LEARNER GUIDE

NATIONAL DIPLOMA: MARKETING MANAGEMENT

ID 61593 - LEVEL 5 – CREDITS 243

CONDUCT A MARKETING SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS

US ID: 10041

Learner Information (Please Complete this Section)

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Name & Surname:
Organisation/Venue:
Workplace Unit/Dept:
Facilitator Name:

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Learner Guide Information
The purpose of this Learner Guide is to provide learners with the necessary knowledge and provide a comprehensive
overview relating to the following skills program or unit standard: CONDUCT A MARKETING SITUATIONAL
ANALYSIS, which has been developed for the qualification: NATIONAL DIPLOMA: MARKETING
RESEARCH ID 20896 - LEVEL 5 – CREDITS 243.This Learner Guide is to improve the skills and knowledge of
learners, and thus enabling them to effectively and efficiently complete specific tasks. Learners are to attend training
workshops/sessions according to SAQA requirements as well as specified by their organization. These
workshops/sessions are presented, and conducted by a qualified facilitator.

Outcomes
The qualifying learner is capable of:

 Gathering data relating to project from the environment

 Analysing data for the marketing situational analysis
 Draw conclusions and make recommendations

Assessment Criteria
The assessment process involves collecting and interpreting evidence about the learner’s ability to perform a task,
which will be achieved through a combination of formative and summative assessments. In this guide there may be
assessments in the form of activities, assignments, tasks or projects, as well as workplace practical tasks. The learner
is to perform these tasks and provide required and authentic evidence in their portfolio of evidence.
To qualify and receive credits towards the learning programme or unit standard, a registered assessor and moderator
will conduct an evaluation and assessment of the learner’s portfolio of evidence and competency.
Learner Responsibility
The responsibility of learning rest with the learner, so:
 Be proactive and ask questions,
 Seek assistance and help from your facilitators, if required.

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 Learning Unit 1 US: 10041, NQF LEVEL 5 WORTH 5 CREDITS
CONDUCT A MARKETING SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS

This unit standard is a core standard and forms part of the qualification, National
Diploma and is registered at Level 5 on the National Qualifications Framework
(NQF). Learners working towards this standard will be learning towards the full
qualification, or will be working within a Marketing Environment, specialising in
either Marketing Communication, Marketing Management, Market Research or
Customer Management, where the acquisition of competence against this standard
Unit Standard will add value to one`s job.
Purpose This standard will also add value to learners who are starting their own business
and recognises that Marketing forms an integral component of any business.
The qualifying learner is capable of:
 Gathering data relating to project from the environment
 Analysing data for the marketing situational analysis
 Draw conclusions and make recommendations

 Learners accessing this qualification will have demonstrated competence

against the standards in the National Certificate in Marketing, Marketing
Learning Assumed to
Communication or Marketing Research or Marketing management or
be in Place
Customer Management or equivalent at NQF Level 4.

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 SESSION 1
GATHER DATA RELATING TO PROJECT FROM THE ENVIRONMENT
SO 1

 1. Data gathered is relevant and appropriate to the project

Learning
 2. Data is gathered within the agreed time frames
Outcomes
 3. Data gathering processes are methodical and well structured
(Assessment
 4. Budget constraints are observed and remain within allocations
Criteria)

WHAT DO WE MEAN BY COLLECTING DATA?

Essentially, collecting data means putting your design for collecting information into operation.  You’ve decided
how you’re going to get information – whether by direct observation, interviews, surveys, experiments and
testing, or other methods – and now you and/or other observers have to implement your plan.  There’s a bit
more to collecting data, however.  If you are conducting observations, for example, you’ll have to define what
you’re observing and arrange to make observations at the right times, so you actually observe what you need to. 
You’ll have to record the observations in appropriate ways and organize them so they’re optimally
useful.Recording and organizing data may take different forms, depending on the kind of information you’re
collecting.  The way you collect your data should relate to how you’re planning to analyze and use it. 
Regardless of what method you decide to use, recording should be done concurrent with data collection if
possible, or soon afterwards, so that nothing gets lost and memory doesn’t fade.
Some of the things you might do with the information you collect include:
 Gathering together information from all sources and observations
 Making photocopies of all recording forms, records, audio or video recordings, and any other collected
materials, to guard against loss, accidental erasure, or other problems
 Entering narratives, numbers, and other information into a computer program, where they can be
arranged and/or worked on in various ways
 Performing any mathematical or similar operations needed to get quantitative information ready for
analysis.  These might, for instance, include entering numerical observations into a chart, table, or
spreadsheet, or figuring the mean (average), median (midpoint), and/or mode (most frequently
occurring) of a set of numbers.
 Transcribing (making an exact, word-for-word text version of) the contents of audio or video
recordings
 Coding data (translating data, particularly qualitative data that isn’t expressed in numbers, into a form
that allows it to be processed by a specific software program or subjected to statistical analysis)
 Organizing data in ways that make them easier to work with.  How you do this will depend on your
research design and your evaluation questions.  You might group observations by the dependent
variable (indicator of success) they relate to, by individuals or groups of participants, by time, by

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 activity, etc.  You might also want to group observations in several different ways, so that you can
study interactions among different variables.
o There are two kinds of variables in research.  An independent variable (the intervention) is a
condition implemented by the researcher or community to see if it will create change and
improvement. This could be a program, method, system, or other action.  A dependent
variableis what may change as a result of the independent variable or intervention.  A
dependent variable could be a behavior, outcome, or other condition.  A smoking cessation
program, for example, is an independent variable that may change group members’ smoking
behavior, the primary dependent variable.

ORGANIZE THE DATA YOU’VE COLLECTED

How you do this depends on what you’re planning to do with it, and on what you’re interested in.
 Enter any necessary data into the computer.  This may mean simply typing comments, descriptions,
etc., into a word processing program, or entering various kinds of information (possibly including
audio and video) into a database, spreadsheet, a GIS (Geographic Information Systems) program, or
some other type of software or file.
 Transcribe any audio- or videotapes.  This makes them easier to work with and copy, and allows the
opportunity to clarify any hard-to-understand passages of speech.
 Score any tests and record the scores appropriately.
 Sort your information in ways appropriate to your interest.  This may include sorting by category of
observation, by event, by place, by individual, by group, by the time of observation, or by a
combination or some other standard.
 When possible, necessary, and appropriate, transform qualitative into quantitative data.  This might
involve, for example, counting the number of times specific issues were mentioned in interviews, or
how often certain behaviors were observed.
CONDUCT DATA GRAPHING, VISUAL INSPECTION, STATISTICAL ANALYSIS, OR OTHER
OPERATIONS ON THE DATA AS APPROPRIATE
We’ve referred several times to statistical procedures that you can apply to quantitative data.  If you have the
right numbers, you can find out a great deal about whether your program is causing or contributing to change
and improvement, what that change is, whether there are any expected or unexpected connections among
variables, how your group compares to another you’re measuring, etc.  There are other excellent possibilities for
analysis besides statistical procedures, however.  A few include:
 Simple counting, graphing and visual inspection of frequency or rates of behavior, events, etc., over
time.
 Using visual inspection of patterns over time to identify discontinuities (marked increases, decreases) in
the measures over time (sessions, weeks, months).

