RD R out

Vout
Vb rO
M1 RS
RG M1
v in

(a) (b)

Figure 7.25 (a) CG stage with gate resistance, (b) output resistance of CG stage.
 7.3 Common-Gate Stage 329

Example For the circuit shown in Fig. 7.26(a), calculate the voltage gain if λ = 0 and the output
7.13 impedance if λ > 0.

VDD
R out1
RD
Vout 1
g m1 r O1
Vb RS
RS M 1 RS
vX M1
X
1 1
V in M2 v in r
g m2 g m2 O2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7.26 (a) Example of CG stage, (b) equivalent input network, (c) calculation of output
resistance.

Solution We first compute vX /vin with the aid of the equivalent circuit depicted in Fig. 7.26(b):
//
1 //// 1
vX gm2 // gm1
= // (7.111)
vin 1 //// 1
+ RS
gm2 // gm1
1
= . (7.112)
1 + (gm1 + gm2 )RS

Noting that vout /vX = gm1 RD , we have

vout gm1 RD
= . (7.113)
vin 1 + (gm1 + gm2 )RS

To compute the output impedance, we first consider Rout1 , as shown in Fig. 7.26(c),
which from Eq. (7.110) is equal to
! "
1
Rout1 = (1 + gm1rO1 ) ||rO2 ||RS + rO1 (7.114)
gm2
! "
1
≈ gm1rO1 ||RS + rO1 . (7.115)
gm2

The overall output impedance is then given by

Rout = Rout1 ||RD (7.116)

0 ! " 1 //
1 //
≈ gm1rO1 ||RS + rO1 ////RD . (7.117)
gm2

Exercise Calculate the output impedance if the gate of M2 is tied to a constant voltage.
330 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

7.3.1 CG Stage With Biasing

Following our study of the CB biasing in Chapter 5, we surmise the CG amplifier can be
biased as shown in Fig. 7.27. Providing a path for the bias current to ground, resistor R3
lowers the input impedance—and hence the voltage gain—if the signal source exhibits a
finite output impedance, RS .

VDD

RD
R1
Vout

M1
RS
V in X
R2
C1
R3

Figure 7.27 CG stage with biasing.

Since the impedance seen to the right of node X is equal to R3 ||(1/gm), we have

vout vX vout
= · (7.118)
vin vin vX

R3 ||(1/gm)
= · gmRD , (7.119)
R3 ||(1/gm) + RS

where channel-length modulation is neglected. As mentioned earlier, the voltage divider

consisting of R1 and R2 does not affect the small-signal behavior of the circuit (at low
frequencies).

Example Design the common-gate stage of Fig. 7.27 for the following parameters: vout /
7.14 vin = 5, RS = 0, R3 = 500 ", 1/gm = 50 ", power budget = 2 mW, VDD = 1.8 V. Assume
µnCox = 100 µA/V2 , VTH = 0.5 V, and λ = 0.

Solution From the power budget, we obtain a total supply current of 1.11 mA. Allocating 10 µA
to the voltage divider, R1 and R2 , we leave 1.1 mA for the drain current of M1 . Thus, the
voltage drop across R3 is equal to 550 mV.
We must now compute two interrelated parameters: W/L and RD . A larger value of
W/L yields a greater gm, allowing a lower value of RD . As in Example 7.11, we choose an
initial value for VGS to arrive at a reasonable guess for W/L. For example, if VGS = 0.8 V,
then W/L = 244, and gm = 2ID /(VGS − VTH ) = (136.4 ")−1 , dictating RD = 682 " for
vout /vin = 5.
Let us determine whether M1 operates in saturation. The gate voltage is equal to
VGS plus the drop across R3 , amounting to 1.35 V. On the other hand, the drain voltage is
given by VDD − ID RD = 1.05 V. Since the drain voltage exceeds VG − VTH , M1 is indeed
in saturation.
 7.4 Source Follower 331

The resistive divider consisting of R1 and R2 must establish a gate voltage equal to
1.35 V while drawing 10 µA:
VDD
= 10 µA (7.120)
R1 + R 2
R2
VDD = 1.35 V. (7.121)
R1 + R 2
It follows that R1 = 45 k" and R2 = 135 k".