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  Calculating the mean (average), median (midpoint), and/or mode (most frequent) of a series of
measurements or observations.  What was the average blood pressure, for instance, of people who
exercised 30 minutes a day at least five days a week, as opposed to that of people who exercised two
days a week or less?
 Using qualitative interviews, conversations, and participant observation to observe (and track changes
in) the people or situation.  Journals can be particularly revealing in this area because they record
people’s experiences and reflections over time.
 Finding patterns in qualitative data.  If many people refer to similar problems or barriers, these may be
important in understanding the issue, determining what works or doesn’t work and why, or more.
 Comparing actual results to previously determined goals or benchmarks.  One measure of success
might be meeting a goal for planning or program implementation, for example.

Data-Generation Techniques and When to Use Them

Data-Generation Description When Technique Might be
Technique Useful
Interviews Informal or structured dialogue that follows a Determine past health of
script prepared by the interviewer. resource. 
Identify potential impacts. 
Validate data that is dubious or
outdated.
Questionnaires Structured survey instruments that contain Validate data (e.g., survey
questions directed at extracting relevant members of a cultural resources
information. organization to validate data
contained in outdated directory).
Expert panels Groups of experts assembled to address one or Determine health of resource. 
more specific issues. Assess development trends.
Identify potential cumulative or
indirect impacts.
Validate data.
Delphi technique Highly structured data gathering technique Identify potential indirect
that involves the use of questionnaires impacts.
administered to knowledgeable individuals. Assess development trends.
This technique can be used to identify issues
and generate feedback regarding alternatives
and impacts. 
This can be an expensive approach, so it is not

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 likely that it will be practical for use on small
projects or projects with minor impacts.
Brainstorming sessions Informal sessions involving the free-flowing Determine health of resource.
exchange of ideas and information from Identify potential impacts.
knowledgeable individuals.
Field and windshield Field surveys involve traveling to a site and Validate data. Identify potential
surveys walking around to observe conditions. impacts.
Windshield surveys involve driving around
and observing conditions from a vehicle.

Clear, concise, attainable, measurable and quantifiable objectives

Suppose that the marketing manager states that he needs to know the potential market for a new product his/her
organisation has been developing. At first glance this might appear to meet all of the requirements of being
clear, concise, attainable, measurable and quantifiable. In practice it would possibly meet only one of these
criteria, i.e. it is concise! Here is another case to be considered. A small engineering firm had purchased a
prototype tree-lifter from a private research company. This machine was suitable for lifting semi-mature trees,
complete with root-ball intact, and transplanting such trees in another location. It was thought to have potential
in certain types of tree nurseries and plantations. The problem with the objective is that the marketing manager
needs to know the potential market for the new tree-lifter is that it is not attainable. One could find out how
many tree-lifters were currently being sold but this is not the same as the objective set by the marketing
manager. The market potential for any new brand is a function of at least 4 things, as shown in Figure 1.1.
The components of market potential

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It was possible to test customer reaction to the concept of the new tree-lifter by showing pictures, line drawings
and by supplying product specifications to prospective buyers. However, since the company had not decided
their pricing policy an important element could not be tested. In large measure, it was also possible to gauge the
likely reaction from competitors. The researchers began by looking at the basis of competition to determine
whether it was on price, product quality or unique product features. The researchers were able to look at
precedents. They examined the pattern of response on past occasions when one or other of those companies
already in the market had launched a new product. An audit of the environment was undertaken too, but the
missing component was the company's' own plans for exploiting the market. Since the company had no
involvement in the agricultural engineering sector, prior to acquiring the rights to the tree-lifter, they had no
agreements with distributors, no idea of which, if any, of the distributors would be prepared to stock their
product; they had no salesmen trained in selling into this industry and so on. The product's potential depended
very much on such initiatives.The solution would have been to undertake a study which would have described
the market in detail in terms of customers, competitors and the environment. The company could then have put a
marketing plan together and conducted a follow-up study to test their propositions out on the marketplace.

WHAT IS A SWOT ANALYSIS AND WHY SHOULD YOU USE ONE?

SWOT stands for: Strength, Weakness, Opportunity, Threat. A SWOT analysis guides you to identify your
organization’s strengths and weaknesses (S-W), as well as broader opportunities and threats (O-T). Developing
a fuller awareness of the situation helps with both strategic planning and decision-making.

The SWOT method was originally developed for business and industry, but it is equally useful in the work of
community health and development, education, and even for personal growth.

SWOT is not the only assessment technique you can use. Compare it with other assessment tools in the
Community Tool Box to determine if this is the right approach for your situation. The strengths of this method
are its simplicity and application to a variety of levels of operation.

WHEN DO YOU USE SWOT?

A SWOT analysis can offer helpful perspectives at any stage of an effort. You might use it to:

 Explore possibilities for new efforts or solutions to problems.

 Make decisions about the best path for your initiative. Identifying your opportunities for success in
context of threats to success can clarify directions and choices.

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  Determine where change is possible. If you are at a juncture or turning point, an inventory of your
strengths and weaknesses can reveal priorities as well as possibilities.
 Adjust and refine plans mid-course. A new opportunity might open wider avenues, while a new threat
could close a path that once existed.

SWOT also offers a simple way of communicating about your initiative or program and an excellent way to
organize information you've gathered from studies or surveys.

WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS OF A SWOT ANALYSIS?

A SWOT analysis focuses on Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats. 

Remember that the purpose of performing a SWOT is to reveal positive forces that work together and potential
problems that need to be recognized and possibly addressed. 

We will discuss the process of creating the analysis below, but first here are a few sample layouts for your
SWOT analysis.

Ask participants to answer these simple questions: what are the strengths and weaknesses of your group,
community, or effort, and what are the opportunities and threats facing it?

Internal External

Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats

If a looser structure helps you brainstorm, you can group positives and negatives to think broadly about your
organization and its external environment.

Positives Negatives

 Strengths  Weaknesses
 Assets  Limitations
 Resources  Restrictions
 Opportunities  Threats
 Prospects  Challenges

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Below is a third option for structuring your SWOT analysis, which may be appropriate for a larger initiative that
requires detailed planning. This "TOWS Matrix" is adapted from Fred David's Strategic Management text. 

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.

OPPORTUNITI Opportunity-Strength (OS) Strategies Opportunity-Weakness (OW) Strategies

ES Use the strengths to take advantage of opportunities Overcome weaknesses by taking advantage
1. 1. of opportunities
2. 2. 1.
3. 2.
4.

THREATS Threat-Strength (TS) Strategies Threat-Weakness (TW) Strategies

1. Use strengths to avoid threats Minimize weaknesses and avoid threats
2. 1. 1.
3. 2. 2.
4.

David gives an example for Campbell Soup Company that stresses financial goals, but it also illustrates how you
can pair the items within a SWOT grid to develop strategies. (This version of the chart is abbreviated.)

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

 Current profit ratio increased  Legal suits not resolved

 Employee morale high  Plant capacity has fallen
 Market share has increased  Lack of strategic management system

OPPORTUNITIES Opportunity-Strength (OS) Strategies Opportunity-Weakness (OW) Strategies

 Western  Acquire food company in  Develop new Pepperidge Farm products

European Europe (S1, S3, O1) (W1, O2, O3)
unification

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  Rising health  Develop new healthy soups
consciousness (S2, O2)
in selecting
foods
 Demand for
soups
increasing
annually

THREATS Threat-Strength (TS) Strategies Threat-Weakness (TW) Strategies

 Low value of  Develop new biodegradable  Close unprofitable European operations

dollar soup containers (S1, T2) (W3, T1)
 Tin cans are
not
biodegradable

This example also illustrates how threats can become opportunities (and vice versa). The limitation of tin cans
(which aren't biodegradable) creates an opportunity for leadership in developing biodegradable containers.
There are several formats you can use to do a SWOT analysis, including a basic SWOT form that you can use to
prompt analysis, but whatever format you use, don't be surprised if your strengths and weaknesses don't
precisely match up to your opportunities and threats. You might need to refine, or you might need to simply
look at the facts longer, or from a different angle. Your chart, list or table will certainly reveal patterns.

LISTING YOUR INTERNAL FACTORS: STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES (S, W)

Internal factors include your resources and experiences. General areas to consider:

 Human resources - staff, volunteers, board members, target population

 Physical resources - your location, building, equipment 
 Financial - grants, funding agencies, other sources of income
 Activities and processes - programs you run, systems you employ
 Past experiences - building blocks for learning and success, your reputation in the community

Don't be too modest when listing your strengths. If you're having difficulty naming them, start by simply listing
your characteristics (e.g.., we're small, we're connected to the neighborhood). Some of these will probably be
strengths.

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Although the strengths and weakness of your organization are your internal qualities, don't overlook the
perspective of people outside your group. Identify strengths and weaknesses from both your own point of view
and that of others, including those you serve or deal with. Do others see problems--or assets--that you don't?

How do you get information about how outsiders perceive your strengths and weaknesses? You may know
already if you've listened to those you serve. If not, this might be the time to gather that type of information. See
related sections for ideas on conducting focus groups, user surveys, and listening sessions.

LISTING EXTERNAL FACTORS: OPPORTUNITIES AND THREATS (O, T)

Cast a wide net for the external part of the assessment. No organization, group, program, or neighborhood is
immune to outside events and forces. Consider your connectedness, for better and worse, as you compile this
part of your SWOT list.

Forces and facts that your group does not control include:

 Future trends in your field or the culture

 The economy - local, national, or international
 Funding sources - foundations, donors, legislatures
 Demographics - changes in the age, race, gender, culture of those you serve or in your area
 The physical environment (Is your building in a growing part of town? Is the bus company cutting
routes?)
 Legislation (Do new federal requirements make your job harder...or easier?)
 Local, national or international events

HOW DO YOU CREATE A SWOT ANALYSIS?

WHO DEVELOPS THE SWOT?

The most common users of a SWOT analysis are team members and project managers who are responsible for
decision-making and strategic planning.

But don't overlook anyone in the creation stage!

An individual or small group can develop a SWOT analysis, but it will be more effective if you take advantage
of many stakeholders. Each person or group offers a different perspective on the strengths and weaknesses of
your program and has different experiences of both.

Likewise, one staff member, or volunteer or stakeholder may have information about an opportunity or threat
that is essential to understanding your position and determining your future.

WHEN AND WHERE DO YOU DEVELOP A SWOT ANALYSIS?

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A SWOT analysis is often created during a retreat or planning session that allows several hours for
brainstorming and analysis. The best results come when the process is collaborative and inclusive.

When creating the analysis, people are asked to pool their individual and shared knowledge and experience. The
more relaxed, friendly and constructive the setting, the more truthful, comprehensive, insightful, and useful your
analysis will be.

HOW DO YOU DEVELOP A SWOT ANALYSIS?

Steps for conducting a SWOT analysis:

 Designate a leader or group facilitator who has good listening and group process skills, and who can
keep things moving and on track.
 Designate a recorder to back up the leader if your group is large. Use newsprint on a flip chart or a
large board to record the analysis and discussion points. You can record later in a more polished
fashion to share with stakeholders and to update.
 Introduce the SWOT method and its purpose in your organization. This can be as simple as asking,
"Where are we, where can we go?" If you have time, you could run through a quick example based on
a shared experience or well-known public issue.
 Depending on the nature of your group and the time available, let all participants introduce themselves.
Then divide your stakeholders into smaller groups. If your retreat or meeting draws several groups of
stakeholders together, make sure you mix the small groups to get a range of perspectives, and give
them a chance to introduce themselves.
o The size of these depends on the size of your entire group – breakout groups can range from
three to ten. If the size gets much larger, some members may not participate.
 Have each group designate a recorder, and provide each with newsprint or dry -erase board. Direct
them to create a SWOT analysis in the format you choose-a chart, columns, a matrix, or even a page
for each quality.
o Give the groups 20-30 minutes to brainstorm and fill out their own strengths, weakness,
opportunities and threats chart for your program, initiative or effort. Encourage them not to
rule out any ideas at this stage, or the next.
o Remind groups that the way to have a good idea is to have lots of ideas. Refinement can come
later. In this way, the SWOT analysis also supports valuable discussion within your group or
organization as you honestly assess.
o It helps to generate lots of comments about your organization and your program, and even to
put them in multiple categories if that provokes thought.
o Once a list has been generated, it helps to refine it to the best 10 or fewer points so that the
analysis can be truly helpful.

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  Reconvene the group at the agreed-upon time to share results. Gather information from the groups,
recording on the flip-chart or board. Collect and organize the differing groups' ideas and perceptions.
o Proceed in S-W-O-T order, recording strengths first, weaknesses second, etc.
o Or you can begin by calling for the top priorities in each category -the strongest strength, most
dangerous weakness, biggest opportunity, worst threat--and continue to work across each
category.
o Ask one group at a time to report ("Group A, what do you see as strengths?") You can vary
which group begins the report so a certain group isn't always left "bringing up the end" and
repeating points made by others. ("Group B, let's start with you for weaknesses.")
o Or, you can open the floor to all groups ("What strengths have you noted?") for each category
until all have contributed what they think is needed.
 Discuss and record the results. Depending on your time frame and purpose:
o Come to some consensus about the most important items in each category
o Relate the analysis to your vision, mission, and goals
o Translate the analysis to action plans and strategies
 If appropriate, prepare a written summary of the SWOT analysis to share with participants for
continued use in planning and implementation.

More ideas on conducting successful meetings can be found in Community Tool Box resources on conducting
public forums and listening sessions, conducting focus groups, and organizing a retreat.