Exercise If W/L cannot exceed 100, what voltage gain can be achieved?

Example Suppose in Example 7.14, we wish to minimize W/L (and hence transistor capacitances).
7.15 What is the minimum acceptable value of W/L?

Solution For a given ID , as W/L decreases, VGS − VTH increases. Thus, we must first compute the
maximum allowable VGS . We impose the condition for saturation as
VDD − ID RD > VGS + VR3 − VTH , (7.122)
where VR3 denotes the voltage drop across R3 , and set gmRD to the required gain:
2ID
RD = Av . (7.123)
VGS − VTH
Eliminating RD from Eqs. (7.122) and (7.123) gives:
Av
VDD − (VGS − VTH ) > VGS − VTH + VR3 (7.124)
2
and hence
VDD − VR3
VGS − VTH < . (7.125)
Av
+1
2
In other words,
2ID
W/L > ! "2 . (7.126)
VDD − VR3
µnCox 2
Av + 2
It follows that
W/L > 172.5. (7.127)

Exercise Repeat the above example for Av = 10.

7.4 SOURCE FOLLOWER

The MOS counterpart of the emitter follower is called the “source follower” (or the
“common-drain” stage) and shown in Fig. 7.28. The amplifier senses the input at the gate
and produces the output at the source, with the drain tied to VDD . The circuit’s behavior is
similar to that of the bipolar counterpart.
332 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

VDD

V in M1

Input Applied Vout

to Gate RL
Output Sensed
at Source

Figure 7.28 Source follower.

7.4.1 Source Follower Core

If the gate voltage of M1 in Fig. 7.28 is raised by a small amount, %Vin , the gate-source
voltage tends to increase, thereby raising the source current and hence the output voltage.
Thus, Vout “follows” Vin . Since the dc level of Vout is lower than that of Vin by VGS , we say
the follower can serve as a “level shift” circuit. From our analysis of emitter followers in
Chapter 5, we expect this topology to exhibit a subunity gain, too.
Figure 7.29(a) depicts the small-signal equivalent of the source follower, including
channel-length modulation. Recognizing that rO appears in parallel with RL , we have

gmv1 (rO ||RL ) = vout . (7.128)

Also,

vin = v1 + vout . (7.129)

It follows that
vout gm(rO ||RL )
= (7.130)
vin 1 + gm(rO ||RL )

rO ||RL
= . (7.131)
1
+ rO ||RL
gm

The voltage gain is therefore positive and less than unity. It is desirable to maximize RL
(and rO ).
As with emitter followers, we can view the above result as voltage division between
a resistance equal to 1/gm and another equal to rO ||RL [Fig. 7.29(b)]. Note, however, that
a resistance placed in series with the gate does not affect Eq. (7.131) (at low frequencies)
because it sustains a zero drop.

1
v1 g v1 gm
v in m rO
v out
v out v in RL r O
RL

(a) (b)

Figure 7.29 (a) Small-signal equivalent of source follower, (b) simplified circuit.
 7.4 Source Follower 333

Example A source follower is realized as shown in Fig. 7.30(a), where M2 serves as a current
7.16 source. Calculate the voltage gain of the circuit.

VDD

V in M1 V in r O1
M1
Vout Vout
Vb M2 r O2

(a) (b)

Figure 7.30 (a) Follower with ideal current source, (b) simplified circuit.

Solution Since M2 simply presents an impedance of rO2 from the output node to ac ground
[Fig. 7.30(b)], we substitute RL = rO2 in Eq. (7.131):

rO1 ||rO2
Av = . (7.132)
1
+ rO1 ||rO2
gm1
If rO1 ||rO2 ( 1/gm1 , then Av ≈ 1.