HOW DO YOU USE YOUR SWOT ANALYSIS?

Better understanding the factors affecting your initiative put you in a better position for action. This
understanding helps as you:

 Identify the issues or problems you intend to change

 Set or reaffirm goals
 Create an action plan

As you consider your analysis, be open to the possibilities that exist within a weakness or threat. Likewise,
recognize that an opportunity can become a threat if everyone else sees the opportunity and plans to take
advantage of it as well, thereby increasing your competition.

Finally, during your assessment and planning, you might keep an image in mind to help you make the most of a
SWOT analysis: Look for a "stretch," not just a "fit." As Radha Balamuralikrishna and John C. Dugger of Iowa
State University point out, SWOT usually reflects your current position or situation. Therefore one drawback is
that it might not encourage openness to new possibilities. You can use SWOT to justify a course that has already
been decided upon, but if your goal is to grow or improve, you will want to keep this in mind.

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Common Frameworks for Situational Analysis

After the macro, or PESTEL, level analysis has been completed, the next step in goal setting is to do
a situational analysis that looks more closely at external and internal conditions that affect your particular
organization. Five key components of the organization’s specific business environment are examined. These are
customers, competitors, suppliers, and government and legal issues—including regulations and advocacy or
support groups. The analysis looks at what impact these factors may have on a specific organization or business.
Customers

Customer analysis should answer questions such as: Who is your target customer today? How will you retain
your customers?
A customer analysis is a critical component of any organizational strategy. You probably would not want to
open an extreme sports adventure business in a city where the age of the typical resident is older than fifty. Or,
you might be wasting your marketing dollars advertising trendy, designer jeans on the Hallmark TV channel.
You might do very well, however, if you opened a combination coffee/book store in a busy college town. If an
organization doesn’t know who its customers are or what its customers want, it can’t meet customer needs.
Some of the things a customer analysis should do is to:
 Identify the target customer. Is this customer base growing or is it decreasing? What are your customer
demographics (age, income, location, gender, politics, etc.)? What is the revenue of these customers?
How much discretionary income do they have?
 Understand the specific customer needs. Why do they buy certain brands? How do make their
purchasing decisions? Do they purchase in person or online?
 Show if and how your product or service meets those needs.
Besides determining if a customer base exists in the region, this data can be used in the future to plan effective
promotional campaigns, forecast inventory needs, and determine the optimal combination of distribution
channels.
Competitors
You read about competitive analysis in the previous section at the macro level. At the situational level, a
business needs to identify its specific competitors and assess their potential for taking market share. An

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organization needs to be aware of future initiatives of the competition (as much as is possible) and examine the
competitors’ financial and marketing performances.
Suppliers
Another industry component that will greatly impact an organization is its suppliers. Your business may start by
buying raw materials and producing finished goods purchased directly by consumers. Or it may process raw
materials into products that are part of another company’s final consumer goods. Some organizations create
services rather than goods but still need materials, such as computer software and hardware or office supplies, to
provide those services. Whatever the situation, without raw materials or support products, the organization
cannot operate.
In the past, it was common for an organization to choose suppliers that were in the same region or at least the
same country. In today’s competitive global economy, however, a supplier is likely on the other side of the
world. The supply chain is a system comprised of organizations, information, resources, people, technology, and
activities that bring products or services from a supplier to a consumer. In larger organizations, entire
departments may be dedicated to supply chain logistics. Implementing cooperative alliances with key suppliers
is also a popular tactic employed by strategic organizations. Although multiple sources of supply helps to
guarantee the availability of supplies, creating a cooperative agreement with one supplier can significantly
reduce costs. How to handle suppliers is an extremely important factor in setting goals and generating strategies.
Regulations
Governmental and legal environment are part of the PESTEL analysis discussed in the previous section. At the
situational level, however, state and local regulations also need to be part of any analysis. The regulatory burden
depends largely upon the type of industry and the specific nature of the business. In some industries, regulation
is the single biggest uncertainty affecting investment and spending, corporate image, and risk management.
These organizations include airlines, utilities, railways, telecommunications, banking, and pharmaceuticals.
Often, the regulations have positive impacts on both consumers and businesses. They provide the public with a
high level of confidence in the safety and efficacy of the products. They can also prevent competition from
businesses with substandard and low-quality goods from trying to enter an industry. Despite the benefits that
regulations can provide, any changes in how the product is manufactured, shipped, tested, or provided will
greatly affect unit costs and profit margins.
Regulations are lighter for less risky products and businesses, but every company must comply with federal and
state payroll, benefits, tax requirements, and following municipal commercial and building codes can present
challenges. For example, a decision to expand the size of a fitness center to attract more customers may be
thwarted by a local regulation that fixes a ratio of parking spaces to square footage. Or extra time could be
added to delivery schedules if truckers must avoid more direct routes to comply with weight regulations on local
highways. Some localities will not permit the shipping of dangerous chemicals through their towns. These
factors all affect an organization’s ability to be competitive.
Regulations are a greater burden on small companies unless they are exempted because of size (some companies
with fewer than twenty-five employees are exempt from overtime pay provisions, for example.) However,
dealing with regulations can be challenging regardless of the size of the organization. Complying with

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regulations often involves a trade-off between short-term profits and long-term public relations and social
responsibility.
Advocacy Groups
Advocacy groups are also known as special interest groups, public interest groups, environmental groups, or
political support groups. Whatever their label, their aim is to influence public opinion, public policy, and
company behavior. Advocacy groups use a variety of strategies and tactics to draw attention to their causes,
including lobbying, promotions using celebrities, and public information campaigns. They provide a type of
check on the business community by exposing unethical or unpopular practices. The Internet—especially social
media—has greatly strengthened the ability of these groups to impact an organization.
Advocacy groups represent political, economic, and social interests—all of which affect the business
environment. (The PESTEL analysis in a previous section looked at the macro effect of these groups.) Today
environmental interest groups are extremely varied, and many hold conflicting views about appropriate
strategies for pursuing their interests.
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) is one of the more outspoken activist groups and has
targeted many organizations it believes abuse animals. In 2016, after years of PETA campaigns aimed at
publicizing its marine operations, SeaWorld announced that it would end its orca whale breeding program. In
2017, a combination of low ticket sales and adverse publicity on the general condition of circus animals led
Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey Circus to close after almost a century and a half. PETA had filed more
than 130 formal complaints against the circus with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Regardless of criticisms
that some advocacy group charges are not scientifically sound, negative publicity alone may be enough to
disrupt business.

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 SESSION 2
ANALYSE DATA FOR THE MARKETING SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
SO 2

 1. Data processing and analysis is approached logically

Learning  2. Main issues and/or themes are identified
Outcomes  3. All aspects are considered including the 'big picture' scenario
(Assessment  4. Analysis of data is recorded and documented according to requirements
Criteria)  5. Presentation of data is in the agreed format and location

WHAT DO WE MEAN BY ANALYZING DATA?