Exercise Repeat the above example if a resistance of value RS is placed in series with the source of
M2 .

Example Design a source follower to drive a 50-" load with a voltage gain of 0.5 and a power
7.17 budget of 10 mW. Assume µnCox = 100 µA/V2 , VTH = 0.5 V, λ = 0, and VDD = 1.8 V.

Solution With RL = 50 " and rO = ∞ in Fig. 7.28, we have

RL
Av = (7.133)
1
+ RL
gm
and hence
1
gm = . (7.134)
50 "

The power budget and supply - voltage yield a maximum supply current of 5.56 mA.
Using this value for ID in gm = 2µnCox (W/L)ID gives

W/L = 360. (7.135)

Exercise What voltage gain can be achieved if the power budget is raised to 15 mW?
334 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

rO
rO
M1
M1
1
rO
RL gm
R out
RL

Figure 7.31 Output resistance of source follower.

It is instructive to compute the output impedance of the source follower.2 As illus-

trated in Fig. 7.31, Rout consists of the resistance seen looking up into the source in par-
allel with that seen looking down into RL . With λ &= 0, the former is equal to (1/gm)||rO ,
yielding
1
Rout = ||rO ||RL (7.136)
gm

1
≈ ||RL . (7.137)
gm

In summary, the source follower exhibits a very high input impedance and a relatively
low output impedance, thereby providing buffering capability.

VDD
RG
C1
V in M1
C2
Vout
RS

Figure 7.32 Source follower with input and output coupling capacitors.

7.4.2 Source Follower With Biasing

The biasing of source followers is similar to that of emitter followers (Chapter 5).
Figure 7.32 depicts an example where RG establishes a dc voltage equal to VDD at the
gate of M1 (why?) and RS sets the drain bias current. Note that M1 operates in saturation
because the gate and drain voltages are equal. Also, the input impedance of the circuit has
dropped from infinity to RG .
Let us compute the bias current of the circuit. With a zero voltage drop across RG ,
we have

VGS + ID RS = VDD . (7.138)

2
The input impedance is infinite at low frequencies.
 7.4 Source Follower 335

Neglecting channel-length modulation, we write

1 W
ID = µnCox (VGS − VTH )2 (7.139)
2 L
1 W
= µnCox (VDD − ID RS − VTH )2 . (7.140)
2 L
The resulting quadratic equation can be solved to obtain ID .

Example Design the source follower of Fig. 7.32 for a drain current of 1 mA and a voltage gain of
7.18 0.8. Assume µnCox = 100 µA/V2 , VTH = 0.5 V, λ = 0, VDD = 1.8 V, and RG = 50 k".

Solution The unknowns in this problem are VGS , W/L, and RS . The following three equations can
be formed:
1 W
ID = µnCox (VGS − VTH )2 (7.141)
2 L
ID RS + VGS = VDD (7.142)
RS
Av = . (7.143)
1
+ RS
gm
If gm is written as 2ID /(VGS − VTH ), then Eqs. (7.142) and (7.143) do not contain
W/L and can be solved to determine VGS and RS . With the aid of Eq. (7.142), we write
Eq. (7.143) as
RS
Av = (7.144)
VGS − VTH
+ RS
2ID
2ID RS
= (7.145)
VGS − VTH + 2ID RS

2ID RS
= . (7.146)
VDD − VTH + ID RS
Thus,
VDD − VTH Av
RS = (7.147)
ID 2 − Av
= 867 ". (7.148)
and
VGS = VDD − ID RS (7.149)
Av
= VDD − (VDD − VTH ) (7.150)
2 − Av
= 0.933 V. (7.151)
336 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

It follows from Eq. (7.141) that

W
= 107. (7.152)
L

Exercise What voltage gain can be achieved if W/L cannot exceed 50?

Equation (7.140) reveals that the bias current of the source follower varies with the
supply voltage. To avoid this effect, integrated circuits bias the follower by means of a
current source (Fig. 7.33).

VDD VDD
RG RG
C1 C1
V in M1 V in M1
C2 C2
Vout Vout
Vb M2

Figure 7.33 Source follower with biasing.

7.5 SUMMARY AND ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES

In this chapter, we have studied three basic CMOS building blocks, namely, the common-
source stage, the common-gate stage, and the source follower. As observed throughout the
chapter, the small-signal behavior of these circuits is quite similar to that of their bipolar
counterparts, with the exception of the high impedance seen at the gate terminal. We have
noted that the biasing schemes are also similar, with the quadratic ID -VGS relationship
supplanting the exponential IC -VBE characteristic.
In this section, we consider a number of additional examples to solidify the concepts
introduced in this chapter, emphasizing analysis by inspection.

Example Calculate the voltage gain and output impedance of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.34(a).
7.19

VDD

V in M1 v in r O1
M1
Vout
v out
Vb 1
M2 M3 r O2 r
g m3 O3

(a) (b)

Figure 7.34 (a) Example of CS stage, (b) simplified circuit.

 7.5 Summary and Additional Examples 337

Solution We identify M1 as a common-source device because it senses the input at its gate and
generates the output at its drain. Transistors M2 and M3 therefore act as the load,
with the former serving as a current source and the latter as a diode-connected de-
vice. Thus, M2 can be replaced with a small-signal resistance equal to rO2 , and M3 with
another equal to (1/gm3 )||rO3 . The circuit now reduces to that depicted in Fig. 7.34(b),
yielding
! "
1
Av = −gm1 ||rO1 ||rO2 ||rO3 (7.153)
gm3

and

1
Rout = ||rO1 ||rO2 ||rO3 . (7.154)
gm3

Note that 1/gm3 is dominant in both expressions.

Exercise Repeat the above example if M2 is converted to a diode-connected device.

Example Compute the voltage gain of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.35(a). Neglect channel-length
7.20 modulation in M1 .

VDD
M3 1
r
g m3 O3
V in M1 V in M1
Vout Vout
Vb M2 r O2

(a) (b)

Figure 7.35 (a) Example of CS stage, (b) simplified circuit.

Solution Operating as a CS stage and degenerated by the diode-connected device M3 , transistor

M1 drives the current-source load, M2 . Simplifying the amplifier to that in Fig. 7.35(b),
we have
rO2
Av = − . (7.155)
1 1
+ ||rO3
gm1 gm3

Exercise Repeat the above example if the gate of M3 is tied to a constant voltage.
338 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

Example Determine the voltage gain of the amplifiers illustrated in Fig. 7.36. For simplicity, assume
7.21 rO1 = ∞ in Fig. 7.36(b).

VDD VDD

V in M2 V b2 M2
Vout Vout

Vb M1 V b1 M1

RS RS
V in

(b)
(a)

Figure 7.36 Examples of (a) CS and (b) CG stages.

Solution Degenerated by RS , transistor M1 in Fig. 7.36(a) presents an impedance of

(1 + gm1rO1 )RS + rO1 to the drain of M2 . Thus the total impedance seen at the drain
is equal to [(1 + gm1rO1 )RS + rO1 ]||rO2 , giving a voltage gain of
Av = −gm2 {[(1 + gm1rO1 )RS + rO1 ]||rO1 }. (7.156)
In Fig. 7.36(b), M1 operates as a common-gate stage and M2 as the load, obtaining
Eq. (7.109):
rO2
Av2 = . (7.157)
1
+ RS
gm1

Exercise Replace RS wit a diode-connected device and repeat the analysis.

Example Calculate the voltage gain of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.37(a) if λ = 0.
7.22

VDD

RD RD
Vout v out
1
V in M1 M2 Vb g m1 M 2

I1 v in

(a) (b)

Figure 7.37 (a) Example of a composite stage, (b) simplified circuit.