Analyzing information involves examining it in ways that reveal the relationships, patterns, trends, etc. that can
be found within it. That may mean subjecting it to statistical operations that can tell you not only what kinds of
relationships seem to exist among variables, but also to what level you can trust the answers you’re getting.   It
may mean comparing your information to that from other groups (a control or comparison group, statewide
figures, etc.), to help draw some conclusions from the data.  The point, in terms of your evaluation, is to get an
accurate assessment in order to better understand your work and its effects on those you’re concerned with, or in
order to better understand the overall situation.There are two kinds of data you’re apt to be working with,
although not all evaluations will necessarily include both.  Quantitative data refer to the information that is
collected as, or can be translated into, numbers, which can then be displayed and analyzed mathematically.  
Qualitative data are collected as descriptions, anecdotes, opinions, quotes, interpretations, etc., and are generally
either not able to be reduced to numbers, or are considered more valuable or informative if left as narratives.   As
you might expect, quantitative and qualitative information needs to be analyzed differently.

QUANTITATIVE DATA
As we’ve discussed, quantitative data are typically collected directly as numbers.  Some examples include:
 The frequency (rate, duration) of specific behaviors or conditions
 Test scores (e.g., scores/levels of knowledge, skill, etc.)
 Survey results (e.g., reported behavior, or outcomes to environmental conditions; ratings of
satisfaction, stress, etc.)
 Numbers or percentages of people with certain characteristics in a population (diagnosed with diabetes,
unemployed, Spanish-speaking, under age 14, grade of school completed, etc.)
Data can also be collected in forms other than numbers, and turned into quantitative data  for analysis. 
Researchers can count the number of times an event is documented in interviews or records, for instance, or
assign numbers to the levels of intensity of an observed event or behavior.  For instance, community initiatives
often want to document the amount and intensity of environmental changes they bring about – the new programs
and policies that result from their efforts. Whether or not this kind of translation is necessary or useful depends
on the nature of what you’re observing and on the kinds of questions your evaluation is meant to

19
answer.Quantitative data is usually subjected to statistical procedures such as calculating the mean or average
number of times an event or behavior occurs (per day, month, year).  These operations, because numbers are
“hard” data and not interpretation, can give definitive, or nearly definitive, answers to different questions. 
Various kinds of quantitative analysis can indicate changes in a dependent variable related to – frequency,
duration, timing (when particular things happen), intensity, level, etc. They can allow you to compare those
changes to one another, to changes in another variable, or to changes in another population.  They might be able
to tell you, at a particular degree of reliability, whether those changes are likely to have been caused by your
intervention or program, or by another factor, known or unknown.  And they can identify relationships among
different variables, which may or may not mean that one causes another.

20
QUALITATIVE DATA
Unlike numbers or “hard data”, qualitative information tends to be “soft,” meaning it can’t always be reduced to
something definite.  That is in some ways a weakness, but it’s also a strength.  A number may tell you how well a
student did on a test; the look on her face after seeing her grade, however, may tell you even more about the effect of
that result on her.  That look can’t be translated to a number, nor can a teacher’s knowledge of that student’s history,
progress, and experience, all of which go into the teacher’s interpretation of that look.  And that interpretation may be
far more valuable in helping that student succeed than knowing her grade or numerical score on the test.
As explained above, qualitative data can sometimes be changed into numbers, usually by counting the number of
times specific things occur in the course of observations or interviews, or by assigning numbers or ratings to
dimensions (e.g., importance, satisfaction, ease of use).The challenges of translating qualitative into quantitative data
have to do with the human factor.  Even if most people agree on what 1 (lowest) or 5 (highest) means in regard to
rating “satisfaction” with a program, ratings of 2, 3, and 4 may be very different for different people.  Furthermore, the
numbers say nothing about why people reported the way they did.  One may dislike the program because of the
content, the facilitator, the time of day, etc. The same may be true when you’re counting instances of the mention of
an event, such as the onset of a new policy or program in a community based on interviews or archival records.  
Where one person might see a change in program he considers important another may omit it due to perceived
unimportance.Qualitative data can sometimes tell you things that quantitative data can’t.  It may reveal why certain
methods are working or not working, whether part of what you’re doing conflicts with participants’ culture, what
participants see as important, etc.  It may also show you patterns – in behavior, physical or social environment, or
other factors – that the numbers in your quantitative data don’t, and occasionally even identify variables that
researchers weren’t aware of.

It is often helpful to collect both quantitative and qualitative information.

Quantitative analysis is considered to be objective – without any human bias attached to it – because it depends on the
comparison of numbers according to mathematical computations.  Analysis of qualitative data is generally
accomplished by methods more subjective – dependent on people’s opinions, knowledge, assumptions, and inferences
(and therefore biases) – than that of quantitative data.  The identification of patterns, the interpretation of people’s
statements or other communication, the spotting of trends – all of these can be influenced by the way the researcher
sees the world.  Be aware, however, that quantitative analysis is influenced by a number of subjective factors as well. 
What the researcher chooses to measure, the accuracy of the observations, and the way the research is structured to ask
only particular questions can all influence the results, as can the researcher’s understanding and interpretation of the
subsequent analyses.

The individual responsible for commissioning the research may be unfamiliar with the technicalities of statistical tests
but he/she should at least be aware that the number of samples, their dependence or independence and the levels of
measurement does affect how the data can be analysed. Those who submit marketing research proposals involving
quantitative data should demonstrate an awareness of the factors that determine the mode of analysis and a capability
to undertake such analysis.Marketing researchers have to plan ahead for the analysis stage. It often happens that data
processing begins whilst the data gathering is still underway. Whether the data is to be analysed manually or through
the use of a computer program, data can be coded, cleaned (i.e. errors removed) and the proposed analytical tests tried
out to ensure that they are effective before all of the data has been collected.Another important aspect relates to

21 | P a g e
logistics planning. This includes ensuring that once the task of preparing the data for analysis has begun there is a
steady and uninterrupted flow of completed data forms or questionnaires back from the field interviewers to the data
processors. Otherwise the whole exercise becomes increasingly inefficient. A second logistical issue concerns any
plan to build up a picture of the pattern of responses as the data comes flowing in. This may require careful planning
of the sequencing of fieldwork. For instance, suppose that research was being undertaken within a particular
agricultural region with a view to establishing the size, number and type of milling enterprises which had established
themselves in rural areas following market liberalisation. It may be that the West of the district under study mainly
wheat is grown whilst in the East it is maize which is the major crop. It would make sense to coordinate the fieldwork
with data analysis so that the interim picture was of either wheat or maize milling since the two are likely to differ in
terms of the type of mill used (e.g. hammer versus plate mills) as well as screen sizes and end use (e.g. the proportions
prepared for animal versus human food).

WHY SHOULD YOU COLLECT AND ANALYZE DATA FOR YOUR EVALUATION?
Part of the answer here is that not every organization – particularly small community-based or non-governmental ones
– will necessarily have extensive resources to conduct a formal evaluation.  They may have to be content with less
formal evaluations, which can still be extremely helpful in providing direction for a program or intervention.   An
informal evaluation will involve some data gathering and analysis. This data collection and sensemaking is critical to
an initiative and its future success, and has a number of advantages.
 The data can show whether there was any significant change in the dependent variable(s) you hoped to
influence. Collecting and analyzing data helps you see whether your intervention brought about the desired
results
o The term “significance” has a specific meaning when you’re discussing statistics.  The level of
significance of a statistical result is the level of confidence you can have in the answer you get.  
Generally, researchers don’t consider a result significant unless it shows at least a 95% certainty that
it’s correct (called the .05 level of significance, since there’s a 5% chance that it’s wrong).   The level
of significance is built into the statistical formulas: once you get a mathematical result, a table (or
the software you’re using) will tell you the level of significance.
o Thus, if data analysis finds that the independent variable (the intervention) influenced the dependent
variable at the .05 level of significance, it means there’s a 95% probability or likelihood that your
program or intervention had the desired effect.  The .05 level is generally considered a reasonable
result, and the .01 level (99% probability) is considered about as close to certainty as you are likely
to get. A 95% level of certainty doesn’t mean that the program works on 95% of participants, or that
it will work 95% of the time.  It means that there’s only a 5% possibility that it isn’t actually what’s
influencing the dependent variable(s) and causing the changes that it seems to be associated with.

22
  They can uncover factors that may be associated with changes in the dependent variable(s). Data analyses
may help discover unexpected influences; for instance, that the effort was twice as large for those participants
who also were a part of a support group. This can be used to identify key aspects of implementation.
 They can show connections between or among various factors that may have an effect on the results of your
evaluation.  Some types of statistical procedures look for connections (“correlations” is the research term)
among variables.  Certain dependent variables may change when others do.  These changes may be similar –
i.e., both variables increase or decrease (e.g., as children’s proficiency at reading increases, the amount of
reading they do also increases).  Or the opposite may be observed – i.e. the two variables change in opposite
directions (as the amount of exercise they engage in increases, peoples’ weight decreases).  Correlations don’t
mean that one variable causes another, or that they both have the same cause, but they can provide valuable
information about associations to expect in an evaluation.
 They can help shed light on the reasons that your work was effective or, perhaps, less effective than you’d
hoped.  By combining quantitative and qualitative analysis, you can often determine not only what worked or
didn’t, but why.  The effect of cultural issues, how well methods are used, the appropriateness of your
approach for the population – these as well as other factors that influence success can be highlighted by
careful data collection and analysis.  This knowledge gives you a basis for adapting and changing what you
do to make it more likely you’ll achieve the desired outcomes in the future.
 They can provide you with credible evidence to show stakeholders that your program is successful, or that
you’ve uncovered, and are addressing limitations. Stakeholders, such as funders and community boards, want
to know their investments are well spent. Showing evidence of intermediate outcomes (e.g. new programs
and policies) and longer-term outcomes (e.g., improvements in education or health indicators) is becoming
increasingly important to receiving – and retaining – funding.
 Their use shows that you’re serious about evaluation and about improving your work.  Being a good trustee
or steward of community investment includes regular review of data regarding progress and improvement.
 They can show the field what you’re learning, and thus pave the way for others to implement successful
methods and approaches.  In that way, you’ll be helping to improve community efforts and, ultimately,
quality of life for people who benefit.

WHEN AND BY WHOM SHOULD DATA BE COLLECTED AND ANALYZED?

As far as data collection goes, the “when” part of this question is relatively simple: data collection should start no later
than when you begin your work – or before you begin in order to establish a baseline or starting point – and continue
throughout.   Ideally, you should collect data for a period of time before you start your program or intervention in
order to determine if there are any trends in the data before the onset of the intervention.  Additionally, in order to
gauge your program’s longer-term effects, you should collect follow-up data for a period of time following the
conclusion of the program.The timing of analysis can be looked at in at least two ways:  One is that it’s best to analyze

23
your information when you’ve collected all of it, so you can look at it as a whole.  The other is that if you analyze it as
you go along, you’ll be able to adjust your thinking about what information you actually need, and to adjust your
program to respond to the information you’re getting.  Which of these approaches you take depends on your research
purposes.  If you’re more concerned with a summative evaluation – finding out whether your approach was effective,
you might be more inclined toward the first.  If you’re oriented toward improvement – a formative evaluation – we
recommend gathering information along the way. Both approaches are legitimate, but ongoing data collection and
review can particularly lead to improvements in your work.The “who” question can be more complex.  If you’re
reasonably familiar with statistics and statistical procedures, and you have the resources in time, money, and
personnel, it’s likely that you’ll do a somewhat formal study, using standard statistical tests.  (There’s a great deal of
software – both for sale and free or open-source – available to help you.)
If that’s not the case, you have some choices:
 You can hire or find a volunteer outside evaluator, such as from a nearby college or university, to take care of
data collection and/or analysis for you.
 You can conduct a less formal evaluation.  Your results may not be as sophisticated as if you subjected them
to rigorous statistical procedures, but they can still tell you a lot about your program.  Just the numbers – the
number of dropouts (and when most dropped out), for instance, or the characteristics of the people you serve
– can give you important and usable information.
 You can try to learn enough about statistics and statistical software to conduct a formal evaluation yourself.  
(Take a course, for example.)
 You can collect the data and then send it off to someone – a university program, a friendly statistician or
researcher, or someone you hire – to process it for you.
 You can collect and rely largely on qualitative data.  Whether this is an option depends to a large extent on
what your program is about.  You wouldn’t want to conduct a formal evaluation of effectiveness of a new
medication using only qualitative data, but you might be able to draw some reasonable conclusions about use
or compliance patterns from qualitative information.
 If possible, use a randomized or closely matched control group for comparison.  If your control is properly
structured, you can draw some fairly reliable conclusions simply by comparing its results to those of your
intervention group.  Again, these results won’t be as reliable as if the comparison were made using statistical
procedures, but they can point you in the right direction.  It’s fairly easy to tell whether or not there’s a major
difference between the numbers for the two or more groups.  If 95% of the students in your class passed the
test, and only 60% of those in a similar but uninstructed control group did, you can be pretty sure that your
class made a difference in some way, although you may not be able to tell exactly what it was that mattered. 
By the same token, if 72% of your students passed and 70% of the control group did as well, it seems pretty
clear that your instruction had essentially no effect, if the groups were starting from approximately the same
place.

24
Who should actually collect and analyze data also depends on the form of your evaluation.  If you’re doing a
participatory evaluation, much of the data collection - and analyzing - will be done by community members or
program participants themselves.  If you’re conducting an evaluation in which the observation is specialized, the data
collectors may be staff members, professionals, highly trained volunteers, or others with specific skills or training
(graduate students, for example).  Analysis also could be accomplished by a participatory process. Even where
complicated statistical procedures are necessary, participants and/or community members might be involved in sorting
out what those results actually mean once the math is done and the results are in. Another way analysis can be
accomplished is by professionals or other trained individuals, depending upon the nature of the data to be analyzed,
the methods of analysis, and the level of sophistication aimed at in the conclusions.