 7.5 Summary and Additional Examples 339

Solution In this circuit, M1 operates as a source follower and M2 as a CG stage (why?). A simple
method of analyzing the circuit is to replace vin and M1 with a Thevenin equivalent.
From Fig. 7.29(b), we derive the model depicted in Fig. 7.37(b). Thus,

RD
Av = . (7.158)
1 1
+
gm1 gm2

Exercise What happens if a resistance of value R1 is placed in series with the drain of M1?

Example The circuit of Fig. 7.38 produces two outputs. Calculate the voltage gain from the input
7.23 to Y and to X. Assume λ = 0 for M1 .

VDD

Vb M3
M4
Vout2
Y
V in M1
X Vout1
M2

Figure 7.38 Example of composite stage.

Solution For Vout1 , the circuit serves as a source follower. The reader can show that if rO1 = ∞,
then M3 and M4 do not affect the source follower operation. Exhibiting a small-
signal impedance of (1/gm2 )||rO2 , transistor M2 acts as a load for the follower, yielding
from Eq. (7.131)

1
||rO2
vout1 gm2
= . (7.159)
vin 1 1
||rO2 +
gm2 gm1

For Vout2 , M1 operates as a degenerated CS stage with a drain load consisting of the
diode-connected device M3 and the current source M4 . This load impedance is equal to
(1/gm3 )||rO3 ||rO4 , resulting in

1
||rO3 ||rO4
vout2 gm3
=− . (7.160)
vin 1 1
+ ||rO2
gm1 gm2

Exercise Which one of the two gains is higher? Explain intuitively why.
340 Chapter 7 CMOS Amplifiers

7.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY

• The impedances seen looking into the gate, drain, and source of a MOSFET are equal
to infinity, rO (with source grounded), and 1/gm (with gate grounded), respectively.
• In order to obtain the required small-signal MOS parameters such as gm and rO ,
the transistor must be “biased,” i.e., carry a certain drain current and sustain certain
gate-source and drain-source voltages. Signals simply perturb these conditions.
• Biasing techniques establish the required gate voltage by means of a resistive path to
the supply rails or the output node (self-biasing).
• With a single transistor, only three amplifier topologies are possible: common-source
and common-gate stages and source followers.
• The CS stage provides a moderate voltage gain, a high input impedance, and a mod-
erate output impedance.
• Source degeneration improves the linearity but lowers the voltage gain.
• Source degeneration raises the output impedance of CS stages considerably.
• The CG stage provides a moderate voltage gain, a low input impedance, and a mod-
erate output impedance.
• The voltage gain expressions for CS and CG stages are similar but for a sign.
• The source follower provides a voltage gain less than unity, a high input impe-
dance, and a low output impedance, serving as a good voltage buffer.

PROBLEMS

In the following problems, unless otherwise VDD = 1.8 V

stated, assume µnCox = 200 µA/V2 , µ pCox =
R1 500 Ω
100 µA/V2 , λ = 0, and VTH = 0.4 V for NMOS
devices and −0.4 V for PMOS devices. M1
R2
Sec. 7.1.2 Biasing
7.1. In the circuit of Fig. 7.39, determine the
Figure 7.40
maximum allowable value of W/L if M1
must remain in saturation. Assume λ = 0.
7.3. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 7.41. Cal-
culate the maximum transconductance that
VDD = 1.8 V M1 can provide (without going into the tri-
50 k Ω 1 kΩ ode region.)

M1 VDD = 1.8 V

10 k Ω 1 kΩ
Figure 7.39
M1
7.2. We wish to design the circuit of Fig. 7.40 for
100 Ω
a drain current of 1 mA. If W/L = 20/0.18,
compute R1 and R2 such that the input
impedance is at least 20 k". Figure 7.41