HOW DO YOU COLLECT AND ANALYZE DATA?

Whether your evaluation includes formal or informal research procedures, you’ll still have to collect and analyze data,
and there are some basic steps you can take to do so.
IMPLEMENT YOUR MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
We've previously discussed designing an observational system to gather information.  Now it’s time to put that system
in place.
 Clearly define and describe what measurements or observations are needed.  The definition and description
should be clear enough to enable observers to agree on what they’re observing and reliably record data in the
same way.
 Select and train observers.  Particularly if this is part of a participatory process, observers need training to
know what to record; to recognize key behaviors, events, and conditions; and to reach an acceptable level of
inter-rater reliability (agreement among observers).
 Conduct observations at the appropriate times for the appropriate period of time.  This may include
reviewing archival material; conducting interviews, surveys, or focus groups; engaging in direct observation;
etc.
 Record data in the agreed-upon ways.  These may include pencil and paper, computer (using a laptop or
handheld device in the field, entering numbers into a program, etc.), audio or video, journals, etc
TAKE NOTE OF ANY SIGNIFICANT OR INTERESTING RESULTS
Depending on the nature of your research, results may be statistically significant (the 95% or better certainty that we
discussed earlier), or simply important or unusual.  They may or may not be socially significant (i.e., large enough to
solve the problem). There are a number of different kinds of results you might be looking for.
 Differences within people or groups. If you have repeated measurements for individuals/groups over time, we
can see if there are marked increases/decreases in the (frequency, rate) of behavior (events, etc.) following
introduction of the program or intervention. When the effects are seen when and only when the intervention

25
 is introduced – and if the intervention is staggered (delayed) across people or groups – this increases our
confidence that the intervention, and not something else, is producing the observed effects.
 Differences between or among two or more groups.  If you have one or more randomized control groups in a
formal study (groups that are drawn at random from the same population as the group in your program, but
are not getting the same program or intervention, or are getting none at all), then the statistical significance of
differences between or among the groups should tell you whether your program has any more influence on
the dependent variable(s) than what’s experienced by the other groups.
 Results that show statistically significant changes.  With or without a control or comparison group, many
statistical procedures can tell you whether changes in dependent variables are truly significant (or not likely
due to chance). These results may say nothing about the causes of the change (or they may, depending on
how you’ve structured your evaluation), but they do tell you what’s happening, and give you a place to start. 
 Correlations.  Correlation means that there are connections between or among two or more variables. 
Correlations can sometimes point to important relationships you might not have predicted.  Sometimes they
can shed light on the issue itself, and sometimes on the effects of a group’s cultural practices. In some cases,
they can highlight potential causes of an issue or condition, and thus pave the way for future interventions.
o Correlation between variables doesn’t tell you that one necessarily causes the other, but simply that
changes in one have a relationship to changes in the other.  Among American teenagers, for
instance, there is probably a fairly high correlation between an increase in body size and an
understanding of algebra.  This is not because one causes the other, but rather the result of the fact
that American schools tend to begin teaching algebra in the seventh, eighth, or ninth grades, a time
when many 12-, 13-, and 14-year-olds are naturally experiencing a growth spurt.
o On the other hand, correlations can reveal important connections.  A very high correlation between,
for instance, the use of a particular medication and the onset of depression might lead to the
withdrawal of that medication, or at least a study of its side effects, and increased awareness and
caution among doctors who prescribe it.  A very high correlation between gang membership and
having a parent with a substance abuse problem may not reveal a direct cause-and-effect
relationship, but may tell you something important about who is more at risk for substance abuse.
 Patterns.  In both quantitative and qualitative information, patterns often emerge: certain health conditions
seem to cluster in particular geographical areas; people from a particular group behave in similar ways; etc. 
These patterns may not be specifically what you were looking for or expected to find, but they may either be
important in themselves or shed light on the areas you’re interested in.  In some cases, you may need to
subject them to statistical procedures (regression analysis, for example) to see if, in fact, they’re random, or if
they constitute actual patterns.
 Obvious important findings.  Whether as a result of statistical analysis, or of examination of your data and
application of logic, some findings may stand out.  If 70% of a group of overweight participants in a healthy

26
 eating and physical activity program lowered their weight and blood pressure significantly, compared to only
20% of a similar group not in the program, you can probably assume that program may have been effective.  
If there’s no change whatsoever in education outcomes after two years of your education program, then
you’re either running an ineffective program, or you’re simply not reaching those who are most likely to have
poorer outcomes (which can also be interpreted to mean you’re running an ineffective program.)
o Not all important findings will necessarily tell you whether your program worked, or what is the
most effective method.  It might be obvious from your data collection, for instance, that, while
violence or roadway injuries may not be seen as a problem citywide, they are much higher in one or
more particular areas, or that the rates of diabetes are markedly higher for particular groups or those
living in areas with greater disparities of income. If you have the resources, it’s wise to look at the
results of your research in a number of different ways, both to find out how to improve your
program, and to learn what else you might do to affect the issue.
Summary
Analysis of data
The word 'analysis' has two component parts, the prefix 'ana' meaning 'above' and the Greek root 'lysis' meaning 'to
break up or dissolve'. Thus data analysis can be described as:
"...a process of resolving data into its constituent components, to reveal its characteristic elements and structure."
Where the data is quantitative there are three determinants of the appropriate statistical tools for the purposes of
analysis. These are the number of samples to be compared, whether the samples being compared are independent of
one another and the level of data measurement.
Suppose a fruit juice processor wishes to test the acceptability of a new drink based on a novel combination of tropical
fruit juices. There are several alternative research designs which might be employed, each involving different numbers
of samples.
Test Comparing sales in a test market and the market share of the product it is targeted to Number of
A replace. samples = 1
Test Comparing the responses of a sample of regular drinkers of fruit juices to those of a Number of
B sample of non-fruit juice drinkers to a trial formulation. samples = 2
Test Comparing the responses of samples of heavy, moderate and infrequent fruit juice Number of
C drinkers to a trial formulation. samples = 3
The next consideration is whether the samples being compared are dependent (i.e. related) or independent of one
another (i.e. unrelated). Samples are said to be dependent, or related, when the measurement taken from one sample in
no way affects the measurement taken from another sample. Take for example the outline of test B above. The
measurement of the responses of fruit juice drinkers to the trial formulation in no way affects or influences the
responses of the sample of non-fruit juice drinkers. Therefore, the samples are independent of one another. Suppose
however a sample were given two formulations of fruit juice to taste. That is, the same individuals are asked first to

27
taste formulation X and then to taste formulation Y. The researcher would have two sets of sample results, i.e.
responses to product X and responses to product Y. In this case, the samples would be considered dependent or related
to one another. This is because the individual will make a comparison of the two products and his/her response to one
formulation is likely to affect his/her reaction or evaluation of the other product.
The third factor to be considered is the levels of measurement of the data being used. Data can be nominal, ordinal,
interval or ratio scaled. Table 1.1 summarises the mathematical properties of each of these levels of measurement.
Once the marketing researcher knows how many samples are to be compared, whether these samples are related or
unrelated to one another and the level of measurement then the selection of the appropriate statistical test is easily
made. To illustrate the importance of understanding these connections consider the following simple, but common,
question in marketing research. In many instances the age of respondents will be of interest. This question might be
asked in either of the two following ways:
Please indicate to which of the following age categories you belong
(a)
15-21 years ___
22 - 30 years ___
Over 30 years ___
(b)
How old are you? ___ Years
Table 1.1 Levels of measurement
Measurement Measurement Level Examples Mathematical properties
scale
Nominal Frequency counts Producing grading categories Confined to a small number of
tests using the mode and
frequency
Ordinal Ranking of items Placing brands of cooking oil Wide range of nonparametric
in order of preference tests which test for order
Interval Relative differences of Scoring products on a 10 point Wide range of parametric tests
magnitude between items scale of like/dislike
Ratio Absolute differences of Stating how much better one All arithmetic operations
magnitude product is than another in
absolute terms.
Choosing format (a) would give rise to nominal (or categorical) data and format (b) would yield ratio scaled data.
These are at opposite ends of the hierarchy of levels of measurement. If by accident or design format (a) were chosen
then the analyst would have only a very small set of statistical tests that could be applied and these are not very
powerful in the sense that they are limited to showing association between variables and could not be used to establish

28
cause-and-effect. Format (b), on the other hand, since it gives the analyst ratio data, allows all statistical tests to be
used including the more powerful parametric tests whereby cause-and-effect can be established, where it exists. Thus a
simple change in the wording of a question can have a fundamental effect upon the nature of the data generated.
Figure 1.6 provides a useful guide to making that final selection.

29
 SESSION 3
DRAW CONCLUSIONS AND MAKE RECOMMENDATIONS
SO 3

 1. Conclusions drawn and made are useful, significant and appropriate

Learning
 2. Conclusions and recommendations solve the marketing problem
Outcomes
 3. Recommendation can be applied within resource limitations
(Assessment
 4. Recommendations lead to a competitive advantage
Criteria)

INTERPRET THE RESULTS

Once you’ve organized your results and run them through whatever statistical or other analysis you’ve planned for, it’s
time to figure out what they mean for your evaluation.  Probably the most common question that evaluation research is
directed toward is whether the program being evaluated works or makes a difference.  In research terms, that often
translates to “What were the effects of the independent variable (the program, intervention, etc.) on the dependent
variable(s) (the behavior, conditions, or other factors it was meant to change)?”   There are a number of possible
answers to this question:
 Your program had exactly the effects on the dependent variable(s) you expected and hoped it would. 
Statistics or other analysis showed clear positive effects at a high level of significance for the people in your
program and – if you used a multiple-group design – none, or far fewer, of the same effects for a similar
control group and/or for a group that received a different intervention with the same purpose.   Your early
childhood education program, for instance, greatly increased development outcomes for children in the
community, and also contributed to an increase in the percentage of children succeeding in school.
 Your program had no effect.  Your program produced no significant results on the dependent variable,
whether alone or compared to other groups.  This would mean no change as a result of your program or
intervention.
 Your program had a negative effect.  For instance, intimate partner violence increased (or at least appeared
to) as a result of your intervention. (It is relatively common for reported events, such as violence or injury, to
increase when the intervention results in improved surveillance and ease of reporting). 
 Your program had the effects you hoped for and other effects as well.
o These effects might be positive.  Your youth violence prevention program, for instance, might have
resulted in greatly reduced violence among teens, and might also have resulted in significantly
improved academic performance for the kids involved.
o These effects might be neutral.  The same youth violence prevention program might somehow result
in youth watching TV more often after school.

30
 o These effects might be negative.  (These effects are usually called unintended consequences.) Youth
violence might decrease significantly, but the incidence of teen pregnancies or alcohol consumption
among youth in the program might increase significantly at the same time.
Drawing conclusions and making recommendations
With respect to the marketing planning function, marketing research helps to identify potential threats and
opportunities, generates alternative courses of action, provides information to enable marketing managers to evaluate
those alternatives and advises on the implementation of the alternatives. Too often marketing research reports chiefly
comprise a lengthy series of tables of statistics accompanied by a few brief comments which verbally describe what is
already self-evident from the tables. Without interpretation, data remains of potential, as opposed to actual use. When
conclusions are drawn from raw data and when recommendations are made then data is converted into information. It
is information which management needs to reduce the inherent risks and uncertainties in management decision
making.Customer oriented marketing researchers will have noted from the outset of the research which topics and
issues are of particular importance to the person(s) who initiated the research and will weight the content of their
reports accordingly. That is, the researcher should determine what the marketing manager's priorities are with respect
to the research study. In particular he/she should distinguish between what the manager:
· must know
· should know
· could know
This means that there will be information that is essential in order for the marketing manager to make the particular
decision with which he/she is faced (must know), information that would be useful to have if time and resources
within the budget allocation permit (should know) and there will be information that it would be nice to have but is not
at all directly related to the decision at hand (could know). In writing a research proposal, experienced researchers
would be careful to limit the information which they firmly promise to obtain, in the course of the study, to that which
is considered 'must know' information. Moreover, within their final report, experienced researchers will ensure that the
greater part of the report focuses upon 'must know' type information.

Summary
Marketing research serves marketing management by providing information which is relevant to decision making.
Marketing research does not itself make the decisions, nor does it guarantee success. Rather, marketing research helps
to reduce the uncertainty surrounding the decisions to be made. In order to do so effectively, marketing research has to
be systematic, objective and analytical.The manager or other individual initiating the research must provide guidance
to the researcher in the form of a research brief. This document should state the purpose of the research, its objectives,
the time by which it must be completed, the budget to which the researcher must work in developing the research
design and the timing and frequency of any interim reports which the researcher is expected to make.Having read,
questioned and understood the research brief the onus is then upon the marketing researcher to respond by preparing
the research design. Research design begins with an accurate and, as far as is possible, precise definition of the

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problem. This is followed by the generation of hypotheses. There will then be an intermediate stage whereby the
hypotheses are restated in a testable form, i.e. the null form. This will probably only be done if it is intended that
statistical analysis is to be undertaken. Where the research is more qualitative in nature then it is still recommended
that hypotheses should be developed. These should include alternative hypotheses; depending upon what is already
known about the research problem one of three types of study might be undertaken, i.e. an exploratory study, a
descriptive study or a causal study. Before proceeding further, the researcher has to develop an analysis plan. It is only
when the analysis plan has been considered that fieldwork, in the form of data collection, should be undertaken. The
final step in the research design would be to write the report. Customer oriented marketing researchers will have noted
from the outset of the research which topics and issues are of particular importance to the person(s) who initiated the
research and will weight the content of their reports accordingly.

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